Syllabus.

Filtration: Objectives, applications, Theories & Factors influencing filtration, filter aids, filter
media. Principle, Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of plate & frame filter, filter
leaf, rotary drum filter, Meta filter & Cartridge filter, membrane filters and Seidtz filter.
Chapter outline
 Filtration: Objectives, applications,
 Filtration: Theories & Factors influencing filtration
 Filter aids, Filter media
 Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of plate & frame filter, filter leaf, rotary
drum filter, Meta filter & Cartridge filter, membrane filters and Seidtz filter.

Q.1 what is the difference between filtration and clarification?

Q.2 What are applications of filtration to the field of Pharmacy

1. Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) Production

Manufacturing high quality API’s is critical if the final product is to meet its specification.
Many areas of the API process need filtration, from initial filtration of raw chemicals and
solvents, through purification of the compound, to particulate control of the finished API.
Solids Removal-During the compound purification process there will typically be a
requirement to separate solids formed in the reactor. This can be achieved by cake
filtration. Carbon Treatment Coloured impurities produced during the reaction steps are
typically removed by utilising activated carbon. If loose carbon is used filtration will be
required to remove the bulk carbon post decolourisation. This can be achieved by cartridge
filter.
2. Purified API Filtration
Typically, the finished API will need to meet demanding particulate specifications. Filtration
using filters as fine as 0.3 µm are used.
3. Production of Formulations
4. Finished liquids, creams and ointments are expected to be free from visible particles. Filtration
is a simple method to help achieve this. Various filters using high pressure and if needed
heating can be used. Such filters may use cloth / stainless steel filter media.
5. Sterile Liquids and Parenterals-Product Formulation-
A wide range of particulate and bioburden reduction filters like membrane / cartridge filters are
used for filtration of various liquids used in sterile product formulation Product Sterilisation
Sterility of critical products is achieved typically by autoclaving or by using 0.2 µm absolute
rated sterilising grade filters. Having pore size of 0.2 µm.
6. Water Treatment-
Incoming mains water, post Carbon bed traps, pre and post UV and pre-RO needs filtration
Filters rated from 0.3 – 180 µm are used for particulate removal and rated from 0.2 – 1.0 µm
are used for bioburden / microbial control.

Theories & Factors influencing filtration

Q.3- Explain Darcy’s law of filtration.
According to Darcy’s law, the flow of liquid in a particular medium is governed by certain
principles. Using an aquifer as an example, one can better understand Darcy’s law. In geology, an
aquifer is a body of permeable rock, incoherent materials, or deposits. With aquifers, groundwater
is filtered. Groundwater is forced through pores and deposits in the aquifers which helps to filter
out contaminants. As we explore further what the Darcy law is, it is essential to understand what
permeability means. To put it simply, permeability is the property that allows fluid to flow through
a porous substance. The resistance to flow of a porous medium (filter medium or filter cake) can
be described by Darcy’s law. Consider a liquid flowing through a filter cake (or a stream of water
percolating through soil as considered by Darcy).

Fig 1: Explanation of Darcy law

With reference to above figure Darcy’s explained that filtration is affected by the
characteristics of the slurry, including:
1- The properties of the liquid , such as density, viscosity, and corrosiveness.
2- The properties of the solid, for example, particle shape, particle size, particle size
distribution, and the rigidity or compressibility of the solid.
3- The proportion of solids in the slurry.
4- Whether the objective is to collect the solid, the liquid ,or both.
5- Whether the solids have to be washed free from the liquid or a solute.
All above factors are combined in an equation .The factors affecting rate of filtration is
known as Darcy”s law and may be expressed as:
dV = KA P
dt ul

