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Math 277 Chapter One

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36 views23 pages

Math 277 Chapter One

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awuahemmanuel210
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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MATH 277

CHAPTER ONE

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD)

KNUST

April 11, 2022


THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The Axioms of a field


We begin by assuming the existence of a set R, called the set of real
numbers,and two operations "+" and ".",called addition and
multiplication,such that the following properties apply:

A1.For all x , y ∈ R, x + y ∈ R and if x = w and y = z, then


x + y = w + z.[Closure property]

A2.For all x , y ∈ R, x + y = y + x . [Commutative law]

A3.For all x , y , z ∈ R ,x + (y + z) = (x + y ) + z. [Associative law]

A4.There is a unique real number 0 such that x + 0 = x , for all


x ∈ R.[Existence of a Zero][Identity].

A5.For each x ∈ R there is a unique real number -x such that


x + (−x )=0. [Existence of a negative][Additive inverse].

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 2 / 23


M1. For all x , y ∈ R, x · y ∈ R and if x = w and y = z,then
x · y = w · z.[Closure property]

M2. For all x , y ∈ R, x · y = y · x .[Commutative law]

M3. For all x , y , z ∈ R, x · (y · z) = (x · y ) · z[Associative law].

M4. There is a unique real number 1 such that 16= 0and x .1 = x for all
x ∈ R.

M5. For each x ∈ R with x 6= 0, there is a unique real number 1/x such
that x.(1/x)=1. We also write x −1 or x1 in place of 1/x.[Existence of
reciprocal]

DL. For all x , y , z ∈ R,x.(y+z)= x.y + y.z.[Distributive law].

Any collection of objects satisfying the axioms stated above is called a


field.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 3 / 23


Order Property

1. For all x , y ∈ R, exactly one of the relations x = y, x > y, or x > y


holds (trichotomy law)

2. Law of Transitivity: For all x , y , z ∈ R, if x < y and y < z, then x < z.

3. Closure under addition :For all x , y , z ∈ R, if x < y, then x + z < y


+ z.

4. Closure under multiplication : For all x , y , z ∈ R, if x < y and z > 0,


then xz < yz.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 4 / 23


The following theorem illustrate how the axioms may be
used to derive some familiar algebraic properties.

THEOREM 1.1
Let x,y, and z be real numbers.

(a) If x + z = y + z, then x = y.

(b) x ·0 = 0. (c) - 0 = 0.

(d) (−1)·x = -x.

(e) xy = 0 iff x = 0 or y = 0.

(f) x < y iff -y < -x.

(g) If x< y and z < 0, then xz > yz.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 5 / 23


EXAMPLE 1
Show that the set of irrational numbers with addition and multiplication is
not a field. In particular show that axioms A1 and M1 do not apply.

EXAMPLE 2
a c a c
Let and be irrational numbers with a,b,c,d ∈ Z. Show that +
b d b d
a c
and · are rational.
b d

EXAMPLE 3
Consider the field F of rational functions i.e F is the set of all quotient of
polynomials.
3
a. which is larger x 2 or ?
x
x x
b. which is larger is
x +2 x +1

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 6 / 23


THEOREM 1.2
Let x , y ∈ R such that x ≤ y + ε for every ε > 0. Then x ≤ y .

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 7 / 23


DEFINITION
If x ∈ R, then the absolute value of x, denoted by |x|, is defined by

(
x ifx ≥ 0,
|x | =
−x ifx < 0.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 8 / 23


THEOREM 1.3
Let x , y ∈ R and let a ≥ 0. Then

(a) |x| ≥ 0,

(b)|x| ≤ a iff -a ≤ x ≤ a,

(c)|xy| = |x | · |y |,

(d)|x+y| ≤ |x|+ |y|.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 9 / 23


EXERCISES
1 Mark each statement True or False. Justify each answer.
(a) Axioms A1 to A5, M1 to M5, and DL descride an algebraic
system known ass a field.
(b) The property that x + y = y + x for all x , y ∈ R is called an
associative law.
(c) If x , y , z ∈ R and x < y , then xz < yz.

2 Mark each statement True or False. Justify each answer.


(a) Axioms A1 to A5, M1 to M5, DL, and O1 to O4 describe an
algebraic system known as an ordered field.
(b) If x , y ∈ R and x < y +  for every  > 0, then x < y .
(c)If x , y ∈ R, then |x + y | = |x| + |y|.

3 Let x , y and z be real numbers. Prove the following.


(a) -(-x) = x
YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 10 / 23
EXERCISES
1 Prove: If x ≥ 0 and x ≤ ε for all ε > 0, then x = 0.

2 Prove Theorem 1.3(c): |xy| = |x| · |y|.

3 (a)Prove: ||x| - |y|| ≤ |x - y|.

(b) Prove: If |x − y | < c, then |x | < |y | + c.

(c) Prove: If |x − y | < ε for all ε > 0, then x = y .


4 Suppose that x1 , x2 , ..., xn are real numbers. Prove that
|x1 + x2 + ... + xn | ≤ |x1 | + |x2 | + ... + |xn |

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 11 / 23


The completeness axiom

THEOREM 1.4
√
Let p be a prime number. Then p is not a rational number.

