PDF Notes Academy Unit - 1

PDF NOTES ACADEMY

Sequences of Real Numbers

Unit - 1
As per updated syllabus
PDF NOTES ACADEMY

2022

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Sequences of Real Numbers

Introduction (Sequences of Real Numbers)

By a sequence, we mean an arrangement of numbers in a definite order

according to some rule. We denote the terms of a sequence by a 1, a2, a3, etc.,
the subscript denotes the position of the term.
In view of the above a sequence in the set X can be regarded as a mapping or a
function f : N → X defined by
f(n) = an ∀ n ∈ N
Domain of f is a set of natural numbers or some subset of it denoting the
position of term. If its range denoting the value of terms is a subset of R real
numbers then it is called a real sequence. A sequence is either finite or infinite
depending upon the number of terms in a sequence. We should not expect that
its terms will be necessarily given by a specific formula. However, we expect a
theoretical scheme or rule for generating the terms.
Sequence following certain patterns are more often called progressions. In
progressions, we note that each term except the first progresses in a definite
manner.
A sequence of real numbers is a function whose domain is a set of the form {n
∈𝕫 I n ≥ m} where m is usually 0 or 1. Thus, a sequence is a function f : N → R.
Thus a sequence can be denoted by f(m), f(m + 1), f(m + 2), ... Usually, we will
denote such a sequence by (a i)∞ i=m or {am, am+1, am+2, ....}
where ai = f(i). If m = 1, we may use the notation {a n}n∈N.
Definition: Every function defined from the set N of natural numbers to a non-
empty set X is called a sequence.

Real Sequence

Every function defined from the set N of natural numbers to a non-empty subset
X of the set of real numbers R is called a real sequence, denoted by f : N → R.
Thus the real sequence f is set of all ordered pairs {n, f(n)} I {n = 1, 2, 3, ...} i.e.,
set of all pairs (n, f(n)) with n a positive integer.

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If f : N → R is a sequence, then for each n ∈ N, f(n) is a real number. It is

conventional to write f(n) as f n.
Notations: Since the domain of a sequence is always the same (the set of
positive integers) a sequence may be written as {f(n)} instead of {n, f(n)}.
Example. The sequence {1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, ...} is written as {1/n} ∞n=1. This
sequence can be thought of as an ordinary function f(n) = 1/n.
Example. Consider the sequence given by a n = (-1)n for n ≥ 0. The terms of the
sequence look like, { 1, - 1, 1, - 1, 1, - 1, ...}. Note that the function has domain
N but the range is { - 1, 1}.
Example. Consider the sequence a n = cos {nπ/3}, n ∈ N. The first terms in the
sequence is cosπ/3 = cos 60 o = 1/2 and the sequence looks like

Note that the function takes on only a finite number of values, but the sequence
has an infinite number of elements.
Example. If an = n1/n, n ∈ N, the sequence is
1, √2, 31/3, 41/4, ....
Example. Consider the sequence b n = (1 + 1/n)n, n ∈ N. This is the sequence

Representation of A Sequence

The real numbers x 1, x2, ..., xn, ... are called the terms or elements of the
sequence. x1, is called the first term, x 2 the second term, ... , x n the nth term of
the sequence {x n}. It is denoted by {x 1, x2, x3, ... xn, ... } or {xn} or {xn}.
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Example.

•
•A sequence (an) may be defined by a recursion formula:

Here the terms of the sequence are 1, √2,√2√2, .....

Range of a Sequence

The set of all the distinct elements of a sequence is called the range set of the
given sequence.
Example. The range sets of the sequences given in Example are respectively
(i) {1, 1/2, 1/3, ...}
(ii) {0, 2}
(iii) {1, 4, 9, ...}
(iv) {-1, 1}
(v) {1, √2, √2√2, ...}
Note: The range set of a sequence may be finite or infinite but the sequence
has always an infinite number of elements.

Particular Sequences

(a) Constant Sequence: If the nth term of the sequence is constant i.e. a n = c ∈
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R, ∀ n, then the sequence obtained (c, c, c, ...) is known as constant sequence.

Example.
(5, 5, 5, 5, ... ) = (5)
(0, 0, 0, 0, ... ) = (0)
(b) Identity Sequence: If the nth term of the sequence is an = n, then the
obtained sequence is called Identity sequence.
Example. (1, 2, 3,.....)

Equal Sequence

Two sequences <an> and <b n> are equal, if their n th terms are equal, i.e. a n = b n,
∀n ∈ N

Bounded and Monotone Sequences

Bounded Sequence
Bounded above: A sequence (a n) is said to be bound above, if ∃ a real
number K s.t.
an ≤ K ∀ n ∈ N. K is called an upper bound of the sequence (an).