V= volume of filtrate, t = time of filtration ,

K = constant for the filter medium and filter cake ,
A = area of filter medium ,
P = pressure drop across the filter medium and filter cake ,
u = viscosity of the filtrate , and
l = thickness of cake.
P = pressure difference across filter medium
How the above factors affect –
1. Permeability coefficient: The constant (K) represents the resistance of both the filter
medium and the filter cake.
As the thickness of the cake increase, the rate of filtration will decrease.
Also the surface area of the particles, the porosity of the cake, and rigidity or compressibility of the
particles could affect the permeability of the cake.
2. Area of filter medium: The total volume of filtrate flowing from the filter will be
proportional to the area of the filter.
The area can be increased by using larger filters. In the rotary drum filter, the continuous removal
of the filter cake will give an infinite area for filtration.
3. Pressure drop; The rate of filtration is proportional to the pressure difference across both
the filter medium and filter cake. The pressure drop can be achieved in a number of ways:
4. Gravity: A pressure difference could be obtained by maintaining a head of slurry above
the filter medium. The pressure developed will depend on the density of the slurry.
5. Vacuum: The pressure below the filter medium may be reduced below atmospheric
pressure by connecting the filtrate receiver to a vacuum pump and creating a pressure difference
across the filter.
6. Pressure: The simplest method being to pump the slurry into the filter under pressure.
 7. Centrifugal force: The gravitational force could be replaced by centrifugal force in
particle
separation,
8. Viscosity of filtrate:
It would be expect that an increase in the viscosity of the filtrate will increase the resistance of
flow , so that the rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.
This problem can be overcome by two methods:
i. The rate of filtration may be increased by raising the temperature of the liquid, which
lowers its viscosity. However, it is not practicable if thermo labile materials are involved or if the
filtrate is volatile.
ii. Dilution is another alternative but the rate must be doubled.
9. Thickness of filter cake;
The rate of flow of the filtrate through the filter cake is inversely proportional to thickness of the
cake. Preliminary decantation may be useful to decrease the amount of the solids.
Q.4 Explain Hagen- Poiseuille’s law and rate of filtration.
Ans –The Darcy’s law for filtration is simple expression which does not consider the quality of
filter cake. If the cake formed is porous then the thickness of the cake will not affect the rate of
flitration much but if the filter cake is of smaller thickness but is nonporous then can still offer
greater resistance for filtration. The quality if filter cake that can affect the rate of filtration is taken
into consideration to some extent in Hagen Poiseuille’s equation in terms of r = radius of capillary
in the filter bed The two major periods in a filtration cycle are forming the cake and washing it.
For the first of these it has been shown that the flow of the filtrate through passages in the bed is
laminar and therefore a form Hagen-Poiseuille’s equation could be used such as- Poiseuille
considered that filtration is similar to the streamline flow of liquid under pressure
through capillaries.
Poiseuille’s Equation is-

Where, V = rate of flow, m3/s (l/s)

ΔP= Pressure difference across the filter
r = radius of capillary in the filter bed
L = thickness of filter cake (capillary length)
η= viscosity of filtrate
If the cake is composed of bulky mass of particles and the liquid flows through the interstice then
flow of liquids through these may be expressed by this equation. However, although then bed
resistance is proportional to the thickness of the bed, characteristics of the bed such as size and
shape of particles and the fraction of void volume in the bed will also affect this value, so that it is
not possible to use the simple Hagen - Poiseuille equation. Consequently, it is desirable to use an
equation in which the resistance of the bed may be expressed in terms of
those characteristics of the bed that affect resistance.
Q.5 Explain Kozeny Curman equation for filtration.

The equation is written as -

V= A X ∆P X ε2
ηS2 KL (1- ε) 2

S = Specific surface area of cake particles

K = Kozeny constant (depends on porosity, specific surface and compressibility of cake)
It is permeability coefficient of cake defined as flow rate of liquid of unit viscosity across unit
cake area having unit thickness and pressure gradient of unity.
 ε : Porosity of bed
 L = thickness of filter cake
 ΔP= Pressure difference across the filter
 η= viscosity of filtrate
Kozeny Curman equation is based on the assumption that the particles in the bed are randomly
packed and that the passages in the bed are parallel and equal sized whose size is equal to the
equivalent diameter, defined as the ratio of the volume of the voids to the surface area of the voids
in the bed. In actual conditions the depth of the granular bed is less than the actual length of path
traversed by the fluid, since the actual flow path is not straight through the bed but sinuous. The
constant k in eq. is a function of both particle shape and orientation, ie. it depends upon the
shape of the cross section of the passages and on the ratio of the length of the actual flow path to
the thickness of the bed. For random packing of incompressible beds, i.e. beds for which porosity
and specific surface of the bed do not vary with thickness of the bed, the value of k has been found
to be around 5.0.
Q.6. Explain the mechanisms of filtration.
Ans - The mechanism whereby particles are retained by a filter is significant only in initial
stages of filtration.
 Straining - Similar to sieving, i.e., particles of larger size can’t pass through smaller pore size
of filter medium.
 Impingement - Solids having the momentum move along the path of streaming flow and strike
(impinge) the filter medium. Thus the solids are retained on the filter medium.
 Entanglement - Particles become entwined (entangled) in the masses of fibres (of cloths with
fine hairy surface or porous felt) due to smaller size of particles than the pore size. Thus, solids
are retained within filter medium.
 Attractive forces- Solids are retained on the filter medium as a result of attractive force
between particles and filter medium, as in case of electrostatic filtration.
 All above mentioned mechanisms can be shown in the following schematic diagram

Fig 2: Filtration Process

Classification of filtration process:
Filtration processes can be classified in accordance with different criteria
Location of particle retention:
The particles can be separated on the outer surface of the filter medium (surface filtration, cake
filtration) or inside of the filter medium (depth filtration, deep bed filtration)

