N

Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
Ecology

ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
Culture and Cultural
Concept of culture
Culture as a way of life
 Behaviors, beliefs, meanings
 Material, mental, and social
products

s
ce
 Characteristics

n
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
 Shared and integrated
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n

 Learned (not “human nature”)

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

 Symbolic and relative

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

 Adaptive and dynamic

 Ethnocentrism vs. cultural
relativism, critical cultural
relativism
 E.B. Tylor
 Culture or civilization, taken in its wide
ethnographic sense, is that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired my man
as a member of society. (E. B. Tylor
1871)

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
Clifford Geertz
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S

 Culture is the framework of beliefs,

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie

expressive symbols, and values in terms of

an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

which individuals define their feelings and

Pr ol EL

make their judgements” (Clifford Geertz.

Ec PT
N

‘Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese

Example’ American Anthropologist 59:32-
54).
Culture of a people can be understood as the
system of shared ideas and meanings, explicit
and implicit, which a people use to interpret the
world and which serve to pattern their
behavior.
 Cultural Ecology
 Ecology  cultural ecology
 Humans in interaction with
their environment

s
ce
 Adaptive strategies  culture as

n
at cie
ah l S
i
dynamic process uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n

 environmental setting
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

 technology (tools,
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

techniques, knowledge)
 Worldview
 external forces and
institutions
 
N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
economics
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie

people produce things

i n
Cultural ecology and

ce
s

that are important for how

residence are emic, parts of
cultural codes—ideologies—
Land use, land tenure, kinship,
 With a given technology in a
given environment, people have
to do some things a certain way
or not at all. That explains
cultural similarities.

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n

 People face different problems in

tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge

different environments and with

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

different technologies and that

Pr ol EL
Ec PT

explains cultural differences.

N
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
Thus…
 An increase in size of the
society results in increase in
structure, which in turn
produces differences in power

s
cen
and roles of the members.
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

Different members or groups

gy S


itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge

of members also start to play

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

different, specialized roles.

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
And as a result…
There is a movement from a military
to an industrial society.
 At the beginning, society is
characterized by the compulsory
cooperation of its members – the
military society.

s
cen
at cie
The industrial society is
ah l S

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

characterized by the voluntary

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n

cooperation of its members.

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

The highest order is called the

D of. ogy On


Pr ol EL

Ethical State, where common

Ec PT
N

resources may be used to perfect

the human character.
 The structural parts of society (ex.
families, work) function
interdependently to help society
function. Therefore, social
structures work together to
preserve society.
Production
 This quest to meet basic needs is
central to understanding social life—
and is as true today as it was in
prehistory.
 The quest to meet basic needs were
man’s primary goals at the dawn of
the race and are still central when

s
cen
at cie
attempts are made to analyze the
ah l S
i
uw ia
complexities of modern life.
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a

 When basic needs have been met,

In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e

this leads to the creation of new

In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL

needs. Man (and woman) is a

Ec PT
N

perpetually dissatisfied animal. Man’s

struggle against nature does not
cease when basic needs are gratified.
 This, perhaps is the main reason for the
ecological crisis we witness today – as
a result of industrialisation / capitalism
(Production of goods and services to a
wide range of consumers)
 As discussed, ecology is the study of
the interaction between living things
and their environment.
 Cultural ecologists record other
traditional and local knowledge that
is of value to the wider world.
 Cultural ecology is generally

s
ce
included within the discipline of

n
at cie
ah l S
anthropology, the study of human
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

beings.
lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip

• Anthropology includes the study of

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

human biology, language,

Pr ol EL
Ec PT

prehistory, religion, social structure,

N

economics, evolution, and anything

else that applies to people.
• Anthropologists generally concentrate
their work on small-scale cultures and
tend to have considerable personal
contact with the people of those
cultures.
 Anthropologists traditionally hold
a set of basic beliefs in their study
of other cultures. First, it is
recognized that all cultures are at
least a bit ethnocentric— that
people believe their culture is
superior to others (although many

s
cen
at cie
envy the more rich or powerful).
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S

