Group profile

Serial Name Merit Id Assignment

no Topic
1 Md. Samiun 290 B220201 The Real
Bashir 013 Number
Prodhan System

2 Jannatul 311 B220201 Mathemetics

Fardous 014 Of Finance
Muna

3 Md. Nayem 313 B220201 The Theory

Uddin 015 Of Sets

4 Syeda Tahsin 317 B220201 Indices And

Tasnim 016 Logarithms

5 Sayem 324 B220201 Trigonometr

Ahmed 017 y

6 Md. Rasel 328 B220201 Binomial

Mia 018 theorem

7 Nasim Sarkar 331 B220201 Equation

019
8 Israt Jahan 334 B220201 Mathematica
Ahona 020 l Induction,
Series And
Sequences
Name Sayem Ahmed

Merit 324

Id B220201017

Assignment chapter Trigonometry

Page
 Trigonometry

Introduction:

Trigonometry is one of the most important branches in mathematics that finds application in
diverse fields. The branch called “Trigonometry” basically deals with the study of the
relationship between the sides and angles of the right-angle triangle. The discipline
encompasses a variety of functions, including sine, cosine, and tangent, which relate the
angles of a right-angled triangle to the ratios of its sides. It is derived from the Greek words
"trigonon" (meaning triangle) and "metron" (meaning measure), trigonometry provides a
framework for understanding the geometric and numerical properties of triangles.

Its origins can be traced to the ancient Greeks, particularly to the mathematician Hipparchus,
who is often called the "father of trigonometry."

Trigonometry's history spans ancient civilizations like Babylon and Egypt, where early tables
and geometric applications emerged. The Greeks, notably Hipparchus and Ptolemy,
developed the first systematic trigonometric tables, which related the lengths of chords in a
circle to corresponding angles. However, it's essential to note that trigonometric concepts
were also independently developed in other cultures, such as ancient India and Babylonia.

Trigonometry further evolved in Europe during the Renaissance. Notable figures like Johann
Müller (Regiomontanus) and François Viète made advancements, but the subject truly
flourished with the work of Johannes Kepler and, later, Isaac Newton and James Gregory,
who developed trigonometric series.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, trigonometry became a crucial tool in mathematical analysis
and engineering. French mathematician Joseph Fourier's work on representing functions as
trigonometric series had a profound impact, laying the foundation for Fourier analysis.

Today, trigonometry plays a fundamental role in various fields, including physics,

engineering, computer science, and astronomy. Its historical journey reflects the collaborative
efforts of scholars from diverse cultures and periods, shaping the subject into the
indispensable tool it is today.
At its core, trigonometry is closely tied to the concept of a right-angled triangle. In such a
triangle, one angle is precisely 90 degrees, and the sides opposite the other two angles are
referred to as the opposite and adjacent sides. The ratio of these sides gives rise to the
primary trigonometric functions: sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan). For a given angle
in a right-angled triangle, sin is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the hypotenuse,
cos is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse, and tan is the ratio of the
length of the opposite side to the adjacent side.

One of the key tools in trigonometry is the unit circle, a circle with a radius of 1 centered at
the origin of a coordinate system. Angles in standard position, measured counterclockwise
from the positive x-axis, can be represented by points on this circle. The coordinates of these
points correspond to the values of sin and cos for the associated angle. The unit circle
provides a geometric interpretation of trigonometric functions and is a fundamental concept
in trigonometric theory. In trigonometry, the angles can be either measured in degrees or
radians. Some of the most commonly used trigonometric angles for calculations are 0°, 30°,
45°, 60° and 90°.

Trigonometry is further classified into two sub-branches. The two different types of
trigonometry are:

 Plane Trigonometry
 Spherical Trigonometry

In summary, trigonometry is a versatile and indispensable branch of mathematics. Its

principles, rooted in the study of triangles and angles, have far-reaching applications in
diverse fields. From its foundational role in geometry to its crucial applications in physics,
engineering, and calculus, trigonometry provides a powerful set of tools for understanding the
mathematical underpinnings of the world around us.
 Circular functions:

Circular functions, also known as trigonometric functions, are a set of functions that relate
an angle of a right triangle to ratios of two side lengths. They are widely used in mathematics,
science, and engineering.

The six most common circular functions are sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant, and
cotangent. These functions can be defined using the unit circle, which is a circle with a radius
of 1 unit.

 Sine Function (sin θ): In a right-angled triangle, the sine of an angle is the ratio of
the length of the side opposite the angle to the length of the hypotenuse. In the unit
circle, if a point P(x, y) is on the circle and forms an angle θ with the positive x-axis,
then sin θ is the y-coordinate of the point.

 Cosine Function (cos θ): In a right-angled triangle, the cosine of an angle is the ratio
of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse. In the unit circle, if a
point P(x, y) is on the circle and forms an angle θ with the positive x-axis, then cos θ
is the x-coordinate of the point.

 Tangent Function (tan θ): In a right-angled triangle, the tangent of an angle is the
ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle to the length of the adjacent side.

 Cotangent Function (cot θ): The cotangent of an angle is the reciprocal of the
tangent. It is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the side
opposite the angle.
  Secant Function (sec θ): The secant of an angle is the reciprocal of the cosine. It is
the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the adjacent side.

 Cosecant Function (cosec θ): The cosecant of an angle is the reciprocal of the sine. It
is the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the side opposite the angle.

The trigonometric functions are most simply defined using the unit circle. The circle below is
drawn in a coordinate system where the circle's center is at the origin and has a radius of 1.
This circle is known as a unit circle.

The x and y coordinates for each point along the circle may be ascertained by reading off the
values on the x and y axes. If you picture a right triangle with one side along the x-axis:
Then the cosine of the angle would be the x-coordinate and the sine of the angle would be the
y-coordinate. Since both the coordinates are defined by using a unit circle, they are often
called circular functions.

Question #1:
What is the cosine of 4π3?

Answer:

We know that the x-coordinates of a point on the unit circle represent cosine. Locate 4π3

, which is equivalent to 240° at the coordinate (−12,−3√2). The x-coordinate of the point is

−12 and the cosine of 4π3.

Question #2:

What is the value of tan 5π4? Use the Unit Circle.

Answer:
The tangent function is found by dividing the y-value by the x-value.
−2√2÷−2√2=1

, so tan 5π4=1

Question #3:

The sin Ɵ=12, where 0° < Ɵ < 90°. What is the value of Ɵ in radians?

Answer:

Since we are told that the value of Ɵ is in the first quadrant and we know that the y-
coordinate of a point on the unit circle represents sine, we can look for a point on the unit
circle where the y-coordinate is 12. The only point in the first quadrant with y-coordinate 12 is
the point that represents angle 30° which is π6 in radians.

Right-angled triangle definitions:

A right-angled triangle is a type of triangle that has one of its angles equal to 90 degrees. The
other two angles sum up to 90 degrees. The sides that include the right angle are
perpendicular and the base of the triangle. The third side is called the hypotenuse, which is
the longest side of all three sides.

The three sides of the right triangle are related to each other. This relationship is explained by
Pythagoras theorem. According to this theorem, in a right triangle,
Hypotenuse2 = Perpendicular2 + Base2

See the figure below to understand better.

The area of the biggest square is equal to the sum of the square of the two other small square
areas. We can generate the Pythagoras theorem as the square of the length of the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the length of squares of base and height.
Shape of Right Triangle

A right triangle is a three-sided closed shape that has one perpendicular side called the leg or
height of the triangle.