Fig 3: Surface Filtration


 Fig 4: Depth filtration
Types of filtrations:
1. Surface/ screen filtration
 It is a screening action by which pores or holes of medium prevent the passage of solids.
 Mechanism involved: straining and impingement
 For this, plates with holes or woven sieves are used.
 Efficacy is defined in terms of mean or maximum pore size.
 The size of particles retained is slightly higher than the mean pore size of medium.
 Mechanical strength of filter medium is less, unless it is made of stainless steel.
 It has low capacity.
 The size of particles retained is more predictable.
 Equipment is expensive because ancillary equipment such as edge clamps is required.
 Ex. Cellulose membrane filter.
Surface filtration becomes cake filtration when the accumulated solids on surface of filter
medium are more
2. Depth filtration (deep bed filtration)
 In this slurry penetrates to a point where the diameter of solid particles is greater than that of
the tortuous void or channel.
 Mechanism: Entanglement
 The solids are retained with a gradient density structure by physical restriction or by adsorption
properties of medium.
 The size of particles retained is much smaller than the mean pore size of medium.
 Mechanical strength of filter medium is high.
 It has high capacity.
 The size of particles retained is less predictable.
 Equipment is cheaper because ancillary equipment is not required.
 Ex. Ceramic filters and sintered filters.
There is also a mechanism called Cross – flow filtration: and blocking filtration
3. In cross-flow filtration the suspension flows with high speed tangentially to the filter medium
surface, preventing the formation of a filter cake.
 Only a small flow of liquid passes through the filter medium.
 A certain layer of solids accumulates in the boundary layer on the filter surface, and reduces
the flow of filtrate.
 After an initial period, a dynamic equilibrium is established between convective transport of
solids to the filter surface and removal of solids by hydrodynamic forces acting on the particles
due to turbulence and diffusion.
4. Blocking Filtration.
 The pressure drop is caused by solid particles blocking pores.
 Soft, gelatinous particles retained by a sieve exhibit such a behavior.
 If the flow rate dV/dt is constant, the pressure drop increases exponentially with the quantity
filtered, the number of open pores asymptotically approaching zero.
 The pores may belong to a filter medium (screen or filter layer) or it may be pores within a
filter cake of coarse particles, which are blocked by migrating fine particles.
Schematic presentation of cake (surface), blocking, deep bed (depth) and cross flow filtration

Fig 4:

Filter aids, Filter media.

