Acknowledgement | would like to extend my sincere and heartfelt gratitude to our principal, Mrs. Molly D'Coutho for giving us the opportunity to make this report and letting us use the laboratory chemicals which were very necessary in the completion of this project. lam also thankful to Mrs. Latha Manickam, our dear chemistry teacher who has been a great helper, friend and advisor in this endeavour without whose cooperation, guidance and encouragement, this project would not be possible. | wish to acknowledge my heartfelt thanks to her for her constant supervision over the project and for providing all the necessary information and details regarding the project. Last but not least, I'm very thankful for the support extended my friends during the making of this project; their wisdom and ideas were of a great help to me.Introduction Brief Explanation History Positive/Negative Effects Theory Photographic Film and Paper Developers Experiment Aim Procedure: Determining the Optimum Conditions Preparing your own Developer Toning Results Conclusion Precautions BibliographyINTRODUCTION Brief Explanation:- Traditional black and white photography utilized a chemical process that has been observed since ancient times that of the photo-sensitivity of silver (Az) compounds. This ability was harnessed by the 19th century photography pioneers by coating silver halides (molecules of Ag and halide gases) in an emulsion of gelatine onto a glass or plastic backer. The process of making traditional film has not changed much from the basic chemical reactions discovered in the 1800's. Initially, elemental silver is reacted with nitric acid to form silver nitrate. Complete and balance the reaction below: Ag (s) + HNO3 > AgNOS + H2 The silver nitrate is then converted to the silver halide (usually bromide) by fuming the film with potassium bromide. Complete and balance the next reaction: AgNO, + KBr AgBr+KNO3, Note: Silver bromide (AgBr) is insoluble in water and forms a precipitate, which is crucial in the formation of photographic film. ‘The AgBr is an ionic compound, so the film now = is ready for exposure and the creating of the intended image. Stored within a light sealed container, the AgBr film is a uniform darkish yellow. The light exposure ‘occurs when an opening allows light to enter the dark container and strike the film. These “storage” containersthat subsequently allow light exposure are more commonly referred to as cameras. History:- The history of black and white photography is closely tied to chemical advancements. Originating in the early 19th century, pioneers like Joseph Nicéphore Niépce and Louis Daguerre experimented with light- sensitive materials. Silver halides, compounds of silver and halogens, played a crucial role as they darkened when exposed to light, forming the basis for early photographic processes like the Daguerreatype. Advancements in wet-plate collodion photography improved image quality, but the breakthrough came with dry- plate emulsions, enabling portable cameras and longer exposures. The chemistry of development also progressed, with hydroquinone and metol identified as powerful reducing agents. The history of black and white photography showcases the fusion of art and science through exploration and experimentation with chemical reactions. 1H RP Wicag oe Fy 2 Positive/Negative Effects:-‘The intersection of chemistry and black and white photography has yielded both remarkable achievements and environmental concerns. On the positive side, the understanding and manipulation of chemical processes has led to significant advancements in photographic technology. The develapment of light- sensitive silver halides, for instance, formed the bedrock of early photography. Subsequent innovations in developing agents, fixers, and toners have refined the art of capturing and preserving images. Chemistry has also contributed to the creation of specialized films for diverse photographic applications, from high-contrast portraits to landscape photography. However, the photographic process also has its drawbacks. The use of hazardous chemicals, particularly in the darkroom environment, poses risks to human health and the environment Silver nitrate, for example, is toxic. Improper disposal of photographic waste can contaminate waste. In conclusion, while chemistry has been instrumental in the development of black and white photography, it is essential to balance the benefits with the environmental costs. Sustainable practices and responsible disposal of chemicals are crucial to mitigate the negative impacts and ensure the long-term viability of this art formTHEORY Photographic Film and Paper:- Photographic paper and film consist of a gelatine emulsion with silver halides grains layers onto either paper or film base. The halides that are often used are chlorine, bromine and iodine, although bromine is most common. The silver halide grains are crystalline structures of silver ions and halide ions in a lattice structure Even though the grains are held together by chemical bonds and are very stable, there is some movement allowed of atoms and electrons throughout the structure. Electronically, there are different energy levels in the grain: the valance band and conduction band. Electrons in the valence band are localised around the atam to which they belong. Those in the conduction band are localised around the atom to which they belong. Those in the conduction band are free to move through the grain. When photons from light come through the grain. When photons from light come into contact with a grain, an electron is ejected from the valence band of the halide into the conducting {ly band of the crystal. This electron will then combine with a moving silver ion forming atomic silver. The place where thus occurs is the latent image centre. When three or four of these events occur at the same location, an aggregate or clump of silver metal is produced Three or four atoms are necessary for the latent image centreto be. Each grain has thousands of silver ions, so there are thousands of chances for this to happen. The latent image is invisible to the eye, but after further development, the atomic silver will create dark areas due to its colour. The latent centre serves as a catalyst for the development in the dark room. The formation of silver metal is logarithmically proportional to the intensity of light. Therefore places where more light hits appear darker on the film. In creating the print, light shown through the negative, so areas that were originally dark then receive less light and appears brighter Developers:- The developer consists typically of one or more developing agents, a preservative (such as sodium sulphite) to prevent oxidation by the air, an alkali (such as sodium carbonate) te activate the developers and a restrainer to ensure that the developer acts only on exposed silver halide crystals. A developer's main characteristics are activity, development speed and effect of film gradation, grain less and sharpness. Developers may be prepared on the basis of published formulas or brought as ready-mixed powders or concentrates for dilution with water. The developer is allowed to act for a specific time to build up the image to the required density and contrast. This depends on the developer, the temperature, the degree of agitation and the film-as indicated by recommendations from film and developer manufacturersEXPERIMENT Aim: The primary aim of a chemistry experimentin black and white photography is to understand the underlying chemical processes involved in creating a photograp! More specifically, it seeks to: + Explore the role of different chemicals in the development, fixing, and toning processes. + Investigate the impact of various factors such as temperature, time, and concentration on the final image. + Understand the relationship between light, silver halides, and the formation of the latent image. + Develop a deeper appreciation for the art and science of photography. Procedure:- In the first section of this experiment you will determine a set of optimum conditions for developing a contact print using a light bulb for exposure and a standard, already- prepared developer. Two factors are important in determining the optimum conditions. The first is the amount of light hitting the photographic paper. This depends on the intensity of the light, the length of the exposure and the distance of the light from the paper. The greater the amount of light hitting the