Right Angle Triangle Properties

Measurement of Angles:

An angle is a shape in geometry that is formed when two rays are joined together at a single
point. The point where two rays meet is called the vertex of the angle and two rays are called the
arms of the angle. There are different types of angles based on their measures, such as:

 Acute Angle: Formed between 0° to 90.

 Obtuse Angle: Formed between 90° to 180°
 Right Angle: The angle which is exactly equal to 90°
 Straight Angle: The angle which is exactly equal to 180°
 Reflex Angle: The angle which is greater than 180 degrees and less than 360 degrees
 Full Rotation: The complete rotation of angle equal to 360 degrees

Measurement of angles

There are three systems for measured of angles- Sexagesimal, Centesimal, and Circular.
Sexagesimal System: The most common unit of measurement of an angle is the degree. The
system of measuring angles in degrees, minutes, and seconds is called Degree Measure or
Sexagesimal System.

This is the most common system, and it divides a full circle into 360 degrees (°). Each degree is
further divided into 60 minutes ('), and each minute is divided into 60 seconds ("). This system is
based on the ancient Babylonian system of measurement.

We denote the degrees, minutes and seconds by the symbol (°), (ʹ) and (ʺ) respectively.

Thus, we have,

1 right angle = 90 degrees (90°)

1 degree = 60 minutes (60ʹ)

1 minute = 60 seconds (60ʺ)

So, 45° 50ʹ 55ʺ means 45 degrees, 50 minutes, and 55 seconds.

Worked Out Examples

Example 1: Convert into sexagesimal seconds 45° 35ʹ 25ʺ.

Solution: Here,

45° 35ʹ 25ʺ = (45×60×60 + 35×60 + 25)ʺ

 = (162000 + 2100 + 25)ʺ

= 164125ʺ Ans.

Example 2: Express 60.1532° into degrees, minutes, and seconds.

Solution: Here,

60.1532° = 60° (0.1532×60)ʹ

= 60° 9.192ʹ

= 60° 9ʹ (0.192×60)ʺ

= 60° 9ʹ 11.52ʺ Ans.

Centesimal system: The centesimal system of angle measurement of the French System
measures angles in grades. In the Centesimal system of angle measurement, the right angle is
split into 100 equally divided parts known as Grades. Each grade is split in 100 minutes and
every single minute in 100 seconds.

1 right angle = 100g (100 grades)

1 grade = 100” (100 minutes)

1 minute = 100’ (100 seconds)

This measurement system is more convenient to use than the sexagesimal system.

Minutes and seconds are different in the Sexagesimal centesimal system of angle measurement.

Right Angle = 90 × 60 = 5400 sexagesimal minutes = (5400)’

And Right Angle = 100 × 100 = 10000 Centesimal minutes = (10000)’
Circular system: This system measures angles in radians (rad). A radian is defined as the
central angle of a circle that cuts off an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle. One full
circle is equal to 2π radians. This system is based on the circumference of a circle, and it is the
most common system used in mathematics and physics.

Important Conversions: If D is the number of degrees, R is the number of radians, and G is the
number of grades in angle θ, then

5. θ = 1/r, where θ = angle subtended by an arc of length 1 at the centre of the circle.

Some of the standard radian to degree conversions is given below:

 π/6 Radian = 30°

 π/4 Radian = 45°
 π/3 Radian = 60°
 π/2 Radian = 90°
 2π/3 Radian = 120°
 3π/4 Radian = 135°
 5π/6 Radian = 150°
 7π/6 Radian = 210°
 5π/4 Radian = 225°
 5π/3 Radian = 300°
Practice Problems

Illustration 1:

Write (3.25) o in D-M-S

Solution: 3o– 0.25 × 60’ = 3o15’

Illustration 2:

Write in (12.3456)g G- M- S

Solution: 12g-34-56

Illustration 3:

Convert 30o into radian.

Solution:

Illustration 4:

If the angles of a triangle are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3, then find the angles in degrees.

Solution:
Let the angles be x, 2x and 3x.

Then, x + 2x + 3x = 180° ….[∵ sum of the angles of a triangle = 180°]

∴ 6x = 180°

∴ x = 30°, 2x = 60° and 3x = 90°

Illustration 5:

Which of the following pairs of angles is not co-terminal?

(A) 330°, − 60°

(B) 405°, − 675°

(C) 1230°, − 930°

(D) 450°, − 630°

Solution:

Here, 405° − (− 675°) = 1080° = 3(360°),

1230° − (− 930°) = 2160° = 6(360°)
and 450° − (− 630°) = 1080° = 3(360°) are a multiple of 360°.

Hence, these angles are co-terminal.

Now, 330° − (− 60°) = 390° which is not a multiple of 360°.

So, these pair of angles is not co-terminal.

Illustration 6:

If the arcs of the same length of two circles subtend 75° and 140° at the centre, then the ratio of
the radii of the circles is _____.

Solution:
S1 = S2
∴ r1 × θ1 = r2 × θ2
∴ r1 [75π / 180] = r2 [140 π / 180] ∴ r1 / r2 = 140 / 75
∴ r1 / r2 = 28 / 15

Illustration 7:

The perimeter of a sector of a circle, of area 36π sq.cm., is 28 cm. What is the area of the sector?

Solution:

Area of circle = πr2 = 36π sq.cm

∴ r = 6 cm
Now, the perimeter of sector = 2r + S
But, the perimeter is given to be 28 cm.
∴ 28 = 12 + S
∴ S = 16 cm
Thus, the area of sector = (1/2) × r × S = (1/2) × 6 × 16 = 48 sq.cm

Trigonometric Ratios:

Trigonometric Ratios are defined as the values of all the trigonometric functions based on the
value of the ratio of sides in a right-angled triangle. The ratios of sides of a right-angled triangle
with respect to any of its acute angles are known as the trigonometric ratios of that particular
angle.

The three sides of the right triangle are:

 Hypotenuse (the longest side)

 Perpendicular (opposite side to the angle)
 Base (Adjacent side to the angle)
The trigonometry ratios for a specific angle ‘θ’ are given below:

Trigonometric Ratios
Sin θ Opposite Side to θ/Hypotenuse

Cos θ Adjacent Side to θ/Hypotenuse

Tan θ Opposite Side/Adjacent Side & Sin θ/Cos θ

Cot θ Adjacent Side/Opposite Side & 1/tan θ

Sec θ Hypotenuse/Adjacent Side & 1/cos θ

Cosec θ Hypotenuse/Opposite Side & 1/sin θ

 How to Find Trigonometric Ratios?

Consider a right-angled triangle, right-angled at B.

With respect to ∠C, the ratios of trigonometry are given as:

 Sine: Sine of an angle is defined as the ratio of the side opposite (perpendicular side) to
that angle to the hypotenuse.
  Cosine: Cosine of an angle is defined as the ratio of the side adjacent to that angle to the
hypotenuse.
 Tangent: Tangent of an angle is defined as the ratio of the side opposite to that angle to
the side adjacent to that angle.
 Cosecant: Cosecant is a multiplicative inverse of sine.
 Secant: Secant is a multiplicative inverse of cosine.
 Cotangent: Cotangent is the multiplicative inverse of the tangent.

