Simple Machines

A machine is essentially a contrivance by means of which a force, called an effort

(E), applied at one point, can be used to overcome a force, known as a load (L), at
some other point.
Generally, a machine enables a large load, or resistance to be overcome by a small
effort. Machines receive energy different forms. An electricity generator
receives energy which it transforms into electrical energy. Heat is supplied to the
steam engine in a railway locomotive and this constitutes the kinetic energy which
mover the train. The motor car engine converts the chemical energy of petrol into
kinetic energy.
The best way to understand the principles of machines is by studying simple
machines. Examples of simple machines include the lever, the pulley, the inclined
plane, the screw, the wheel and axle.
Some Definitions
(i) Effort: This is the force applied to operate the machine.
(ii) Load: this is the force (resistance) which the machine overcomes.
(iii) Mechanical Advantage: This is the ratio of the loud to the effort. In
other words,
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝐴 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
(iv) velocity Ratio: This is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort
to the distance moved by the load. In other words,
𝑥
𝑉𝑅 =
𝑦
Where x = effort distance and y = load distance. In most cases,
velocity ratio, V.R. is than greater unity (V.R. >1). If mechanical
advantage is greater than unity, it is a mechanical advantage (M.A. > 1)
but if M.A. < I, it is called a mechanical disadvantage.
(v) Efficiency: Any machine that does work needs energy. It uses energy
of one form and converts it into useful work and other forms of
energy.
A can engine transforms chemical energy in fuel into mechanical
energy that is used to move the car. But not 100% of the input energy

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 1

 is converted into useful work, the percentage of useful work done
compared to the input energy gives the efficiency the machine.

𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 100

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ×
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 1

The efficiency of a machine cannot be greater than 100%. If the efficiency of a

machine is more than 100%, it would imply that the machine would produce more
energy than it was supplied. Hence, contradicting the principle of conservation of
Energy.
In fact efficiency of most machines is less than 100% because some of the energy
supplied is used in moving the machine parts so that useful work can be done and
also to overcome friction.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(∈) = ×
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1

Efficiency (E) and its Relation to Velocity Ratio and Mechanical Advantage.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(∈) = ×
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1

Since work = Force x Distance

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
=
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 × 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐿×𝑦 𝐿 𝑦
= = ×
𝐸 ×𝑥 𝐸 𝑥

𝐿 𝑥
= ÷
𝐸 𝑦

= 𝑀. 𝐴.÷ 𝑉. 𝑅.
or, put as a percentage

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 2

 𝑀. 𝐴. 100
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(∈) = × %
𝑉. 𝑅. 1

Efficiency decreases with increase in friction

Types of Machines
1. The Lever
Levers are generally classified according to the positions of the effort and the
load or resistance. An effort, E, is applied at one paint on the lever and this
overcome a load, L, at some other point, about a support called fulcrum, F. The
lever is based upon the principle of moments.

If y and x represents the distances of the load, L and effort, E, from the fulcrum,
then taking moments about F gives,
𝑦×𝐿 =𝑥 ×𝐸
𝐿 𝑥
=
𝐸 𝑦
That is M.A. = V.R.

In the first class of levers, the fulcrum is between the effort and the load.
Example of first class of levers is the scissors. In the second class of levers, the
load, L, is between the fulcrum, F, and the effort, E. Simple example of the second
order lever are the nut cracker and the wheel barrow. The third order lever
consist of the effort, E which is between the load I and the fulcrum, F. Examples
are sugar tongs and the action of the biceps muscle and the forearm when a load is
being lifted.

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 3

2. Pulleys
A pulley is an arrangement of string and wheels. We have the sample pulley system
and the block and tackle system of pulleys.

(a) The simple pulley system

The simple pulley system consists of a single wheel with a string as shown & below.

Figure (a) shows a simple pulley which is a fixed wheel with a rope passing wound a
grove in its rim. A load L is attached at one end of the rope while an effort E is
applied at the other end. If we neglect friction at the wheels and the weight of
the rope then tension T in the nape will be the same throughout. Therefore, when
there is no friction L = T = E.
The mechanical advantage (MA) = 1 = VR, if there is no friction present.
Figure (b) consists of a simple movable pulley. The velocity ratio is 2 because for
every distance d the load riser the effort has to be pulled far enough to take up a
up a length 2d of rope. The mechanical advantage (M.A.) = 2 = VR, if there is no
friction present.