 For example; Americans tend to

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

view non-Americans as being

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

inferior, less cultured, or

Pr ol EL
Ec PT

backward. Germans have the

N

same view of non-Germans, as do

the Chinese of non-Chinese.
 A basic conviction in
anthropology is cultural relativism,
that cultures and cultural
practices should not be judged
Cultural Ecological Theory
A theory is simply a world view -
- a framework for
understanding your world and
organizing observations. Points

s
ce
at what to look for.

n
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n

 Itattempts to account for

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

sociocultural:
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT

– origins
N

– maintenance
– change
Sociocultural Materialism

 This
section will examine
society through the prism of
sociocultural materialism

s
cen
at cie
 Sociocultural materialism is a ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

theory of sociocultural systems.

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e

It is a variant of Marvin Harris’s

In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL

cultural Materialism.
Ec PT
N
 Assumptions
 The various parts of society are
interrelated. When one part of
society changes, other parts
must also change.

s
cen
at cie
 For example, an institution,
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

such as the family cannot be

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge

looked at in isolation from the

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

economic, political, or religious

Pr ol EL
Ec PT

institutions of a society.
N

 When one part changes it has

an effect on other parts of the
system.
 Assumptions
 Environmental base to human
societies

s
 Viewing society as a system of

cen
at cie
ah l S
interrelated parts is at the core
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S

of most social theory.

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

Difference is in terms of
te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

organizing principles.
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

 The way a society is organized

to meet the needs of its
population determines the rest
of the system.
Environmental constraints
Chief among these constraints is
the availability of natural resources.
A further constraining factor is the
amount of pollution created by
society. While man can modify these
constraints, they cannot be

s
cen
at cie
escaped.
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

Infrastructure
te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

The principal interface between a

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

socio-cultural system and its

environment.
• It is through the infrastructure that
society manipulates its environment
by modifying the amount and type
of resources needed.
 Conti. Infrastructure
 Consists of two parts, the mode
of production and
reproduction.

s
 The modes of production and

cen
at cie
ah l S
reproduction are attempts to
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

strike a balance between

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip

population and the

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

consumption of energy from a

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

finite environment.
 N

 Consists
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C

subsistence.
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a

environmental
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
– Technological-
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
satisfying requirements for

– Technology of subsistence
Mode of production
of behaviors aimed at

relationships
Modes of production
through History
 The mode of production is the
way most anthropologists and
sociologists classify society.

s
ce
 This is because it is generally

n
at cie
recognized as one of the most ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

powerful determinants of the

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e

rest of the sociocultural system

In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL

- Hunting and Gathering

Ec PT
N

- Horticulture
- Pastoral
- Agrarian
- Industrial
 Cont.
 Consisting of behaviors aimed
at controlling destructive
increases or decreases in
population size. Suppose we are

s
cen
a hunting and gathering society
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
and we are running out of food.
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge

 What can we do? It is upon this

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

environmental infrastructural
Pr ol EL
Ec PT

foundation that the remaining

N

parts of the social system are

based
 N

 Mating
Ec PT
Pr ol EL

 Medicine
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin

infanticide
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
 Demography

itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
patterns

Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
Social system

gy S
G oc
uw ia
 Nurturance of infants

ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 Contraception, abortion,
 Fertility, natality, mortality
 N
Ec PT

 Social
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e

– primary
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert

 Two types:
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
tio

– secondary
te Hu Kip
of m ge n
organizations.
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
human groups and

ah l S
Social structure

at cie
i nce
s
structure refers to
 Primary groups
 Primary groups consist of small
groups like the family that
regulate reproduction,
exchange and consumption

s
cen
at cie
within domestic settings.
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S

Normally small, intimate,

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

multiple roles.
te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

- Family
- Community
- some voluntary groups
- friendship networks
- some religious groups
Secondary organisations
 Impersonalorganizations such
as government and industry
which regulate productions,
exchange and consumption

s
cen
at cie
within and between groups
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

and socio-cultural systems.