Bounded above
sequence

Bounded below: A sequence (an) is said to be bounded below, if ∃ a real

number k s.t.
K ≤ an ∀ n ∈ N. K is called an lower bound of the sequence (an).
Bounded: A sequence (an) is said to be bounded, if it is both bounded above

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and bounded below.

Equivalently, (a n) is bounded, if there exist two real numbers k and K such that
k ≤ an < K ∀ n ∈ N.

Bounded sequence

Examples
1. (1/n) = (1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ..) is bounded, as 0 < 1/n ≤ 1 ∀ n ∈ N.
2. (1 + (-1)n ) = (0, 2, 0, 2, ...) is bounded.
Supremum and Infimum of a Sequence
The minimum value of the upper bounds of sequence is known as Supremum or
least upper bound (lub) of a sequence.
The greatest of the lower bounds of a sequence is known as the Infimum or
greatest lower bound (gIb) of a sequence.

Examples

• The sequence {n2 } is bounded below: n 2 > 0 ∀ n ∈ N but not bounded

above;
• The sequence {-n} is bounded above: -n < 0 ∀ n ∈ N but not bounded
below;
• The sequence {( - 1)n + 1} is bounded : l( - 1)n + 1I ≤ 2 ∀ n ∈ N.

Infinitely large sequences represent an important subset of unbounded

sequences.
Definition: A sequence {a n} is called infinitely large if ∀ K ∈ R ∃ nK ∈ N such
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that lan l > K ∀ n ≥ nK.

As an example, we show that the sequence {(-1) n n3 } is infinitely large.
Indeed, for any number K, we can find n k such that l(-1) n n3l > K ∀ n ≥ nK.
To this end, we solve the inequality n 3 > K, and n >∛K. t
Let n k = [∛K] + 1, where [c] is the integer part of c.
Then for n ≥ nK we obtain.
n ≥ n K >∛K ⇒ n3 > K ⇒ |(-1)n n3 | > K.
From above Definition it follows that any infinitely large sequence is unbounded.
However, the converse is not true: there exist unbounded sequences that are
not infinitely large.
For example, such is the sequence {(1 - (-1)n)n}.
Definition. A sequence {an } is called infinitely small if

an = 0,
that is for any ε > 0 there exists n ε such that
|an| < ε ∀ n ≥ nε
For example, the sequence {q n} for Iql < 1 is infinitely small. Indeed, for any ε >
0 let us find nε such that lq n l < ε ∀ n ≥ nε. To this end, we solve the inequality lq n l
< ε, assuming that 0 < ε < 1 (for ε ≥ 1, this inequality is clearly true for any n ∈
N):
n In(|q|) < In ε ⇒ n > Inε/In|q|, n ε = [Inε/In|q|] + 1,
where lnε < 0, and In Iql < 0, since ε < 1, and Iql < 1. Thus, for n ≥ n ε we have
n ≥ nε > In ε/In|q| < Inε ⇒ |q|n < ε.
The fact that {an} is not infinitely small means the following there exists ε 0 > 0
such that for any n ∈ N there exists k n > n with |a kn | > ε0.

Unbounded Sequence

Sequence which is either unbounded above or below is called an unbounded

sequence.

Monotone Sequences

• Monotonicaliy Increasing: A sequence (an) = (a1, a2, a3, ..., an, ...) is said
to be monotonically increasing, if a n+1, ≥ an ∀ n ∈ N.
• Monotonically Decreasing: A sequence (an) = (a1, a2, a3, .... an, ...> is
said to be monotonically decreasing, if a n+1, ≤ an ∀ n ∈ N.

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• Monotonic: A sequence (an) is said to be monotonic (or monotone) if it

is either monotonically increasing or monotonically decreasing.
• Strictly monotonic sequence: either strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing. In particular, monotonically increasing is the same as
increasing, strictly monotonically increasing the same as strictly increasing.

Examples

• The sequence (2 n) = (2, 4, 8, 16, ...) is monotonically increasing.

Since a1 = 2 < a2 = 4 < a 3 = 8 < ......

• The sequence is monotonically decreasing.

Since a1 = 1 > a2 = 1/2 > a3 = 1/3 > .......

• The sequence is a bounded monotone

decreasing sequence, Its upper bound is greater than or equal to 1, and
the lower bound is any non-positive number. The least upper bound is
number one, and the greatest lower bound is zero, that is,

for each natural number n.

• The sequence is a bounded monotone increasing

sequence. The least upper bound is number one, and the greatest lower
bound is 1/2, that is,

for each natural number n.

• The sequence is an unbounded sequence, because

it does not have a finite upper bound.

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• Monotone increasing sequences:

{n}= 1, 2, 3, ...