The above ratios are abbreviated as sin, cos, tan, cosec, sec and tan respectively in the order they
are described. So, for Δ ABC, the ratios are defined as:

sin C = (Side opposite to ∠C)/(Hypotenuse) = AB/AC

cos C = (Side adjacent to ∠C)/(Hypotenuse) = BC/AC

tan C = (Side opposite to ∠C)/(Side adjacent to ∠C) = AB/BC = sin ∠C/cos ∠C

cosec C= 1/sin C = (Hypotenuse)/ (Side Opposite to ∠C) = AC/AB

sec C = 1/cos C = (Hypotenuse)/ (Side Opposite to ∠C) = AC/BC

Cot C = 1/tan C = (Side adjacent to ∠C)/(Side opposite to ∠C) = BC/AB

In right Δ ABC, if ∠A and ∠C are assumed as 30° and 60°, then there can be infinite right
triangles with those specifications but all the ratios written above for ∠C in all of those triangles
will be same. So, all the ratios for any of the acute angles (either ∠A or ∠C) will be the same for
every right triangle. This means that the ratios are independent of lengths of sides of the triangle.

Trigonometric Ratios Table

The trigonometric ratios for some specific angles such as 0 °, 30 °, 45 °, 60 ° and 90° are given
below, which are commonly used in mathematical calculations.
Angl 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
e
Sin 0 1/2 1/√2 √3/ 1
C 2
Cos 1 √3/2 1/√2 1/2 0
C
Tan 0 1/√3 1 √3 ∞
C
Cot ∞ √3 1 1/ 0
C √3
Sec 1 2/√3 √2 2 ∞
C
Cose ∞ 2 √2 2/ 1
cC √3

From this table, we can find the value for the trigonometric ratios for these angles. Examples are:

 Sin 30° = ½
 Cos 90° = 0
 Tan 45° = 1

Practice Problems:

Q.1: If in a right-angled triangle ABC, right-angled at B, hypotenuse AC = 5cm, base BC = 3cm

and perpendicular AB = 4cm and if ∠ACB = θ, then find tan θ, sin θ and cos θ.

Sol: Given,

In ∆ABC,

Hypotenuse, AC = 5cm
Base, BC = 3cm

Perpendicular, AB = 4cm

Then,

tan θ = Perpendicular/Base = 4/3

Sin θ = Perpendicular/Hypotenuse = AB/AC = ⅘

Cos θ = Base/Hypotenuse = BC/AC = ⅗

Q.2: Find the value of tan θ if sin θ = 12/5 and cos θ = ⅗.

Sol: Given, sin θ = 12/5 and cos θ = ⅗

As we know,

Tan θ = Sin θ/Cos θ

Tan θ = (12/5)/(⅗)

Tan θ = 12/3

Tan θ = 4

Trigonometric Ratios of Standard Angles:

Trigonometric ratios are Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent, Secant and Cosecant. The standard
angles for these trigonometric ratios are 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°. These angles can also be
represented in the form of radians such as 0, π/6, π/4, π/3, and π/2. These angles are most
commonly and frequently used in trigonometry. Learning the values of these trigonometry angles
is very necessary to solve various problems.

Trigonometric Ratios Formulas:

The six trigonometric ratios are basically expressed in terms of the right-angled triangle.

ratios for ∠C are defined as:

∆ABC is a right-angled triangle, right-angled at B (shown in figure 1). The six trigonometric
The standard angles for which trigonometric ratios can be easily determined are

The values are determined using properties of triangles. The two acute angles of a right-angled
triangle are complementary.

Solved Examples
Question 1: What is the value of tan 30+sin 60?

Solution: tan 30 = 1/√3 and sin 60 = √3/2

Adding both the values we get;

1/√3 + √3/2

Rationalising the denominator gives:

(2+√3.√3)/2√3

2+3/2√3

5/2√3

Question 2: What is the value of sin45 – cos 45?

Solution: Sin 45 = 1/√2 and cos 45 = 1/√2

Therefore, on putting the values we get:

1/√2 – 1/√2 = 0

Trigonometric Relations

Relations between trigonometric functions are the ways that different trigonometric functions are
connected to each other. For example, the sine and cosine functions are related by the
Pythagorean identity: $$\sin^2 \theta + \cos^2 \theta = 1$$

There are many other relations between trigonometric functions, such as:
  Negative angle formulas: These formulas show how the trigonometric functions of a
negative angle are related to the functions of the corresponding positive angle. For
example, $$\sin(-\theta) = -\sin \theta$$
 Expression in terms of other functions: These formulas show how to write one
trigonometric function in terms of another. For example, $$\tan \theta = \frac{\sin \theta}
{\cos \theta}$$
 Series expansions: These formulas show how to approximate a trigonometric function
using an infinite series of powers of the angle. For example, $$\sin \theta \approx \theta
- \frac{\theta^3}{3!} + \frac{\theta^5}{5!} - \frac{\theta^7}{7!} + \cdots$$
 Sum and difference formulas: These formulas show how to find the trigonometric
functions of the sum or difference of two angles. For example, $$\sin(\alpha + \beta) = \
sin \alpha \cos \beta + \cos \alpha \sin \beta$$
 Half and multiple angle formulas: These formulas show how to find the trigonometric
functions of half or multiple of an angle. For example, $$\sin 2\theta = 2 \sin \theta \cos \
theta$$
 Powers of trigonometric functions: These formulas show how to express powers of
trigonometric functions in terms of lower powers. For example, $$\sin^4 \theta = \frac{3}
{8} - \frac{1}{2} \cos 2\theta + \frac{1}{8} \cos 4\theta$$
 Combination of trigonometric functions: These formulas show how to simplify
expressions involving products or sums of trigonometric functions. For example, $$\sin \
theta \cos \theta = \frac{1}{2} \sin 2\theta$$

Reciprocal Relationship

As the name suggests, these relations involve two trigonometric ratios which are connected by
inverse relations between them. For example,

 sin θ = 1/ cosec θ or sin θ x cosec θ = 1

 cos θ = 1/ sec θ or cos θ x sec θ = 1
 tan θ = 1/cot θ or tan θ x cot θ = 1
Quotient Relations

Again, as the name suggests, quotient relations involve three trigonometric ratios; where one is
the quotient obtained after division operation between the other two. For example,

 tan θ = sin θ /cos θ

 cot θ = cos θ / sin θ

Pythagoras Theorem:

Pythagoras Theorem (also called Pythagorean Theorem) is an important topic in Mathematics,

which explains the relation between the sides of a right-angled triangle. The sides of the right
triangle are also called Pythagorean triples. The formula and proof of this theorem are explained
here with examples.

Pythagoras theorem is basically used to find the length of an unknown side and the angle of a
triangle. By this theorem, we can derive the base, perpendicular and hypotenuse formulas.

Pythagoras theorem states that “In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse side
is equal to the sum of squares of the other two sides“. The sides of this triangle have been
named Perpendicular, Base and Hypotenuse. Here, the hypotenuse is the longest side, as it is
opposite to the angle 90°. The sides of a right triangle (say a, b and c) which have positive
integer values, when squared, are put into an equation, also called a Pythagorean triple.

Trigonometric Identity 1

 (sin2 θ) + (cos2 θ) = 1
For any right-angled triangle, let ABC be our right angle triangle. If angle C is at 90 degrees then
AB will be the hypotenuse. Assume AC is base and BC is perpendicular. According to
Pythagorean theorem for any right angle triangle:

Pythagoras Theorem

(Hypotenuse) 2= (Base) 2 + (Perpendicular) 2

(AB) 2= (AC) 2+ (BC)2

Step 1: Consider a right angle triangle ABC, let angle C is of 90.