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL

• Governments, military, police

Ec PT
N

• Corporations
• Education
• Media
• Service and professional
organizations
• Welfare organizations
Bureaucratization
 Curious phenomenon: over the
course of social evolution,
primary groups lose their
function, secondary groups

s
cen
at cie
grow in number.
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

 Increasing division of labor. The

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip

primary and secondary groups

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

dichotomy encompasses all

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

human organizations responsible

for the allocation and
distribution of all bio-
psychological need satisfaction.
 Elites
 Hierarchies based on class, sex,
race, caste, age, ethnic, and
other statuses exist throughout
the structure of society.

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
 All societies have elites, but the
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

power of elites varies across

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip

societies and through time.

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL

 The bio-psychological
Ec PT
N

satisfaction of those on top of

the hierarchies weighs more
heavily than those below.
 Superstructure
 Consists of two parts:
– cultural superstructure
– mental superstructure

Cultural Superstructure

s
cen
at cie
 Includes recreations activities, art,
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n

sports, empirical knowledge, folklore,

tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a

and other aesthetic products.

In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

– Art, music, dance, literature

D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT

– Rituals
N

– sports, games, hobbies

– knowledge base
Mental Superstructure
• Values
• Emotions
• Traditions
• Zweckrational
Value oriented
behavior

 Rational action in relation to a

s
cen
at cie
value.
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S

• Examples: Attending college

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

because you value the life of

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

the mind.
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

Doing the right thing out of

religious or philosophical ideas
of right or wrong.
Rational action in
relation to a value

• Examples: Attending college

because you value the life of

s
cen
at cie
the mind.
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

Doing the right thing out of

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip

religious or philosophical ideas of

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

right or wrong.
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
action.
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C

other attends.
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n

expresses feelings.
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i n
• Examples: Anger or joy.

ce
s
• Serves no rational purpose,
Affective or emotional

• Attending college for a good

time, or because your significant
 job.
goal.
N
Ec PT

 Rational
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
behavior
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert

good grade.
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
Te an n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
• Examples: Building a raft to
Zweckrational guided

cross a river. Studying to get a

action in relation to a

Attending college to get a good

Infrastructural Determinism

 The major principle of

sociocultural materialism:
– The mode of production and

s
ce
reproduction determine

n
at cie
primary and secondary group ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

structure, which in turn

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e

determine the cultural and

In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL

mental superstructure.
Ec PT
N
Infrastructure Determinism
 The rationale behind giving the
infrastructure such priority rests
upon the fact that it is through
infrastructural practices that

s
society adapts to its

cen
at cie
ah l S
environment.
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

 It is through the infrastructure

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e

that society survives. It modifies

In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL

the amount and type of

Ec PT
N

resources required for life.

 Since these infrastructural
practices are essential for life
itself, all widespread structural
and superstructural patterns
must be compatible with them.
 Rationalization
 The intensification of the
infrastructure and the

s
cen
at cie
bureaucratization of the
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n

structure, cause the

tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n

superstructure to "rationalize.”
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

 Definition:
the increasing
dominance of goal oriented
rational behavior at the
expense of behavior guided
by values, traditions and
emotions
Observation
 While the infrastructure is
considered to be of primary
importance, the structure and
superstructure are not mere

s
cen
reflections of infrastructural
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
processes, but are in
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a

interaction with these

In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

processes.
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT

 Societies are very stable

N

systems. The most likely

outcome of any change in the
system is resistance in other
sectors of society.
 Assessment
 The result is either the
extinctions of the innovation or
slight compensatory changes

s
cen
at cie
that preserve the fundamental
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n

character of the whole system.

tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge

Examples: income tax, women’s

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

liberation, commune
Pr ol EL
Ec PT

movement.
N

 Ingeneral, socio-cultural
change that releases more
energy from the environment is
likely to be swiftly adapted.
 Cont.
 Infrastructuraland
environmental relationships are
central in explaining socio-
cultural change.