Q.7 Write elaborate account of different filter media.
Definition -The surface upon which the solids are deposited in a filter is called a filter medium.
Properties of ideal filter medium
1. It must be capable of delivering a clear filtrate at a suitable production rate.
2. It must withstand the mechanical stresses without rupturing or being compressed.
3. No chemical or physical interactions with the components of the filtrate should occur.
4. It must retain the solids without plugging at the start of filtration.
5. Sterile filtration imposes a special requirement since the pore size must not exceed the
dimension of bacteria or spores.
Filter media can be classified as surface filtration media of depth filtration media.
A. Surface filtration media:
1. Woven filters: These are most commonly used screen filters and have two dimensional
structures with uniform pore size. These include
a- Wire screening made up of steel, copper, bronze, nickel etc. are durable, resistance to plugging
and easily cleaned. These are capable of handling corrosive chemicals and high temperature
filtration.
b- Fabrics of natural origin such as cotton, wool, muslin cloth, nitrated cotton cloth, glass cloth
are used whereas synthetic fabrics such as nylon, acrilan are widely used for industrial filtration
Cotton is a common filter which can withstand temperature up to 100 ⁰C. Cotton has some
limitations like it is easily damaged by acids and alkalis.
Muslin cloth that is a cotton cloth with very thin weave which has threads of equal thickness and
texture running over one and under one of the wraps
It is subjected to preshrinking before use so that it can fit perfectly on filters (eg. on drum filters).
Muslin cloth has higher porosity, hard surface and also, it can withstand high pressures.
It also allows easy discharge of cakes.
Other natural fabrics are nitrated cotton cloth which provide harder surface for filtration and
glass cloth which has glass yarns which has high tensile strength, resistant to high temperatures
and chemicals. These are easy to handle but they lack flexibility.
Nylon, acrilan is superior for pharmaceutical use, since it is unaffected by mold, fungus or
bacteria, chemicals like acids and alkalis, high temperature and has negligible absorption
properties.
These have smooth surface for easy cleaning and discharge of cake is easy.
2. Non- woven filters: Filter paper is a common filter medium since it offers controlled porosity,
limited absorption characteristic, and low cost.
3. Membrane filters: These are basic tools for micro-filtration, useful in the preparation of
sterile solutions.
These filters are made by casting of various esters of cellulose, or from nylon, Teflon, polyvinyl
chloride.
The filter is a thin membrane with millions of pores per square centimeter of filter surface.
4. Porous plates: These include perforated metal or rubber plates, natural porous materials such
as stone, porcelain or ceramics, and sintered glass
B. Depth filtration media:
1. Prefabricated porous solid units: these material form capillary type of passage and are used
for its convenience and effectiveness. Sintered glass, sintered metal, earthenware and porous
plastics are used for fabrication.
2. Cake type media or bed of granular solid built up on supporting medium: In some
processes, a bed of graded solids may be formed to reduce resistance of flow for example
 gravel, sand, asbestos, paper pulp and kieselguhr. Choice of solids depends on size of solids in
process.
3. Fibrous medium: these consist of a layer containing numerous fine fibers with diameters
ranging from 0.5 to 30µm.
These are made up of cotton, cellulose, rayon, polypropylene, micro glass fiber etc. and are
randomly oriented and intermixed with one another so that they can form numerous tortuous
passages in which particles in slurry (material to be filtered) are trapped.
The layers of fiber are bound together using resins so that its structure is maintained throughout the
process of filtration of submicron size particles.
4. Other fibrous medium used for depth filtration is electrets.
Electret is a filter media made up of a permanently charged dielectric polymer having an open
structure, high collection efficiency.
These are mostly used for reducing microbial count in clean rooms or pharmaceutical units
Q.8 Write elaborate account of different filter aids.
Definition – The substances which when added to the liquid to be flitered, reduce the resistance of
the filter cake and increase the filtration
The expected properties of the filter aid are –
1. It must be capable of delivering a clear filtrate at a suitable production rate.
2. It must withstand the mechanical stresses without being compressed and should be
chemically inert and stable and should handle wide range of pressure drops at various
conditions of use.
3. No chemical or physical interactions with the components of slurry should occur and it
should be insoluble in the slurry.
4. It should be nontoxic and should not add fibers or particles to filtrate.
5. Separation of filter aid from filter cake after filtration should be easy and economic.
Examples of filter aid are-
Diatomaceous earth, Perlite, asbestos, carbon, cellulose.
The filter aids are used in two ways
1. Precoat
2. Body mix
1. Precoat. - In this technique filter aid is suspended in a liquid mostly water and send through the
filter medium till a sufficient layer accumulated on the surface of the filter medium .A thickness of
1/16 to 1/8 inch . Generally, for these 5 to 15 pounds of filter aid is required per 100 sq feet surface
area.
2. Body mix- in this the filter aid is directly mixed with the feed. Generally, 0.1 to 0.5 % of the
liquid feed is the requirement of the filter aid.
3. Sspecial precoat technique: filter aid slurry is first filtered and deposition of cake is allowed and
loosening cake Once filter aid cake (precoat) of desired thickness is formed the slurry is filtered.
This technique is specifically adopted for rotary drum filter.
Following chart describes different filter aids along with their chemical composition advantages
and disadvantages.

Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of plate & frame filter, filter leaf, rotary drum
filter, Meta filter & Cartridge filter, membrane filters and Seitz filter.

Q.9 Explain Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of plate & frame filter
Ans –

Plate and frame filter press

Principle:
 Mechanism is surface filtration.
 The slurry enters the frame by pressure and flows through filter medium.
 The filtrate is collected on the plates and send to outlet.
 A number of frames and plates are used so that surface area increases and consequently large
volumes of slurry can be processed simultaneously with or without washing.

Fig 5: Filter

Construction
 The Filter press is made of two types of units, plate and frames.
 Usually made of aluminium alloy.
 Sometimes, these are also lacquered for protection against corrosive chemicals and made suitable
for steam sterilization.
Frame-
 It contains a open space inside wherein the slurry reservoir is maintained for filtration and an
inlet to receive the slurry.
 It is indicated by two dots in description.
 Frames of different thickness are available. It is selected based on the thickness of cake formed
during filtration.
 Optimum thickness of frame should be chosen.
Plate
 The plate has a studded or grooved surface to support the filter cloth and an outlet.
 It is indicated by one dot in description.
 Plate supports the filter medium, receiving the filtrate and outlet.
 The filter medium usually cloth is interposed between plate and frame.
 Plate, filter medium, frame, filter medium and plate are arranged in sequence and clamed to a
supporting structure.
 It is normally described by dots as 1.2.1.2.1 so on.
 A number of plates and frames are employed so that the filtration area is as large as necessary.
 Number of filtration units are operated in parallel.
 Channels for slurry inlet and filtrate outlet can be arranged by fitting eyes to the plates and
frames, these join together to form a channel.
 In some types only one inlet channel is formed, while each plate is having individual outlets
controlled by valves.
Working
Working can be divided into two steps
1. Filtration operation
 Frame- marked by 2 dots
 Plate – marked by 1 dot
 Slurry enters the frame from the feed channel and passes through the filter medium on the
surface of the plate
 The solid forms a filter cake and remain in the frame
 The thickness of the cake is half of the frame thickness, because on each side of frame filtration
occurs
 Thus, two filter cakes are formed, which meet eventually in the centre of the frame
 The filtrate drains between the projections of the surface of the plate and escape from the outlet
 As filtration proceeds, the resistance of the cake increases and filtration rate decrease
 At a certain point process is stopped and press is emptied and cycle is restarted.
2. Washing of cake (if desirable)
 When washing of cake is also required modified plate and frame filter is used.
 For this purpose, an additional channel is included called as washing plate and are identified by 3
dots.
 In the half of the washing plate, there is a connection from wash water cannel to the surface of
plate.
 The sequence of arrangement of plates and frames can be represented by dots as 1.2.3.2.1.2.3.2.1
so on (between 1 and 1, 2.3.2 must be arranged.
Procedure for washing the press
• Filtration proceeds in the ordinary way until the frames are filled with cake.
• To wash the filter cake, the outlets of washing plates are closed.
• Wash water is pumped in the washing channel. The water enters through the inlets on the surface
of washing plate.
• Water passes through the filter cloth and enters frame which contains the cake. Then water
washes the cake, passes through the filter cloth and enters the plate down the surface
• Finally washed water escapes through the outlet of that plate.