Step 2: According to Pythagoras Theorem,

(AB) 2= (AC) 2+ (BC) 2 let be equation (1)

Dividing equation 1 by square of AB on both the sides,

(AB) 2/ (AB) 2= (AC) 2/ (AB)2+ (BC) 2/ (AB)2

=> 1= (AC) 2/ (AB)2+ (BC) 2/ (AB)2

Step 3: Now, sin θ =Perpendicular/ Hypotenuse= (AC) /(AB)

cos θ= Base/ Hypotenuse= (BC) / (AB)

Substituting the values,

1= sin2θ + cos2θ
Trigonometric Identity 2

 1+ tan2 θ = sec2 θ

Derivation

Step 1: Divide the equation 1 by (AC) 2 we get,

(AB) 2= (AC) 2+ (BC) 2

(AB) 2/ (AC) 2= (AC) 2/(AC)2+ (BC) 2/ (AC)2

Step 2: Now,

Secθ = Hypotenuse/Base

tanθ= Perpendicular/Base

Substituting the values we get,

1+ tan2 θ = sec2 θ

Trigonometric Identity 3

 1+ cot2 θ = cosec2 θ

The above relation can also be derived in the same way by dividing the Pythagorean equation,

(AB) 2= (AC) 2+ (BC) 2

this time divide the equation by (BC) 2 and substitute the values.

Identities do not only rule the world of algebra but also have a colony in the province of
Geometry as we have seen above. Trigonometric identities are very useful for Right Angle
triangles where you can calculate the value of its sides and angles in just minutes. Moreover,
these identities are also useful for practical life situations, for example, calculation of heights of
buildings that we have just calculated.

Practice Problems:

Q: For a right angle triangle ABC right angle at C for which angle BAC = θ and sinθ = 4/5 Find
the value of cosθ.

Solution: Using the identity, sin2θ + cos2θ = 1

Putting value of sin in the identity,

(4/5)^2 + cos2θ =1

cosθ =√1-(4/5)^2 = 3/5

Question- What are Trigonometric identities?

Answer- Trigonometric identities are quite beneficial for right angles triangles. In here, you can
calculate the value of its sides and angles within minutes. Furthermore, these identities are also
beneficial in practical life circumstances, for instance, calculating the height of a building and so
on.

Question- What are quotient relations?

Answer- As evident from the name, quotient relations comprise three trigonometric ratios. In
here, one is the quotient we get after division operation between the other two. For instance, tan
θ = sin θ /cos θ and cot θ = cos θ / sin θ.

Question- Who is the father of trigonometry?

Answer- Hipparchus is referred to as the father of trigonometry and was a Greek astronomer.
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the angles of sides of triangles. Moreover,
Hipparchus also created the first accurate star map.

Question- What are the laws of trigonometry?

Answer- The trigonometric laws of identity comprise these significant reciprocal equalities. The
tangent is the sine we divide by the cosine. The cotangent is equal to one over the tangent, or the
cosine we divide by the sine. The secant is equal to one over the cosine and the cosecant is equal
to one over the sine.
Pythagoras Theorem Proof:

Given: A right-angled triangle ABC, right-angled at B.

To Prove- AC2 = AB2 + BC2

Construction: Draw a perpendicular BD meeting AC at D.

Proof:

We know, △ADB ~ △ABC

Therefore,

(corresponding sides of similar triangles)

Or, AB2 = AD × AC ……………………………..……..(1)

Also, △BDC ~△ABC

Therefore,

(corresponding sides of similar triangles)

Or, BC2= CD × AC ……………………………………..(2)

Adding the equations (1) and (2) we get,

AB2 + BC2 = AD × AC + CD × AC

AB2 + BC2 = AC (AD + CD)

Since, AD + CD = AC

Therefore, AC2 = AB2 + BC2

Hence, the Pythagorean theorem is proved.

Note: Pythagorean theorem is only applicable to Right-Angled triangle.

Pythagorean Theorem Examples

Problem 1: The sides of a triangle are 5, 12 & 13 units. Check if it has a right angle or not.

Solution: From Pythagoras Theorem, we have;

Perpendicular2 + Base2 = Hypotenuse2

P 2 + B2 = H 2

Let,

Perpendicular (P) = 12 units

Base (B)= 5 units

Hypotenuse (H) = 13 units {since it is the longest side measure}

LHS = P2 + B2

⇒ 122 + 52
⇒ 144 + 25

⇒ 169

RHS = H2

⇒ 132

⇒ 169

⇒ 169 = 169

L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Therefore, the angle opposite to the 13 units side will be a right angle.

Problem 2: The two sides of a right-angled triangle are given as shown in the figure. Find the
third side.
Solution: Given;

Perpendicular = 15 cm

Base = b cm

Hypotenuse = 17 cm

As per the Pythagorean Theorem, we have;

Perpendicular2 + Base2 = Hypotenuse2

⇒152 + b2 = 172

⇒225 + b2 = 289

⇒b2 = 289 – 225

⇒b2 = 64

⇒b = √64

Therefore, b = 8 cm

Problem 3: Given the side of a square to be 4 cm. Find the length of the diagonal.

Solution- Given;

Sides of a square = 4 cm

To Find- The length of diagonal ac.

Consider triangle abc (or can also be acd)

(ab)2 +(bc)2 = (ac)2

(4)2 +(4)2= (ac)2

16 + 16 = (ac)2

32 = (ac)2

(ac)2 = 32

ac = 4√2.

Thus, the length of the diagonal is 4√2 cm.

Trigonometric functions of standard angles:

The standard angles in trigonometry are those whose measures are commonly used and have
special relationships with the trigonometric functions. These standard angles are usually
measured in degrees, and they include 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90°. Additionally, their equivalent
angles in radians are commonly used as well.

Here are the trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent) for
these standard angles:

 0 degrees (0°) or 0 radians:

o sin(0) = 0
o cos(0) = 1
o tan(0) = 0
o csc(0) = undefined (division by zero)
o sec(0) = 1
o cot(0) = undefined (division by zero)
 30 degrees (π/6 radians):
o sin(30°) = 1/2
 o cos(30°) = √3/2
o tan(30°) = √3/3
o csc(30°) = 2
o sec(30°) = 2/√3
o cot(30°) = √3
 45 degrees (π/4 radians):
o sin(45°) = √2/2
o cos(45°) = √2/2
o tan(45°) = 1
o csc(45°) = √2
o sec(45°) = √2
o cot(45°) = 1
 60 degrees (π/3 radians):
o sin(60°) = √3/2
o cos(60°) = 1/2
o tan(60°) = √3
o csc(60°) = 2/√3
o sec(60°) = 2
o cot(60°) = 1/√3
 90 degrees (π/2 radians):
o sin(90°) = 1
o cos(90°) = 0
o tan(90°) = undefined (division by zero)
o csc(90°) = 1
o sec(90°) = undefined (division by zero)
o cot(90°) = 0

These values are frequently used in trigonometric calculations and are important to understand in
various branches of mathematics and science. Keep in mind that the functions csc, sec, and cot
are reciprocals of sin, cos, and tan, respectively.
 Trigonometry Questions and Answers

1. From the given figure, find tan P – cot R.

Solution:

From the given,

PQ = 12 cm

PR = 13 cm

In the right triangle PQR, Q is right angle.