s
cen
at cie
 But we also recognize the
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S

importance of structures and

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

superstructures in determining
te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

the speed, and character of

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

change.
 the Role of Elites
 But it is not the simple calculation of
the greatest good for the greatest
number of people to account for
socio-cultural change. Many
changes are more satisfying to

s
cen
at cie
some members of society than to
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

others.
gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge

 Infrastructural change that enhance

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

the position of these elites are likely

Pr ol EL
Ec PT

to be amplified and propagated

N

throughout the system. The elites are

able to impose direct economic
and political sanctions to get their
way. Also encourage ideas and
ideologies favorable to their
position.
 Cont.
 Sociocultural materialism is in
fundamental agreement with
Marx when he states: "The

s
cen
at cie
ideas of the ruling class in
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n

each epoch are the ruling

tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n

ideas."
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On

 The amount of power and

Pr ol EL
Ec PT

control exercised by elites

N

varies across societies and

through time.
 Cont.
 There exists within every society
a dominant class (or classes)

s
ce
that possess a disproportionate

n
at cie
amount of social power. ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

 A sociocultural materialist
no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te an n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e

analysis attempts to identify this

In epa N A lin
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL

class, gauge the amount of

Ec PT
N

power it wields, and uncover

their biases and assumptions
when analyzing social systems.
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
a
Te n n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
and meanings

uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
Human Ecology: Concepts
 What is human ecology?
 Human ecology is an approach to the study of human behaviour
marked by two commitments.
 First, human ecologists think that humans should be studied living

s
ce
systems operating in complex environments.

n
at cie
ah l S
- Human sciences are divided into several social science disciplines –

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a
humanistic, and human biological disciplines.

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
- Ecologists attempts to understand how diverse parts of the system

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
operate together to produce behaviour.
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
- In a sense, traditional human science disciplines take people apart,
while human ecologists endeavour to put us back together.

 Second, human ecologists think that humans are subject to very

similar ecological and evolutionary processes as any other species.
Definition

 Human ecology is the study of the interactions of humans

with their environments, or the study of the distribution and

s
abundance of humans. [conventional definitions of

cen
at cie
biological ecology]

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
 Human ecology deals with the relationship between humans

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
and their environment.

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
 Thus, using the term “human ecology” actually expresses a
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
broad aspiration to understand human behaviour.
N
 Background
 Human activities have damaged the environment, and the
damage may be dangerous and permanent.
 As the human population increases in size, the space allotted to

s
cen
natural ecosystems is reduced in size.

at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
 Natural ecosystems are then no longer able to process and rid the

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
biosphere of wastes, which accumulate and are called

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
‘pollutants’.

In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
 Pollutants are substances added to the environment, particularly
N

by human activities, that lead to undesirable effects for all living

things. Human beings add pollutants to all parts of the biosphere -
land, water and air.
 Factors affecting human population growth
Agricultural revolution / food production
Increase in knowledge of diseases

s
ce
Better health care and hygiene / sanitation

n
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
Advances in Medicine and technology

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
Resulting in a decrease in death rate, a longer life span,

In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
and an increased birth rate in some areas

D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

NOTE: there has been a decrease in fertility rates in

underdeveloped nations
Limiting Resources
Renewable Resources
Can be replaced

s
cen
at cie
Food supply, solar energy, wind/air, water,

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio
soil, living things (trees), geothermal

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
energy, nuclear energy

an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Non-Renewable Resources
Ec PT
N

- cannot be replaced in one’s lifetime

- fossil fuels
 wastes!
Environment

N
As the human

Ec PT
produce more
resources, and
consume more

Pr ol EL
Growth and the

D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
Human Population

an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
take up more space,

itu f o ty a
population grows, we

te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
a
Te n n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
Disruption of Existing Ecosystems
 Urbanization
Shift from rural (farming) areas to cities

s
Increased Industrialization

cen
at cie
ah l S
Destruction of farmland and deforestation

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a
Results in

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
- Decreased amount of space for other species

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
- Loss of habitats
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
- Decreased biodiversity
- Disruption of ecosystem by introducing new species
into an area w/no known predator
 The high level of industry and agriculture concentration and
human economic activities lead to terrible situation that
human life in many countries is ecologically dangerous.