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 4

(b) Black and Tackle
This is a practical forms of pulley system, consisting of a combination of pulleys.
They are wed by builders for hauling heavy loads to high floors on in loading and
unloading ships. The aim of combining pulleys is to achieve a larger velocity ratio
and thus also higher mechanical advantage;

In fig(c) when E moves through a distance of 3d, L moves a distance d

∴ 𝑉. 𝑅. = =3

In fig(d) when E moves through a distance of 4d, L moves a distance d

∴ 𝑉. 𝑅. = =4

In general for a block and tackle with n wheels the V.R. = n

Example 1

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A block and Tackle has two pulleys in each block. The lower block has a mass of 7
Kg. An effect of 80N raises a load of mass 21kg, calculate(i) the efficiency of the
system, (ii) the amount of work wasted in overcoming friction when the load is
raised through 1m. (g = 10 ms-2)

Solution

(i) The 𝑀. 𝐴 =
21 × 10 210𝑁
= =
80 80𝑁
21
=
8
Hence Efficiency = ×
.
= × ×
= 66%
(ii) when the load is raised through lm the work output
=210N x 1m
=210J
as V.R. = 4, the effort moves through 4 m hence the work input
= 80x4
= 320J
the work wasted = 320-210
= 110J
Then work done in raising the block of mass 7 Kg through 1m
= 20N x 1m
= 70J
hence the work wasted against friction
= 1105-705
= 40J

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 6

3. The Inclined Plane
Heavy loads such as drums of oil and be raised with little effort with a slopping
plank. This is called an inclined plane and it is said to be a machine.

work done by effort = E x XE

Work done on load. W x XL
EXE = WXL

velocity ratio = = = =

V.R. = = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

If there is no friction on the plane, then

𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝑀. 𝐴. = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

The theoretical efficiency of the inclined plane is 100% but in practice, friction
makes it less than this.

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 7

4. THE SCREW JACK
All screws bear threads. The distance between two consecutive threads is called
the pitch of the screw (p). When the screw is turned round through a complete
revolution by the application of an effort; the load moves a distance equal to the
pitch, P.
The screw can be thought of as an inclined plane wrapped round a cylinder to from
a thread. One good example of a screw is the screw jack used to lift motor cars.

If r, is the radius of the screw, it means that while the effort moves 2πr
(circumference of the handle traced out by the lever arm) the load moves a
corresponding distance equal to the pitch (P).

2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
𝑉. 𝑅. = =
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑃

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑦 = =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 × 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

𝐿 × 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 100
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ×
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 1

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 8

Example 2
Calculate the velocity ratio of an inclined plane of length 10m, with a vertical
height of 3m above the ground. If the efficiency of this plane is 60%, what is the
mechanical advantage.
Solution:

1
𝑉. 𝑅. =
sin 𝜃

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
=
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

10𝑚 10
= = = 3.3
3𝑚 3

𝑀. 𝐴. 100
𝐸𝑓𝑓. = ×
𝑉. 𝑅. 1

𝑀. 𝐴. 100
60 = ×
3.3 1

60 × 3.3
𝑀. 𝐴. =
100

𝑀. 𝐴. = 1.98
Example 3
A screw jack, has a velocity ratio of 262, and an efficiency of 50%. What is the
greatest load which can be raised on it by a man capable of exerting an effort of
32N on the handle of the jack?
Solution:
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑜𝑢𝑡 100
𝐸𝑓𝑓. = ×
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1

𝑀. 𝐴. 100
= ×
𝑉. 𝑅. 1

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 9

 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑀. 𝐴. = =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 32𝑁
therefore,
𝐿 × 100
50 =
32𝑁 × 262

50 × 32 × 2
𝐿=
100

= 4192𝑁

5. Wheel And Axle

Wheel and axle consists of a rope fixed on the wheel and wound round it, so as to
give a free end where an effort E, is to be applied. The load to be lifted is
attached at its free end. The wheel and axle is equivalent to a lever whose effort
arm is the radius of the wheel 'a' and the load arm is the radius of the axle 'b'.

For one complete rotation of the wheel, there is one complete rotation of the axle.
Therefore, the effort, E moves a distance equal to the circumstance of the wheel
while the load L, moves a distance equal to the circumstance of the axle.

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 10

 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = ×
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1

𝐿 × 2𝜋𝑏 100
= ×
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑎 1

𝐿 𝑏 100
= × ×
𝐸 𝑎 1

Example 4
A wheel and axle is used to raise a bucket full of water 70kg by application of an
effort 200N. If the radius of the wheel and axle are 400m and 80mm respectively,
determine the efficiency of the machine (assume g = 10m/s2).
Solution:
𝐿
𝑀. 𝐴. =
𝐸

700𝑁 7
= =
200𝑁 2

𝑎 5
𝑉. 𝑅. = =
𝑏 1

𝑀. 𝐴. 100
𝐸𝑓𝑓. = ×
𝑉. 𝑅. 1

7 1 100
= × ×
2 4 1

= 87.5%
Exercise
1. A student of mass 70kg climbs a ladder to a height of 7m. How much work
has he done?
2. What is the kinetic energy of a 1500kg automobile moving with a speed of
40km/h?

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 11

3. A motor car which has a weight of 10,000N is jacked up by a screw jack if
the pitch of the screw is 0.5cm and its efficiency is 40%, what approximate
effort will just lift the car if the effort handle is 98cm long?
4. A machine of V.R. 5 requires 500J of work to raise a load of 400N through
a vertical distance of 0.80m. What is the mechanical advantage of the
machine?
5. Calculate the velocity ratio of an inclined plane with an angle of inclination
as 300
6. A block and tackle has a velocity ratio of 4 and is used to raise a 50kg load
vertically. If the efficiency is 80%, determine the minimum effort required
to raise the load (assume g = 10m/s2)

Ahante’s online class | Lesson note on Machines 12