By Pythagoras theorem,

PR2 = PQ2 + QR2

QR2 = (13)2 – (12)2

= 169 – 144

= 25

QR = 5 cm

tan P = QR/PQ = 5/12

cot R = QR/PQ = 5/12

So, tan P – cot R = (5/12) – (5/12) = 0

2. Prove that (sin4θ – cos4θ +1) cosec2θ = 2

Solution:

L.H.S. = (sin4θ – cos4θ +1) cosec2θ

= [(sin2θ – cos2θ) (sin2θ + cos2θ) + 1] cosec2θ

Using the identity sin2A + cos2A = 1,

= (sin2θ – cos2θ + 1) cosec2θ

= [sin2θ – (1 – sin2θ) + 1] cosec2θ

= 2 sin2θ cosec2θ

= 2 sin2θ (1/sin2θ)

=2

= RHS

3. Prove that (√3 + 1) (3 – cot 30°) = tan360° – 2 sin 60°.

Solution:

LHS = (√3 + 1)(3 – cot 30°)

= (√3 + 1)(3 – √3)

= 3√3 – √3.√3 + 3 – √3

= 2√3 – 3 + 3

= 2√3

RHS = tan360° – 2 sin 60°

= (√3)3 – 2(√3/2)

= 3√3 – √3

= 2√3
Therefore, (√3 + 1) (3 – cot 30°) = tan360° – 2 sin 60°.

Hence proved.

4. If tan(A + B) = √3 and tan(A – B) = 1/√3 ; 0° < A + B ≤ 90°; A > B, find A and B.

Solution:

tan(A + B) = √3

tan(A + B) = tan 60°

A + B = 60°….(i)

And

tan(A – B) = 1/√3

tan(A – B) = tan 30°

A – B = 30°….(ii)

Adding (i) and (ii),

A + B + A – B = 60° + 30°

2A = 90°

A = 45°

Substituting A = 45° in (i),

45° + B = 60°

B = 60° – 45° = 15°

Therefore, A = 45° and B = 15°.

5. If sin 3A = cos (A – 26°), where 3A is an acute angle, find the value of A.

Solution:

Given,

sin 3A = cos(A – 26°); 3A is an acute angle

cos(90° – 3A) = cos(A – 26°) {since cos(90° – A) = sin A}

⇒ 90° – 3A = A – 26

⇒ 3A + A = 90° + 26°

⇒ 4A = 116°

⇒ A = 116°/4

⇒ A = 29°

6. If A, B and C are interior angles of a triangle ABC, show that sin (B + C/2) = cos A/2.

Solution:

We know that, for a given triangle, the sum of all the interior angles of a triangle is equal to 180°

A + B + C = 180° ….(1)

B + C = 180° – A

Dividing both sides of this equation by 2, we get;

⇒ (B + C)/2 = (180° – A)/2

⇒ (B + C)/2 = 90° – A/2

Take sin on both sides,

sin (B + C)/2 = sin (90° – A/2)

⇒ sin (B + C)/2 = cos A/2 {since sin(90° – x) = cos x}

7. If tan θ + sec θ = l, prove that sec θ = (l2 + 1)/2l.

Solution:

Given,

tan θ + sec θ = l….(i)

We know that,

sec2θ – tan2θ = 1
(sec θ – tan θ)(sec θ + tan θ) = 1

(sec θ – tan θ) l = 1 {from (i)}

sec θ – tan θ = 1/l….(ii)

Adding (i) and (ii),

tan θ + sec θ + sec θ – tan θ = l + (1/l)

2 sec θ = (l2 + 1)l

sec θ = (l2 + 1)/2l

Hence proved.

8. Prove that (cos A – sin A + 1)/ (cos A + sin A – 1) = cosec A + cot A, using the identity
cosec2A = 1 + cot2A.

Solution:

LHS = (cos A – sin A + 1)/ (cos A + sin A – 1)

Dividing the numerator and denominator by sin A, we get;

= (cot A – 1 + cosec A)/(cot A + 1 – cosec A)

Using the identity cosec2A = 1 + cot2A ⇒ cosec2A – cot2A = 1,

= [cot A – (cosec2A – cot2A) + cosec A]/ (cot A + 1 – cosec A)

= [(cosec A + cot A) – (cosec A – cot A)(cosec A + cot A)] / (cot A + 1 – cosec A)

= [(cosec A + cot A) (1 – cosec A + cot A)]/ (1 – cosec A + cot A)]

= cosec A + cot A

= RHS

Hence proved.

9. Prove that: (cosec A – sin A)(sec A – cos A) = 1/(tan A + cot A)

[Hint: Simplify LHS and RHS separately]

Solution:
LHS = (cosec A – sin A)(sec A – cos A)

= [(1/sin A) – sin A) [(1/cos A) – cos A]

= [(1 – sin2A)/ sin A] [(1 – cos2A)/ cos A]

Using the identity sin2A + cos2A = 1,

= (cos2A/sin A) (sin2A/cos A)

= cos A sin A….(i)

RHS = 1/(tan A + cot A)

= 1/[(sin A/cos A) + (cos A/sin A)]

= (sin A cos A)/ (sin2A + cos2A)

= (sin A cos A)/1

= sin A cos A….(ii)

From (i) and (ii),

LHS = RHS

i.e. (cosec A – sin A)(sec A – cos A) = 1/(tan A + cot A)

Hence proved.

10. If a sin θ + b cos θ = c, prove that a cosθ – b sinθ = √(a2 + b2 – c2).

Solution:

Given,

a sin θ + b cos θ = c

Squaring on both sides,

(a sin θ + b cos θ)2 = c2

a2 sin2θ + b2 cos2θ + 2ab sin θ cos θ = c2

Using the identity sin2A + cos2A = 1,

a2(1 – cos2θ) + b2(1 – sin2θ) + 2ab sin θ cos θ = c2

a2 – a2 cos2θ + b2 – b2 sin2θ + 2ab sin θ cos θ = c2

a2 + b2 – c2 = a2 cos2θ + b2 sin2θ – 2ab sin θ cos θ

a2 + b2 – c2 = (a cos θ – b sin θ )2

⇒ a cos θ – b sin θ = √(a2 + b2 – c2)

Hence proved.

10. Prove that

11. Prove that
12. If x sin 3θ + y cos3 θ = sin θ cos θ and x sin θ = y cos θ , then prove
that x2 + y2 = 1.

13. If a cos θ − b sin θ = c , then prove that (a sin θ + b cos θ) = ± √[a 2 +b2 −c2 ]

14. A bird is sitting on the top of a 80 m high tree. From a point on the ground, the
angle of elevation of the bird is 45° . The bird flies away horizontally in such away
that it remained at a constant height from the ground. After 2 seconds, the angle of
elevation of the bird from the same point is 30° . Determine the speed at which the
bird flies. (√3 = 1.732)
15. An aeroplane is flying parallel to the Earth’s surface at a speed of 175 m/sec
and at a height of 600 m. The angle of elevation of the aeroplane from a point on
the Earth’s surface is 37° at a given point. After what period of time does the angle
of elevation increase to 53° ? (tan 53° = 1.3270, tan 37° = 0. 7536)
16. A bird is flying from A towards B at an angle of 35° , a point 30 km away
from A. At B it changes its course of flight and heads towards C on a bearing
of 48° and distance 32 km away.

(i) How far is B to the North of A?

(ii) How far is B to the West of A?

(iii) How far is C to the North of B?

(iv) How far is C to the East of B?