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
 The pollution of environment (water pollution, air pollution,

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
land pollution) has the bad influence to human health. That

st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
is why nowadays a new branch of ecological science

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
begins to develop – it is human ecology.
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

 In short, Human ecology is an academic discipline that

deals with the association between humans and their
natural environment.
 Human ecology is about investigating how individuals and
individual societies interrelate with nature and with their
environment.

s
cen
 It integrates knowledge from all academic disciplines and from

at cie
ah l S
personal experience to investigate, and ultimately improve, the

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a
relationships between human beings and our social and natural

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
communities.

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
 Human ecology views human communities and human
Ec PT
N
populations as part of the ecosystem of earth. It is the special
ecology of the species Homo sapiens.

 Human ecology was established as a sociological field in the

1920's, although geographers were using the term much earlier.
 Nowadays, the main human ecology development line is
directed towards the decision of environmental
management, ways making of the rational nature usage,
peoples life conditions optimization in diverse anthropological

s
cen
at cie
systems.

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
 Human ecology explores not only the influence of humans on

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
their environment but also the influence of the environment

D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
on human behaviour, and their adaptive strategies as they
Ec PT
N

come to understand those influences better.

 It is a way of thinking about the world, and a context in which

we should define our questions and ways to answer those
questions.
 N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
a
Te n n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
The object of investigation is the system:
 The structure of environment

Environment

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
Natural (can have Social

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio
natural or changed

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
(anthropogenic)

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
condition)

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

Different
Atmo- Litho- subsystems of
Biosphere Hydrosphere structure of
sphere sphere society
 The place of human ecology in the system
of ecological sciences

Ecological sciences

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
Theoretical Applied

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
Geoecolog Technoec Socioec

D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
ical ological ological
Bioecological Ec PT
N

Human Animal Plant Fungi Microorganism

ecology ecology ecology ecology ecology
 In real settings humans feel the influence of different
environmental factors.

Carbon (IV) oxide

Nitrogen oxides
Ozone

s
Chemical

cen
at cie
Medical substances

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
Heavy metals

tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
Light

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
environmental

D of. ogy On
Physical Temperature

Pr ol EL
factors
Ec PT Humidity
N

Relations between humans

Relations between humans and plants
Biological
Relations between humans and animals
Relations between humans and microorganisms
 Weather
 It can have different
influence to human
organism. It
influences to human

s
cen
at cie
behavior and

ah l S
i
uw ia
psychological

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
condition.

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
For e.g. Many peoples

In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
suffer foehnic disease
Pr ol EL
1-2 days before the Ec PT
N

beginning wind
weather
  An increase in the average
Global Warming temperature of the Earth’s
surface.
 The Earth has natural cycles of
cooling and warming, but

s
scientists believe that the Earth is

cen
at cie
warming faster than it should be.

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio
 This increase in warming is

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
thought to be caused by the

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
greenhouse effect which is

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
caused by a build up of certain
Ec PT
N
gases in the atmosphere that
trap heat in, such as CO2, CH4
(methane), and NO2.
 cancer).
N
Ec PT
The influence of

Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
to human organism

an m m S C
pass ultraviolet rays
Ozone hole – it can

In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
that hurt human cells,
cause mutations (e.g.
anthropogenic factors

te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
a
Te n n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 N
environmental

Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
human organism;
In epa N A lin
warming) that has

di rt ga nd e
It is the increase of
Greenhouse effect

an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
temperature (global

st t o a ie ific
negative influence to

itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
a
Te n n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 Acid rains

vegetables;

N
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
skin, attack fruits and

st t o a ie ific
respiratory tracts and
They can hurt human

itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
a
Te n n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
 Water Pollution
 Water is the most spread
nonorganic substance in

s
whole world.

cen
at cie
ah l S
 It is the basis of all

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a
processes in alive

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
organisms and it is the

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
unique source of oxygen in
Pr ol EL
the process of Ec PT
N

photosynthesis.
 The biosphere would not
exist without liquid water.
 Adding anything to the environment or affecting the environment in
any way that makes it less fit for living things is called pollution.

s
 Noise pollution can come from construction sites, airplanes, cars, loud

cen
at cie
music, or leaf blowers.