• Monotone decreasing sequences:

Eventual nature of a sequence

Definition. A sequence {a n} of real numbers is called non-decreasing if

an ≤ an+1 for all n, and it is called non-increasing if an ≥ an+1 for all n. It is called
strictly increasing if an < a n+1 for all n, and strictly decreasing if an > an+1 for all n.
A sequence {an} of real numbers is called eventually non-decreasing if there
exists a natural number N such that a n ≤ an+1 for all n ≥ N, and it is called
eventually non-increasing if there exists a natural number N such that a n ≥
an+1 for all n ≥ N. We make analogous definitions of “eventually strictly
increasing” and "eventually strictly decreasing.”

Limit Point of a Sequence

Let {an} be any sequence and α ∈ N we say a is limit point of {a n} if every

neighbourhood of a contains infinite members of the sequence {a n }.
i.e. for any δ > 0
an ∈ (α - δ, α + δ) for infinite values of n.

Examples
(i) an = (-1)n
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α = -1
for any δ > 0
an ∈ (-1 - δ, -1 + δ) ∀ n = 2k - 1, k = 1, 2, ....
∴ -1 is a limit point.
α2 = 1.
for any δ > 0
an ∈ (1 - δ, 1 + δ) ∀ n = 2k, k = 1, 2, ...
∴ 1 is a limit point.
{an} has two limit points {-1, 1}.
(ii)

α=2
for any δ > 0
an ∈ (2 - δ, 2 + δ) ∀ n = 1 or prime
∴ 2 is a limit point.
Let p be any prime,
for any δ > 0
an ∈ (p - δ, p + δ) ∀ n = p k, = 1, 2, ...
∴ p is the limit point of a n.
Hence, every prime no. is a limit point of {a n}.
As set of prime no. are infinite
∴ {an} has infinite no. of limit points.
Theorem: Every limit point of the range set of a sequence is limit point of a
sequence.
Solution: Let S be range set of sequence {a n }.
i.e. S = range of {a n}
Let α ∈ S'
for ε > 0
(α - ε, α + ε) ∩ S\{α} has infinite no. of points
Let q ∈ (α - ε, α + ε) ∩ S\{α}
⇒ q ∈ (α - ε, α + ε) and q ∈ S
As q ∈ S
⇒ q = ak for some k ∈ N
So ak ∈ (α - ε, α + ε)
Hence, (α - ε, α + ε) contains infinite no. of terms of sequence
∴ α is limit point of sequence {a n } Proved
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Remark: A real no. is a limit point of sequence ⇔ it appears in the sequence

infinite many times or it is the limit point of the range set.

Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem

Theorem: Every bounded sequence has a limit point.

Proof: Let (a n) be a bounded sequence.
Let S = {an : n ∈ N} be its range.
Since the sequence is bounded, therefore, its range S is also bounded.
Case I. Let S be a finite set.
Then there must exist at least one element α ∈ S such that
an = α for an infinite number of values of n.
For any ε > 0, the nbd. (α - ε, α + ε ) of α, contains a n = α, for an infinite number
of values of n. Therefore, α is a limit point of (a n ).
Case II. Let S be an infinite set.

The range S being an infinite bounded set has a limit point, say p, So each nbd
(p - ε, p + ε) of p contains an infinite number of elements of S
i.e., an ∈ (p - ε, p + ε) for an infinite number of values of n.
Hence p is a limit point of <a n>.
Remark
An unbounded sequence may or may not have a limit point.
Counter example, Since a n = n is an unbounded sequence with no limit point
and an = 1, if n is even; a n = n, if n is odd is an unbounded sequence with a limit
point 1.

Limit of a Sequence

Definition
A sequence <an> is said to have a limit 'l' if for sufficiently large values of n, |
an - l I can be made as small as we please.
l is the limit of a sequence, if for given ε > 0 ∃ no ∈ N s.t.
I an - I I < ε, ∀ n > no
or lim a n = I

Some Important Limits

• (1 + 1/n)n = e
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• n1/n = 1,

• 1/np = 0, when p > 0 and p ∈ R

• rn = 0, when I r I < 1 and r ∈ R

• r1/n = 1, when r > 0 and r ∈ R

Example 1: Let an = 1/n, and let us show that lim a n = 0.

Solution: Given an ε > 0, let us choose a N such that 1/N < ε.
Now, if n ≥ N, then we have

which is exactly what we needed to show to conclude that lim a n = 0.

Example 2: Let an = (2n + 1)/(1 - 3n), and let L = -2/3. Let us show that L =
lim an.
Solution: Indeed, if ε > 0 is given, we must find a N, such that if n ≥ N then lan +
(2/3)l < ε.
Let us examine the quantity la n + 2/3I. Maybe we can make some estimates on
it, in such a way that it becomes clear how to find the natural number N.

≤ 5/6n
≤ 1/n,
for all n ≥ 1. Therefore, if N is an integer for which N > 1/ε, then
lan + 2/3I < 1/n ≤ 1/N < ε,
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whenever n ≥ N, as desired.

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