(sin 55° = 0.8192, cos 55° = 0.5736, sin 42° = 0.6691, cos 42° = 0.7431)
17. Two ships are sailing in the sea on either side of the lighthouse. The angles of
depression of two ships as observed from the top of the lighthouse are 60° and
45° respectively. If the distance between the ships is 200 ( (√3+ 1) / √3) metres,
find the height of the lighthouse.
18. A building and a statue are in opposite side of a street from each other 35 m
apart. From a point on the roof of building the angle of elevation of the top of
statue is 24° and the angle of depression of base of the statue is 34° . Find the
height of the statue. (tan 24° = 0.4452, tan 34° = 0.6745)

19. Find the value of sin 60 – cos 30.

Solution:

The value of sin 60 = √3/2

Value of cos 30 = √3/2

Hence, sin 60 – cos 30 = √3/2 – √3/2 = 0

20: Evaluate the value of 3sin 30 + tan 45

Solution:

Value of sin 30 = 1/2

Value of tan 45 = 1

By putting the values we get;

=3(1/2)+1

=3/2+1

=5/2

21. If sin 3A = cos (A-26°), where 3A is an acute angle, find the value of A.

Solution:

Given that, sin 3A = cos (A-26°) ….(1)

Since, sin 3A = cos (90° – 3A), we can write (1) as:

cos(90°- 3A)= cos (A- 26°)

Since, 90°-3A = A – 26°

Therefore,

90° + 26° = 3A + A

4 A = 116°

A = 116° / 4 = 29°
Therefore, the value of A is 29°.

22. If α = 60° and β = 30°, prove that sin (α – β) = sin α cos β – cos α sin β.

Solution:

L.H.S. = sin (α – β)

= sin (60° – 30°)

= sin 30°

=½

R.H.S. = sin α cos β – cos α sin β

= sin 60° cos 30° – cos 60° sin 30°

= (√3/2)×(√3/2)−(1/2)×(1/2)

=¾–¼

= 2/4

=½

Hence, L.H.S. = R.H.S. (Proved)

23. If α = 30°, verify that 3 sin α – 4 sin3 α = sin 3α.

Solution:

L.H.S = 3 sin α – 4 sin3 α

= 3 sin 30° – 4. sin3 30°

= 3 ∙ (1/2) – 4 ∙ (1/2)3

= 3/2 – 4 ∙ 1/8

= 3/2 – ½

=1

R.H.S. = sin 3α
= sin 3 ∙ 30°

= sin 90°

=1

Hence, L.H.S. = R.H.S. (Proved)

The end

Thank you
Name Md. Nayem Uddin

Merit 313

Id B220201015

Assignment chapter The Theory Of Sets

Page
 Theory of sets
INTRODUCTION

The theory of sets is a foundational branch of mathematical logic that

deals with sets, which are collections of distinct elements. Introduced by
mathematician Georg Cantor, set theory provides a framework for
defining mathematical objects and relationships between them. Key
concepts include unions, intersections, subsets, and functions, with the
theory serving as the basis for much of modern mathematics. Cantor’s
work laid the groundwork for understanding the infinite, leading to the
development of various set-theoretic principles and axioms. theory is the
branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of objects.
Although any type of object can be collected into a set, set theory is
applied most often to objects that are relevant to mathematics.

The modern study of set theory was initiated by Cantor and Dedekind in
the 1870s. After the discovery of paradoxes in informal set theory,
numerous axiom systems were proposed in the early twentieth century, of
which the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms, with the axiom of choice, are the
best-known.

The language of set theory is used in the definitions of nearly all

mathematical objects, such as functions, and concepts of set theory are
integrated throughout the mathematics curriculum. Elementary facts
about sets and set membership can be introduced in primary school,
along with Venn diagrams, to study collections of commonplace
physical objects. Elementary operations such as set union and
intersection can be studied in this context. More advanced concepts
such as cardinality are a standard part of the undergraduate
mathematics curriculum.
Set theory, formalized using first-order logic, is the most common
foundational system for mathematics. Beyond its use as a foundational
system, set theory is a branch of mathematics in its own right, with an
active research community. Contemporary research into set theory
includes a diverse collection of topics, ranging from the structure of the
real number line to the study of the consistency of large cardinals.

Mathematical topics typically emerge and evolve through interactions

among many researchers. Set theory, however, was founded by a
single paper in 1874 by Georg Cantor: “On a Property of the Collection
of All Real Algebraic Numbers”.

Since the 5th century BC, beginning with Greek mathematician Zeno of
Elea in the West and early Indian mathematicians in the East,
mathematicians had struggled with the concept of infinity. Especially
notable is the work of Bernard Bolzano in the first half of the 19 th
century. Modern understanding of infinity began in 1867–71, with
Cantor’s work on number theory. An 1872 meeting between Cantor and
Richard Dedekind influenced Cantor’s thinking and culminated in
Cantor’s 1874 paper.

Cantor’s work initially polarized the mathematicians of his day. While

Karl Weierstrass and Dedekind supported Cantor, Leopold Kronecker,
seen as a founder of mathematical constructivism, Cantorian set theory
eventually became widespread, due to the utility of Cantorian concepts,
such as one-to-one correspondence among sets, his proof that there
are more real numbers than integers, and the “infinity of infinities”
(“Cantor’s paradise”) resultingfrom the power set operation. This utility
of set theory led to the article “Mengenlehre” contributed in 1898 by
Arthur Schoenflies to Klein’s encyclopedia.

The next wave of excitement in set theory came around 1900, when it
was discovered that Cantorian set theory gave rise to several
 contradictions, called antinomies or paradoxes. Bertrand Russell and
Ernst Zermelo independently found the simplest and best known
paradox, now called Russell’s paradox: consider “the set of all sets that
are not members of themselves”, which leads to a contradiction since it
must be a member of itself, and not a member of itself. In 1899 Cantor
had himself posed the question “What is the cardinal number of the set
of all sets?”, and obtained a related paradox. Russell used his paradox
as a theme in his 1903 review of continental mathematics in his The
Principles of Mathematics.

In 1906 English readers were treated to Theory of Sets of Points by

William Henry Young and his wife Grace Chisholm Young, published by
Cambridge University Press.

The momentum of set theory was such that debate on the paradoxes
did not lead to its abandonment. The work of Zermelo in 1908 and
Abraham Fraenkel in 1922 resulted in the set of axioms ZFC, which
became the most commonly used set of axioms for set theory. The
work of analysts such as Henri Lebesgue demonstrated the great
mathematical utility of set theory, which has since become woven into
the fabric of modern mathematics. Set theory is commonly used as a
foundational system, although in some areas category theory is thought
to be a preferred foundation.

ELEMENTS OF SET

The objects that’s makes up a set are called the members or elements of
a set.Itis almost a convention to indicate sets by capital letters like A,B,C,
or X,Y,Z while the elements in the set by smaller or lower case letters
sach as a,b,c or x,y,z .Noe to Indicate that a particular elements or objects
[ belongs to a set ] or [ a member ot the set ] we use to Greek symbol
capital cpsilon ₼.For example , if x is the member of a set A, we shall be
indicate it symbolically as :

X€A,i.e., is a member or an element of a set A

When we want to say that an object does not belong to a particular set ,
or is not a member of the set .