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
 Much of the available water is polluted from:

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
Organic wastes

In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Inorganic chemicals
Ec PT
N

Disease-causing microorganisms
Changes in water temperature
Oil spills
Radioactive wastes
 Organic wastes are from plants and animals.

 They are biodegradable, which means they can

s
cen
be broken down by bacteria.

at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
 This process requires oxygen. When there is too

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
much waste the bacteria use up all the oxygen

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
and aquatic life dies.
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
 Pollution
 Hydrosphere is polluted with
human help.
 Industrial wastes includes

s
cen
at cie
heavy metals and organic

ah l S
i
uw ia
chlorides, such as pesticides.

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
 These materials are not

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
destroyed under natural

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
conditions.

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
 So they accumulate in the N

bottom mud of deltas of highly

polluted rivers and cause
environmental problems.
 Water pollution

s
cen
at cie
Biological

ah l S
Mineral Organic

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio
(bacterial)

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT plant and
N
Sand, Causative
animal
mineral agents of
remains,
salts, acid cholera,
animal and
and alkali dysentery,
human
solutions typhus etc.
feces
Soil pollution
 The main sources of soil pollution are:
- Industry;

s
cen
- Transport;

at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
- Agriculture.

n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
For e.g. In agriculture people use pesticides and nitrates. These

Pr ol EL
substances are very dangerous and toxic. They can cause
Ec PT
N
mutations, cancer, pathological processes in central nervous
system, respiratory and alimentary tracts, skin.
 Soil erosion
 Poor farming practices have led to soil erosion.
 When crops are grown most of the plant parts are removed-

s
ce
nutrients are not returned to the soil.

n
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
 The fields become less fertile and are abandoned.

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
 Without vegetation topsoil is eroded by wind and rain and

In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
land becomes unusable.

In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
 Overgrazing by animals also leaves land bare which leads to
Ec PT
N
erosion.
 Land

N
pollution
Ec PT
Pr ol EL
D of. ogy On
In epa N A lin
di rt ga nd e
an m m S C
In en jah oc ert
st t o a ie ific
itu f o ty a
te Hu Kip tio
of m ge n
a
Te n n
ch itie
no s a
lo nd
gy S
G oc
uw ia
ah l S
at cie
i nce
s
Nitrates

Bacterial
Pesticides
Deforestation
 Human population
poses a threat to the
biosphere by habitat

s
cen
at cie
destruction, especially

ah l S
i
uw ia
by the destruction of

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
tropical rainforests

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
(deforestation).

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
 This process is driving
Ec PT
N
thousands of species
to extinction each
year and reducing
biological diversity.
Farming Practices
 Over farming and over grazing
 result in areas without a cover of vegetation

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
 No plants…no roots to hold soil

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
 Leads to soil erosion: removal of soil by wind

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
or water and desertification

In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
Deforestation – can also lead to soil erosion,
N

washing away of nutrients

 Fertilizers add nutrients to the soil in large quantities. If the
crops don’t use it all, where do the leftovers end up?

s
cen
at cie
 Dams hold back water which can prevent soil erosion. What

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
are some other consequences of building a dam?

tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
 Making environmental impact decisions often involves
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
tradeoffs – some harm is done in one area to gain something
N

good in another.
The Value of Biodiversity
 Species diversity – the number of different
species in a biosphere

s
cen
at cie
 Genetic diversity – the sum total of all genetic

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
differences

tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
 Provide us with foods, industrial products,

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
medicines, etc.
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
Threats to Biodiversity

Habitat alteration

s
ce
Demand for wildlife products

n
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
Pollution – biological magnification (ex. bald

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
eagle and DDT)

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Introduced species – invasive species
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
 Loss of wetlands
 Human-Environment Interactions
 Human ecology, most broadly defined as the study of human
interactions with the environment, has in recent years gained
greatly increased attention in- all of the social sciences.