Fig 5:

Special provisions:
• Any possible contamination can be observed by passing the filtrate through a glass tube or sight
glass from the outlet on each plate.
• This permits the inspection of quality of filtrate. The filtrate goes through the control valves to an
outlet channel.
• The filtration process from each plate can be seen. In the event of broken cloth, the faulty plate
can be isolated and filtration can be continued with one plate less.
Uses:
• Sterile filtrate can by obtain by using asbestos and cellulose filter sheet (for this, whole filter
press and filter medium have been sterilized previously).
• Filtration of viscous liquid can also be done by incorporating heating/cooling coils in the press.
Advantages

 Construction of filter press is very simple and a variety of materials can be used.
• Provide large filtration area in relatively small floor space.
• The capacity being variable according to thickness of frames and number used.
• Sturdy construction permits the use of considerable pressure difference. (2000 Kilopascals
normally used) • Efficient washing of cake is possible.
• Operation and maintenance is easy.
• It produces dry cake in form of slab.
Disadvantages
• It is a batch filter, so it is a time consuming.
• The filter press is an expensive filter, the emptying time, the labour involved, and the wear and
tear on the cloths resulting in high costs.
• Operation is critical, as the frames should be full, otherwise washing is inefficient and the cake
is difficult to remove.
• The filter press is used for slurries containing less about 5 % solids In view of the high labour
costs, it is most suitable for expensive materials e.g. the removal of precipitated proteins from
insulin liquors.
Q.10 Explain Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of Meta Filters
Principle: Surface filter which do not employ conventional filter medium surface filter separate
particles through straining through the tapering channels formed by series of rings with
semicircular projections.
Construction
 Meta filters consist of series of metal rings made up of stainless steel packed on grooved
drainage rod.
 Rings usually have internal diameter 15mm and external diameter of 22mm and thickness of
0.8mm
 These are semicircular projections on one side of ring.
 Rings are packed on drainage rods with a nut with projections on same side, so tapering
channels with 25µ to 250 µ are formed
 One or more such packed units are mounted in vessel
 Fig 6: Meta filter Assembly

Working –
 Slurry is pumped in vessel or application of reduced pressure on outlet
 Clear liquid is obtained
 as slurry passes through channels on edges formed between the rings
 For fine particle separation, a bed of suitable filter aid like kieselguhr is built on supporting
base of metal plates.
Advantages
 Used for high pressure filtration without danger of bursting filter membrane
 No filter medium is used, running cost is less
 Corrosion resistant materials can be use to avoid contamination
 Coarse as well as fine particles can be filtered
 Cake can be removed by stacking rings and flushing water
 Change over from one product to other is easy
 Sterile products can be handled
Disadvantages
 Does not utilise filter medium and thus arrangement of the rings to create filter channels is
critical.
 Washing of filter channels is important as there is no filter medium which can be changed
between the batches. This could be time consuming.
Uses
 Mainly used for clarification
 Filtration of viscous liquids

Q. 11 Explain Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of Rotary vacuum filter.
 Principle:
In large scale operation, continuous operation is sometimes desirable and it may be necessary to
filter slurries containing a high proportion of solids.
• The rotary filter is continuous in operation and has a system for removing the cake that is
formed, so, it is suitable for use with concentrated slurries.
• Slurry filtered through sieve like mechanism on the rotation drum surface, under the condition
of vacuum.
• In addition, compression, drying (using hot air), and removing the filter cake (using knife) are
possible. Hence it is suitable for large scale filtration and can be used for filtration of
concentrated slurries.
• Also, can be used for filtration of Injection/parenteral solutions
Construction:
Hollow metal cylinder on which filter cloth is mounted with support of mesh.
Cylinder have 5 sections:
1. Pick up zone (picking up slurry)
2. Drainage zone (removal of water)
3. Washing zone
4. Drying zone
5. Cake removal zone