METHODS OF SETS

1. Tabular Method: In this method, all the elements of the set are
enclosed by set braces. For example,

( a) A set of vowels; A = {a, e, I, o, u}

( b) A set of even numbers; A = {2, 4, 6, ……}

( c) A set of first five letters of alphabet; A = {a, b, c, d, e}

(d) A set of odd numbers between 10 and 20; A = {11, 13, 15, 17, 19}
 2. Selector / Set-builder Notation Method: In this method,
elements of the set can be described on the basis of specific
characteristics of the elements. For example, let if x is the element
of a set, then the above four sets can be expressed in the following
way:

( a) A = {x | x is a vowel of English alphabet}

( b) A = {x | x is an even number}

( c) A = {x | x is a letter of the first five alphabet in English}

( d) A = {x | x is an odd number between 10 and 20}

In this case, the vertical line ―|‖ after x is to be read as ―such that]

TYPES OF SETS

1. NULL SET
In mathematical set s, the null set, also called the empty set, is the set
that does not contain anything. It is symbolized or { }. There is only
one null set. This is because there is logically only one way that a set
can contain nothing.

The null set makes it possible to explicitly define the results of

operations on certain sets that would otherwise not be explicitly
definable. The intersection of two disjoint sets (two sets that contain no
elements in common) is the null set. For example: {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …} {2,
4, 6, 8, 10, …} =

2. SINGLETON SET

A set having exactly one element , a singleton set is denoted by and is

the simplest example of a nonempty set.

3. FINITE SET

Finite sets are sets that have a finite number of members. If the
elements of a finite set arelisted one after another, the process will
eventually ―run out‖ of elements to list. Example:

A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, …, 100}
C = {x : x is an integer, 1 < x < 10}

4. INFINITE SET

An infinite set is a set which is not finite. It is not possible to explicitly list
out all the elements of an infinite set.

Example:

T = {x : x is a triangle}

N is the set of natural numbers

A is the set of fractions

5. EQUAL SETS:

Two sets are equal if they contain the same identical elements. If two
sets have only the same number of elements, then the two sets are
Oneto-One correspondence. Equal sets are One-to-One
correspondence but correspondence sets are not always equal sets.
Example:

Which of the following sets are equal and which ones are One-to-One
correspondences?

A = {a , f , j , q }

B = {1, 2 , 3, 5, 8}

C = {x, y,z, w}

D = {8, 1, 3, 5, 2}

Solution:

B and D are equal. They have identical elements.

A and C are One-to-One correspondence or matching sets. Each set

has 4 elements. They have the same number of elements but not the
same elements .
B and D are One-to-One correspondence and equal sets. They have
the same identical elements.

 EQUIVALENT SETS

If the elements of one set can be put into one to one correspondence
with the elements of another set, then the two sets are called
equivalent sets.

For

Example, Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

In this case, the elements of set A can be put into one to one
correspondence with those of set B. Hence the two sets are
equivalent. It is denoted by A ≡ B.

6. SUBSET
 A subset is a portion of a set. Is a subset of (written ) if every
member of is a member of . If is a proper subset of (i.e., a subset
other than the set itself), this is written . If is not a subset of , this is
written

. (The notation is generally not used,

Since automatically means that and cannot be the same.)

Some important results on subset 1. Every set is a subset of itself.

2.Every set has empty set as its subset.

3.Total number of subsets of a set having n elements is 2n.

PROPER SUBSET

Since every set A is a subset of itself, we call B is a proper subset of A

if B is a subset of A and B is not equal to A. If B is a proper subset of A,
It can be represented symbolically as B A. For example,
A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {a, c, b, d, c, a}, C = {a, c, d, a, d, a}

In this case, C ⊂ A and C ⊂ B, because the elements of C set are

included in the sets A and B, but the element ‘b’ in of A and B sets is
not element of C set.

7 .UNIVERSAL SET

In order to work with sets we need to definition a Universal Set, U ,

which contains all possible elements of any set we wish to consider.
The Universal Set is often obvious from context but on occasion needs
to be explicitly stated. The complement of the universal set is the empty
set.

For example, if we are counting objects, the Universal Set would be

whole numbers. If we are spelling words, the Universal Set would be
letters of the alphabet. If we are considering students enrolled in ASU
math classes this semester, the Universal Set could be all ASU
students enrolled this semester or it could be all ASU students enrolled
from 2000 to 2005. In this last case, the Universal Set is not so obvious
and should be clearly stated.

POWER SET

In mathematics, the power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S.

The cardinality of the power set of S given S is finite is equal to 2n,
where n is the cardinality of S.

The set of all the subsets of a given set A is called the power set of A.
We denote the power set of A by P(A). The power set is denoted by the
fact that ‗if A has n elements then its power set n. P(A) contains exactly
2

Elements‘.

For example, let A = {a, b, c} then its subset are {a}, {b}, {c},

{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,a} {a,b,c}, {Ø}

∴ P (A) = [{a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b), {b,c}, {c,a}, {a,b,c}, {Ø}]

VENN DIAGRAMS

Venn diagrams or set diagrams are diagrams that show all

hypothetically possible logical relations between finite collections of sets
(groups of things). Venn diagrams were conceived around 1880 by
John Venn. They are used in many fields, including set theory,
probability, logic, statistics and computer science.

Fig. 1 2

Denoting a set as an object

Where it is desirable to refer to a set as an indivisible entity, one

typically denotes it by a single capital letter. By convention, particular
symbols are reserved for the most important sets of numbers:

∅ – empty set .

C – complex numbers .

N – natural numbers .
Q – rational numbers (from quotient)

R – real numbers

Z – integers(from Zahl, German for integer).

OPERATIONS ON SETS

1 .UNION OF SETS

The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements, which are in

Aor in Bor in both. It is denoted by A∪B and is read ‗A union B‘

Example:

Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}

X = {1, 2, 6, 7} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 8}

Find X∪Y and draw a Venn diagram to illustrate X∪Y.

Solution:

X ∪ Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} ←1 is written only once.

2. INTERSECTION OF SETS.

The intersection of A and B is written “A ∩ B”.

Formally:

X is an element of A ∩ B if and only if x is an element of A and

X is an element of

B.For example:
 The intersection of the sets {1, 2, 3} and {2, 3, 4} is {2, 3}.

The number 9 is not in the intersection of

The set of prime numbers {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, …} and the set of odd

Numbers {1, 3, 5, 7, 9,

11, …}.

If the intersection of two sets A and B is empty, that is they have no

elements in common, then they are said to be disjoint, denoted: A ∩ B
= Ø. For example the sets {1, 2} and {3, 4} are disjoint, written {1, 2} ∩
{3, 4} = Ø.

3 .DISJOINT SETS

In mathematics two sets are said to be disjoint if they have no element

in common. For example, {1, 2, 3} and {4, 5, 6} are disjoint sets.

4 .DIFFERENCE OF SETS
For two sets A and B , A – B is the set of all those elements of A which
do not belong to B.

Similarly, B – A is the set of all those elements of B which do not belong

to A.

5.COMPLEMENT OF A SET

If U is the universal set and a set A is such that A U then complement

of the set A is defined as U – A and represented as A ‗ or A C.

ALGEBRIC LAWS IN SET

The power set of non-empty set U, set P(U), together with operations
union, intersection, difference and complement ( , , c) and their
characteristics is called algebra of sets. Let

A, B, C be subsets of universal set U.