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
 Despite this, there appears to be little consensus as to what

st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
human ecology actually is or should be. [In particular, there is

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
continuing vigorous discussion about the suitability of applying
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
several different theoretical approaches in understanding human-
N

environment interactions]
 Alternative conceptual models of human relations with
the environment

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
 Classical and early modern theories of environmental

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
influence on human affairs (determinism and possibilism)

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
are often employed by historians. Most notable of such

D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
historians is Arnold J. Toynbee, who advocates a
Ec PT
N

possibilist stance in his influential A Study of History (1934-

61).
 Origins of Human Ecology
 Since ancient times there have been many attempts to explain
events in terms of environmental influences on human behavior.
 Ancient Greek philosophers recognized that man was both

s
cen
at cie
influenced by nature and a force for change in the environment.

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
For example, the different forms of political organization of the Greek

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
city states and the Eastern empires reflected the influences of climate

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
on the personalities of their citizens.

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
 This theme [human ecology] was later developed by
Montesquieu and other French writers of the

s
ce
Enlightenment and advocated in recent times by the

n
at cie
ah l S
American geographer Samuel Huntington.

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
 Other classical writers commented on the destruction of

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
the natural landscape of Attica and North Africa

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
resulting from deforestation and overgrazing, a theme
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
taken up in the mid-1800s by George P. Marsh, whose
N

book, Man and Nature, or, Physical Geography as

Modified by Human Action was a precursor of the
ecological catastrophe writings so popular recently.
 Human Ecology Approach of the Classical
Chicago School
 Human ecology took its birth in the first quarter of the Twentieth century in the
Urban studies of the "Chicago School" whose leading representatives were
Robert E. Park, Earnest W. Burgess, and R.D. Mckenzi.

s
cen
at cie
 They extensively used concepts and principles developed by plant and animal

ah l S
i
uw ia
ecologists and focused their study on spatial aspects of community life.

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
 Park, the founder of the Chicago School, regarded human ecology as the

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
study of the forces at work within the units of Urban community - within the limits

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
of any natural area of human habitation, in fact - which tend to bring about an

Pr ol EL
Ec PT
orderly and typical grouping of its population and institutions".
N

 Thus human ecology was concerned with the territorial arrangements that
social activities assume in order to discover and explain the regularities appear
in man's adaptation to space.
 In the area studies of Chicago school, "community became the central

s
ce
concern.

n
at cie
ah l S
 They regarded human community as sub-social and sub-cultural entity,

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio
belonging to the 'natural order' like biotic plant and animal communities.

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
 Also the emphasis was laid on ·competition', as in biological ecology, rather

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
than on 'cooperation' among community members".

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
 Hawley’s theory of Community Structure
 A. H. Hawley found the Human Ecology approach of the Chicago school
'incompatible with the fundamental logic of ecological theory'.
 We find in Hawley's approach the inclusion of social aspects of human

s
ce
community, the aspects of the competition and cooperation and reduced

n
at cie
emphasis upon social structure spatial patterns.

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
 Another merit of Hawley's theory is his emphasis upon man's possession of

itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
culture. Hawley was concerned with technology and social organization which

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
he regarded as the aspects of culture.