Fig 7: Rotary Drum Filter

Rotary filter consists of number of filter units (16-20) arranged so that the units are passing in
continuous succession through various stages.
 Working-
The drum may be up to 3 meters in diameter and 3.5 meters in length and gives surface area of 20
meter square
 Drum rotates slowly and picks up slurry from feed through pick up zone
 Slurry is filtered under vacuum and cake builds up on filter cloth
 In dewatering zone, water is completely removed from cake
 In washing zone, cake is sprayed with water and simultaneously water is removed, which may be
mixed with filtrate
 The dewatered and compact cake is first loosened by blowing air through the alignment of drain
pipe to seat valve
 Scrapper is set at a small distance from cake and scraps the cake to form filter cloth
 If cake solid is compressible or gelatinous, a precoat of filter aid may be used
Zone Position Service Connected to

Pick up Slurry trough Vacuum Filtrate receiver

Drainage ------- Vacuum Filtrate receiver

Washing ----- Vacuum Wash water receiver

Drying Wash spray Vacuum Wash water receiver

Cake removal Scraper knife Compressed air Filter cake conveyor

Table 1: ROTARY FILTER OPERATION

The drum may be up to 3 meters in diameter and 3.5 meters in length and gives surface .

• String discharge method also can be used for cake removal—as shown in the following

figure- Strings are in contact with the surface and pass over additional small rollers before
returning to the contact drum again .Strings lift the filter cake off the filter medium, and
cake is broken by sharp bend over rollers so that it is easily collected while strings return
to the drum.

.
 Fig 8: Discharge from Rotary Drum Filter

Advantages
 The rotary filter is automatic and is continuous in operation, so that the labor costs are very
low.
 The filter has a large capacity (area of filter represented by ‘A’ in Darcy’s law is infinity), so it
is suitable for the filtration of highly concentrated solutions.
 Variation of the speed of rotation enables the cake thickness to be controlled. (solids forming
impermeable cake, thickness of filter cake is less than 5mm, but if solids are coarse, forming a
porous cake, thickness of filter cake may be 100mm or more)
 Pre-coat of filter aid could used to accelerate the filtration rate
Disadvantages
 The rotary filter is a complex piece of equipment, with many moving parts and is very
expensive.
 In addition to the filter itself, some accessories are connected, e.g, a vacuum pump, vacuum
receivers, slurry pumps and agitators are required.
 The cake tends to crack due to the air drawn through by the vacuum system, so that washing
and drying are not efficient.
 Being a vacuum filter, the pressure difference is limited to 1 bar and hot filtrates may boil.
 It is not suitable for gelatinous slurries
Uses

 The rotary filter is used for continuous operation on large quantities of slurry.
 Suitable for slurry containing considerable amounts of solids in the range 15-30%.
 Examples of pharmaceutical application include the collection of calcium carbonate,
magnesium carbonate, and starch, and the separation of the mycelium from the fermentation
liquor in the manufacture of antibiotics

Q. 12 Explain Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of Filter leaf

Filter leaf
Principle:
• It is an apparatus consisting of a longitudinal drainage screen covered with a filter cloth.
• The mechanism is surface filtration and acts as sieve or strainer.
• Vacuum or pressure can be applied to increase the rate of filtration. Construction:
• The leaf filter is consisting of a frame enclosing a drainage screen or grooved plate.
• The frame may be any shape circular, square or rectangular.
• The whole unites being covered with filter cloth.
• The outlet for the filtrate connects to the inside of the frame through suction.

Fig 9 Filter leaf

Working
• The filter leaf is immersed in the slurry
• Vacuum system is connected to the outlet
• The slurry passes through the filter cloth
• Finally filtrate enters the drainage canal and goes through the outlet into receiver
• Air is passed to flow in reverse direction which facilitates removal of cake
Use:
• Use for the filtration of slurry which do not contain high solid content, about 5%, i.e. dilute
suspensions. Advantages
• Simplest form of filter used for batch process.
• A number of units can be connected in parallel to increase the surface area of filtration.
• Pressure difference can be obtained either with vacuum or using pressure up to the order of
800 kilopascals.
• Labour costs for operating the filter leaf are fairly moderate.
• The efficiency of washing is high.
 • The slurry can be filtered from any vessel.
• The cake can be washed simply by immersing the filter in a vessel of Water.
Sweetland filter (variant of filter leaf)
• An alternative method is to enclose the filter leaf in a special vessel into which the slurry is
pumped under pressure.
• A number of leaves are connected to a common outlet, to provide a large area for filtration.