Then follow the law of the algebra of sets:

1. Commutative Laws

A B=B A, A B=B A

2. Associative Laws

(A B) C=A (B C), (A B) C=A (B C)

3. Idempotent Laws
A A=A, A A=A

4. Distributive Laws

A (B C)=( B) (A C)

A ,

A (B C)=( B) ( C)

A A

5 . De Morgan Laws

A A U=U< BR> B)C B ( BC

, (A =AC C, A B)C=AC

We observe similarity in some laws of the set theory with the ordinary
algebraic laws of real numbers. If a, b, c are real numbers, we have
following laws of algebra of numbers:

A + b = b + a,

2. A × b = b × a,

A + ( b + c)= (a + b) + c

A × ( b × c) = ( a × b ) × c

5. A × (b + c) = a × b + a × c.

If addition (+) and multiplication (×) notations of algebra of real numbers

are replaced respectively by union ( ) and intersection (∩) notations of
the set theory and the real numbers a, b, c are also replaced by the
sets A, B, and C respectively, we obtain the following laws of algebra of
sets:

1. A B = B
 2. A ∩ B = B ∩ A

3. A (B C) = (A B) C

4. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

5. A ∩ (B C) = (A ∩ B) (A ∩ C).

But some laws of algebra of sets differ from algebra of real numbers.
For example, in ordinary algebra of real numbers, we have,

1. A + a = 2a,

2. A × a = a2. But in algebra of sets, we have, (i) A A = A, (ii) A

∩A = A.
In algebra of numbers, addition does not distribute across multiplication,
i.e., for three real numbers a, b and c, [a + (b × c)] ≠ (a + b) × (a + c).

But in algebra of sets, union distributes across intersection, i.e., for

three sets A, B and C we have A (B ∩ C) = (A B) ∩ (A C).

Solution:

LHS: Assume that the rectangular regions in Figs.-2, 3, 4 and 5

represent the universal set Uand its subsets A, B and C in each
diagram are represented by circular regions.

In Fig.-2, the set A has been shaded by horizontal straight lines and the
set (B ∩ C) has been shaded by vertical straight lines (i.e., the region
common to both the sets B and C). Then by definition, the cross
hatched region (i.e., the region where the horizontal and vertical lines
intersect) represents the set A ∩ (B ∩ C). The region representing this
set has been shaded separately by slanting lines in Fig. -3.
Fig. 2 Fig.3

RHS: In Fig.-4, the set (A ∩ B) has been shaded by horizontal lines

(i.e., the region commonto both the sets A and B) and the set C has
been shaded by vertical straight lines. Then by definition, the cross
hatched region (i.e., the region where the horizontal and vertical lines
intersect) represents the set (A ∩ B) ∩ C. The region representing this
set has been shaded separately by slanting lines in Fig:5

From Figs.-3 and 5, we see that the regions representing the sets [A ∩

(B ∩ C)] and [(A ∩ B) ∩ C] are identical. This verifies that A ∩ (B ∩ C) =

(A ∩ B) ∩ C.

Some example the basic ideas how to use the properties of union and
intersection of sets.
Solved basic word problems on sets:

1. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A) = 20, n(B) =
28 and n(A B) = 36, find n(A ∩ B).

Solution:

Using the formula n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B).

Then n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A B)

= 20 + 28 – 36

= 48 – 36

= 12
 If n(A – B) = 18, n(A B) = 70 and n(A ∩ B) = 25, then find n(B).

Solution:

Using the formula n(A B) = n(A – B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B – A)

70 = 18 + 25 + n(B – A)

70 = 43 + n(B – A)

N(B – A) = 70 – 43

N(B – A) = 27

Now n(B) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B – A)

= 25 + 27

= 52
Different types on word problems on sets:

3. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot

drinks and each person likes at least one of the two drinks.
How many like both coffee and tea? Solution:

Let A = Set of people who like cold drinks.

B = Set of people who like hot drinks.

Given

(A B) = 60 n(A) = 27 n(B) = 42 then;

N(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A B)

= 27 + 42 – 60
 = 69 – 60 = 9

=9

Therefore, 9 people like both tea and coffee.

4. There are 35 students in art class and 57 students in

dance class. Find the number of students who are either
in art class or in dance class.

 When two classes meet at different hours and 12

students are enrolled in both activities.

 When two classes meet at the same hour.

Solution:
N(A) = 35, n(B) = 57, n(A ∩ B) = 12

(Let A be the set of students in art class.

B be the set of students in dance class.)

1. When 2 classes meet at different hours n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)

– n(A ∩ B)

= 35 + 57 – 12

= 92 – 12

= 80

2. When two classes meet at the same hour, A∩B = ∅ n (A ∪ B) =

n(A)
+ n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

= n(A) + n(B)

= 35 + 57

= 92

Further concept to solve word problems on sets:

5. In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can speak English

and 43 can speak French. How many can speak English
only? How many can speak French only and how many can
speak both English and French?

Solution:
Let A be the set of people who speak English.

B be the set of people who speak French.

A - B be the set of people who speak English and not French.

B - A be the set of people who speak French and not English.

A ∩ B be the set of people who speak both French and English.

Given,

N(A) = 72 n(B) = 43 n(A ∪ B) = 100

Now, n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∪ B)

= 72 + 43 – 100

= 115 – 100

= 15
Therefore, Number of persons who speak both French and English =
15

N(A) = n(A – B) + n(A ∩ B)

⇒ n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A ∩ B)

= 72 – 15

= 57

And n(B – A) = n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

= 43 – 15

= 28
Therefore, Number of people speaking English only = 57

Number of people speaking French only = 28

Word problems on sets using the different properties (Union &

Intersection):

6. In a competition, a school awarded medals in different

categories. 36 medals in dance, 12 medals in dramatics and
18 medals in music. If these medals went to a total of 45
persons and only 4 persons got medals in all the three
categories, how many received medals in exactly two of
these categories? Solution:

Let A = set of persons who got medals in dance.

B = set of persons who got medals in dramatics.

C = set of persons who got medals in music.

Given, n(A) = 36 n(B) = 12 n(C) = 18 n(A B C) = 45 n(A ∩ B

∩ C) = 4

We know that number of elements belonging to exactly two of the three

sets A, B, C

= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) – 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩

C) + n(A ∩ C) – 3 × 4 ……..(i)

N(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C) +

n(A

∩ B ∩ C)

Therefore, n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A

∩

B ∩ C) – n(A B C)

From (i) required number

= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) – n(A B C) – 12

= 36 + 12 + 18 + 4 – 45 – 12

= 70 – 57 = 13

Apply set operations to solve the word problems on sets:

. Each student In a class of 40 plays at least one indoor game chess,

carrom and scrabble. 18 play chess, 20 play scrabble and 27 play
carrom. 7 play chess and scrabble, 12 play scrabble and carrom and 4
play chess, carrom and scrabble. Find the number of students who play
(i) chess and carrom. (ii) chess, carrom but not scrabble.

Solution:

Let A be the set of students who play chess

B be the set of students who play scrabble

C be the set of students who play carrom

Therefore, We are given n(A B C) = 40,

N(A) = 18, n(B) = 20 n(C) = 27,

N(A ∩ B) = 7, n(C ∩ B) = 12 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4

We have

N(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(C ∩ A) +

n(A

∩ B ∩ C)
Therefore, 40 = 18 + 20 + 27 – 7 – 12 – n(C ∩ A) + 4

40 = 69 – 19 – n(C ∩ A)

40 = 50 – n(C ∩ A) n(C ∩ A) = 50 – 40 n(C ∩ A) = 10

Therefore, Number of students who play chess and carrom are 10.

Also, number of students who play chess, carrom and not scrabble.

= n(C ∩ A) – n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

= 10 – 4

=6
Therefore, we learned how to solve different types of word problems on
sets without using Venn diagram.

The end

Thank you