D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
 He asserted man's possession of culture and its potentiality to modify the
Ec PT
N
environment recognizing thereby the essential difference between human
ecology and biological ecology which his predecessors failed to make out.
 Hawley defined human ecology as "the study of the form and development of
the community in human population". By community, he meant the functional
system of relationship of a territorially based population.
 Theoretical approach
The first theoretical approach to be tried, however, was
that of environmental determinism—a false start that
greatly retarded subsequent development of human

s
ecology.

cen
at cie
ah l S
Geographers Friedrich Ratzel in Germany and his

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a
American disciple, Ellen C. Semple, espoused the view

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
that humans were completely the product of their

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
environment, a theory that came to be called
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
environmental determinism.
N

For example, the Eskimos were primitive nomads because

the harsh conditions of their arctic habitat forbade their
development into a complex civilization.
Environmental determinism
A deterministic approach assigns one factor as the
dominant influence in explanations.

s
cen
Environmental determinism is based on the

at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
assumption that cultural and natural areas are

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
coterminous, because culture represents an

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
adaptation to the particular environment (Steward

In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
1955:35). Ec PT
N

Therefore, environmental factors determine human

social and cultural behaviours (Milton 1997).
 Cont.

Determinism lays emphasis on the philosophical

position that people have about the relationship

s
ce
between man and nature.

n
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
Environment determines human conditions as

In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
according to determinism. In other words, the
Ec PT
N

human behaviour, life styles and the economy

of living are conditioned by the environment.
 Cont.

Determinism gives maximum emphasis on the value

of nature. In contrast, free-will approach lays

s
ce
emphasis on human capacity and potential. It holds

n
at cie
ah l S
that man has a free-will capacity to challenge and

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
change the power of the nature (e.g. storm, flood,

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
drought etc).

In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

Man can modify the force of environment through

technology. Here comes the importance of human
consciousness, which signifies man's active
involvement in the management of the environment.
Although seductive when first encountered, such
claims of causal correlation between environment
and culture were easily refuted once given careful

s
ce
consideration.

n
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
For example, the Tasmanians, who lived on an island

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
not unlike the one inhabited by the English, made no

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin
ships.

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

Therefore, there is simply too much variation in

human behavior in seemingly similar geographical
settings for it to be environmentally determined.
 Environmental possibilism
The proponents of environmental possibilism asserted
that while the environment did not directly cause
specific cultural developments, the presence or

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
absence of specific environmental factors placed

i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a
limits on such developments by either permitting or

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
forbidding their occurrence.

di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
For example, island peoples could be seafarers, but
N

residents of Inner Mongolia could not be; inhabitants of

temperate regions might practice agriculture, but those
living in artic latitudes could not.
American anthropologist A. L. Kroeber, showed that
the Indians of northwestern North America could not
adopt maize agriculture from their southern neighbors

s
cen
at cie
because the frost-free growing season in their region

ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
n
tio
was shorter than the four months required for the

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
maize plants to reach maturity.

ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

Their environment thus limited the ability of their culture

to evolve in an agricultural direction.
A possibilist stance was also taken by the British
historian Arnold Toynbee in his multi volumed A
Study of History (1947), in which he argued that the

s
cen
development of civilizations could be explained in

at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
G oc
terms of their responses to environmental

n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
challenges.

of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N
Cultures located in the benign tropics failed to evolve
because they were not sufficiently challenged by their
environment;

s
cen
at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
Those in extremely harsh habitats such as the Eskimos in

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific
the arctic remained forever primitive because simply

no s a
In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C
coping with the demands of their environments sapped

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
D of. ogy On
all of their creative energies.
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
N

Only those secure cultures in environments offering

sufficient but not excessive challenges had the possibility
of progressing to higher stages of civilization.
British anthropologist Daryll Forde concluded in his book,
Habitat, Economy and Society (1934), which was

s
cen
perhaps the last major scientific exploration of

at cie
ah l S
i
uw ia
possibilism, "between the physical environment and

G oc
n
tio

gy S
itu f o ty a

lo nd
st t o a ie ific

no s a
human activity there is always a middle term, a

In en jah oc ert

Te n n
of m ge
ch itie
an m m S C

te Hu Kip
di rt ga nd e
In epa N A lin

a
collection of specific objectives and values, a body of

D of. ogy On
Pr ol EL
Ec PT
knowledge and belief in other words, a cultural pattern."
N