Fig 10: Sweetland filter

Q.13 Explain Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of Cartridge filters

Principle:
• It is a thin porous membrane in which pre filter and membrane filter are combined in a single
unit.
• The filtration action is mainly sieve like and particles are retained on the surface.
Construction:
• It has cylindrical configuration made with disposable or changeable filter media.
• Made up of either plastic or metal.
• Consist of two membrane filters (sieve like) made of polypropylene: prefilter and actual filter
for filtration. • A protective layer surrounds them.
• The cartridge is housed in a holder and a number of cartridges can be placed in a same housing.
• The housing is closed with the lid.
• Housing has provisions for slurry inlet and outlets.
 Fig 11:
Cartridge filter

Working:
• Slurry is pumped into cartridge holder
• It passes through cartridge filter unit by straining
• The clear liquid passes through the centre
• Moves up to collect through outlet
Uses:
• Particularly useful for preparation of particulate free solutions for parenteral and ophthalmic uses.
• This filter holder will process 1000 – 15000 litres of sterile solution per hour.
Advantages:
• Autoclaving can be done for sterile operations due to stainless steel construction.
• Cartridges with self-cleaning devices are advantageous.
• Rapid disassembling as well as reusing of filter medium is possible.
• Cartridges are not brittle, when they are dry.
• Used as in-line continuous filtration, this reduces handling of solution. It minimizes chances of
contaminations.
The Basic Systems of Cartridge Filters
1. Wound cartridge filters: -: natural or synthetic yards, which are wounded around a central
tube or former. Filtration: sand, scale, lime, rust, fine particles. Applications: drinking water,
boilers, washing machines, pre-filtration in water treatment, sea water desalination, process
water, chemical processes.
 2. Melt-Blown cartridge filters: -Activated carbon cartridge filters: - polyester felt filtering
medium and granular activated carbon. Removal of colour, smell, taste contamination,
pesticides, chlorine, organic substances. Applications: Potable water,
3. Stainless steel cartridge filters: - Filtration of: sand, scales, rust. Applications: drinking
water,
4. Pleated cartridge filters: - Sand, scales, rust. Applications: Drinking water,
Uses/ Pharmaceutical applications:
Cartridge filter is particularly useful for the preparation of the particulate free solutions for the
parenteral and ophthalmic. This filter holder will process 1000 to 15000 litres of sterile solutions
per hour.
The cartridge filtration mainly consists of three general applications in a water treatment plant.
They are:
1. surface water treatment rule compliance.
2. Prefiltration prior to subsequent treatment.
3. Solids removal.
1. Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) Compliance:
Surface or ground water filteration was done by the catridge filters under the influence of the
surface area. Given the nature of cartridge filters, their application is likely limited to small
systems with high quality source water.
2. Prefiltration:
Cartridge filters can also be used as a prefilter prior to other treatment processes.
3. Liquid filtration:
Bulk chemicals, petrochemicals, water purification, hydraulic fluids, cosmetics/ pharmaceuticals,
reagent grade chemicals, paints, varnishes, semiconductors, sugars, electric utilities,
paints/varnishes often used as final filtration after other filters
4. Gaseous filtration
Gas dust removal in industrial, atmospheres, compressed air filtering, atmospheric dust, smoke,
fumes, solid contaminants in the system.
Disadvantages:
• A number of manufactures provide the components, which are generally not interchangeable
between suppliers.
• Cost of disposable elements offsets the labour saving in terms of assembly and cleaning of
cartridge clarifiers.
Q.14 Explain Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of Seitz filter.

Principle
• It is based on filtration of asbestos pad filter disc Construction
• It consists of two parts. Lower part fitted with a perforated plate over which compressed
asbestos pad is placed.
• Upper part has a value through which pressure can be applied.
• Both parts joined together by winged nuts.
• A valve is present on the upper part through which vacuum is applied
• The asbestos pads may yield alkali and cause precipitation of alkaloids
• It may shed fibres into the filtrate and absorb drug from solution.
Construction
1. Seitz filter comprised of cellulose fibres, filter aids (diatomaceous earth and perlite) and resins,
the P-series depth filter media takes advantage of two dynamic mechanisms for the removal of
contaminants, electrokinetic charge and size exclusion.
2. Cellulose is used to construct the initial filter matrix to which filter aids and other additives are
impregnated into and improve contaminant removal and loading capabilities of the filter sheets.
3. Filter aids such as diatomaceous earth and perlite are immobilized within the cellulose matrix
in various concentrations to provide specific contaminant removal, screening and
permeabilities to each grade in the P-series family of depth filter sheets.
4. Resins are utilized as binders for the filter matrix to improve the filter sheets’ overall wet
tensile strength. Due to their electrokinetic adsorption properties, resins are also used to
increase the retention of small particles, those smaller than the actual porosity of the filter
medium, host cell proteins, endotoxins, DNA, and viruses.

Fig 12: Seitz filter Assembly

Working
Lab size Seitz filter.
To remove submicron particles for bacteriological and other, laboratory work. Plated throughout.
Seitz Filter Pads fitted in stainless steel/Gun Metal; Chrome casing can be used.
These are used until clogged but cannot be regenerated.
Filters are designed for different capacities. Screw cap has air tight fitting. For use with pressure
vacuum or gravity with the top closed and with either gravity or vacuum with top removed. Body
is clamped tightly on the fitter holder by bolts and wing nuts.
Uses
• Clarification of submicron size impurities from water, microbiological samples, food and
beverages
• Isolation of cells in various biotechnological operations
• Sterilization of various pharmaceuticals and laboratory reagents
Advantages
• No risk of contaminating the filtrate.
• Apparatus is very simple to use.
• For viscous solution they are more suitable.
Disadvantages
• Asbestos may shed loose fibres.
• Pad may absorb sufficient amount of medicament.
Q.15 Explain Construction, Working, Uses, Merits and demerits of membrane filter
Principle
Membrane filtration uses special filter media which are thin membranes made up of synthetic
polymers with very fine pore size. The fineness of pore size decides the kind of particles that can
be removed by surface filtration. If the pore size is 0.20 to 0.22 micron in size then it can remove
all types of microorganisms and therefore can be used for sterilization of liquids and
pharmaceutical solutions. (Microfiltration) If the membrane is made semipermeable in nature, then
under pressure the process of separation of substances of specific molecular weight can be carried
out (Ultrafiltration). Depending on above two approaches, the filtration can be divided as
1. Microfiltration - is a type of physical filtration process where a contaminated fluid is
passed through a special pore-sized membrane to separate microorganisms and suspended particles
from process liquid. It is commonly used to provide a product stream which is free of undesired
contaminants.
2. Ulrafiltration- is a variety of membrane filtration in which pressure leads to a separation
through a semipermeable membrane. Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular weight are
retained in, while water and low molecular weight solutes pass through the membrane in the
filtrate. This separation process is used in industry and research for purifying and concentrating
macromolecular solutions, especially protein solutions. Ultrafiltration is not fundamentally
different from microfiltration. Both of these separate based on size exclusion or particle capture.
Ultrafiltration membranes are defined by the molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of the membrane
used.
Construction

The most common screen filter used in compounding is called a "membrane filter." In terms of
structure, membrane filters are thin microporous sheets made from a variety of plastics. Membrane
filters must have a nominal pore size of 0.22 microns or less if they are to be used for sterilization.
However, membrane filters are available in a wide range of pore sizes from 0.11 to 10 microns.
Membrane filters could be made up of PTFE (polypetalous ethylene), PVDF (polyvinylidene
fluoride), Nylon, Cellulose Acetate, Cellulose Nitrate, Polypropylene (PP), Mixed Cellulose Ester

Fig 13: Cartridge design and Membrane filter Sheets

Working
• The membranes are selected as per the size of particles to be removed
• The membrane filters are fixed in a previously sterilised filtration assembly
• Aseptic conditions are maintained
• The solutions to be filtered are passed with pressure through the membrane filter.
• The filtrate (the product) is received in sterile receiver.
• The product is further handled in aseptic manner.
• The membrane filtration assembly undergoes validation tests like bubble point test before e and
after the membrane filtration, to ensure that the membrane did not tear before and during
operation.
Advantages
• Can remove subvidual contaminants
• Can cause sterilization of liquids
• Uses disposable membranes, so clean operation
• Has multi-application in chemical, pharma and biotech industries
Disadvantages
• Expensive technology
• Needs aseptic conditions to be maintained
• Needs elaborate quality control and validation
• Needs experts to handle this type of flirtations
Uses
Filtration by membrane can be applied to an infinite number of industries whereby chemical
processes are involved. The food industry, with important specifications in the dairy and sugar,
pharmaceutical, biotechnological and chemical sectors, are areas in which filtration by membrane
can be very useful.
Pharmaceutical industry
• Used for sterilization of water and other pharmaceutical liquids/ solutions
• Filtration of particulate micro contaminants
• Concentration of macromolecules like proteins
• The harvesting of cells or the recuperation of biomass is an important step in the process of
fermentation, especially when manufacturing products such as antibiotics
• Filtration improves production as well as reducing the operator’s workload and the
maintenance costs.
• The membranes are also a standard part of the industrial production lines for enzymes, when
concentrating enzymes prior to other processes.