Upper Bounds and Suprema


DEFINITION: Let S be a subset of R. If there exist a real number m such
m ≥ s for all s ∈ S, then m is called upper bound of S, and we say that
S is bounded above. If m ≤ s for all s ∈ S, then m is a lower bound of S
and S is bounded below. The set S is said to be bounded if it is bounded
above and bounded below.
If an upper bound m of S is a member of S, then m is called the
maximum (or largest element) of S, and we write
m=max S.
Similarly, if a lower bound of S is a member of S, then it is called the
minimum (or least element) of S, denoted by min S.
YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 12 / 23
EXAMPLE
a. Let S be a subset of R such that S = {2, 4, 6, 8}
i. Is S bounded above?
ii. Is S bounded below?
iii. Does S have a max?
iv. Does S have a min?

b. The empty set ∅ is bounded above by any m ∈ R. (The condition


m ≥ s for all s ∈ ∅ is equivalent to the implication "if s∈ ∅, thenm ≥
s”.This implication is true since the antecedent is false.)

c. Any subset of a bounded set will also be bounded. Indeed, If T ⊆ S


and m is an upper bound of S, then m will also be an upper bound of T .
The same holds for lower bounds.

EXAMPLE
Find upper and lower bounds,
√ the maximum, and the minimum of the set
T = {q ∈ Q : 0 ≤ q ≤ 2}, if they exist.
YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 13 / 23
DEFINITION
Let S be a nonempty subset of R. If S is bounded above, then the least
upper bound of S is called supremum and is denoted by sup S. Thus m =
sup S iff
(a) m ≥ s, for all s ∈ S, and
(b) if m0 < m, then there exist s0 ∈ S such that s0 > m0 .
If S is bounded below, then the greatest lower bound of S is called its
infimum and is denoted by inf S.

Completeness axiom
Every nonempty subset S of R that is bounded above has a least upper
bound. That is, sup S exists and is a real number.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 14 / 23


THEOREM 1.5
Given nonempty subsets A and of R, let C denote the set

C = {x + y : x ∈ A and y ∈ B }.

If A and B have suprema, then C has a suprema and

sup C = sup A + B.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 15 / 23


THEOREM 1.6
Suppose that D is a nonempty set and that f : D → R and g : D → R.If
for every x , y ∈ D, f (x ) ≤ g(y ), then f (D) is bounded above and g(D) is
bounded below. Furthermore, supf (D) ≤ infg(D)

THEOREM (The Archimedean property)


One of the important consequences of the completeness axiom is called
the Archimedean property. It states that the natural numbers N are not
bounded above in R

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 16 / 23


THEOREM 1.7
(Archimedean propertyof R) The set N of natural numbers is unbounded
above in R.

THEOREM 1.8
Each of the following is equivalent to the Archimedean property.
(a) For each z ∈ R,there exists an n ∈ N such that n > z
(b) For x > 0 and for each y ∈ R,there exists an n ∈ N such that nx > y .
(c) For each x > 0, there exists an ∈ N such that 0 < 1/n < x .

THEOREM 1.9
Let p be a prime number.Then there exists a positive real number x such
x 2 = p.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 17 / 23


EXAMPLE
Find the supremum, infimum, maximum and minimum if they exist, for
1
the set S= { : n ∈ N}
n

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 18 / 23


THEOREM 1.10
(Density of Q in R) If x and y are real numbers with x < y, then there
exists a rational number r such that x < r < y.

THEOREM 1.11
If x and y are real numbers with x < y, then there exists an irrational
number w such that x < w < y.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 19 / 23


EXERCISES A
1 Mark each statement True or False. Justify each answer.
(a) If a nonempty subset of R has an upper bound, then it has a least
upper bound.
(b) If a nonempty subset of R has an infimum, then it is bounded.
(c) Every nonempty bounded subset of R has a maximum and
minimum.
(d) If m is an upper bound of S and m0 is not an upper bound of S.
(e) If m = inf S and m0 < m, then m0 is a lower bound of S.
(f) For each real number x and ε > 0, there exists n ∈ N such that
nε > x .

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 20 / 23


EXERCISES B
1 Mark each statement True or False. Justify each answer.
(a) Every nonempty subset of N contains a maximum.
(b) Every nonempty subset of N contains a maximum.
(c) If x and y are irrational, then xy is irrational.
(d) Between any two unequal rational numbers there is an irrational
number.
(e) Between any two unequal irrational numbers there is a rational
number.
(f) The rational and irrational numbers alternate, one then the other.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 21 / 23


EXERCISES
1 For each subset of R, give its supremum and its maximum, if they
exist.
Otherwise, write "none".
(a) {1, 3}
(b) {π, 3}
(c) [0,4]
(d) (0,4)
 
1
(e) 2n :n∈N
 
1
(f) 1− n :n∈N
 
n
(g) n+1 :n∈N
 
(h) (−1)n (1 + n1 ) : n ∈ N
(−1)n (KNUST)
YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 22 / 23
EXERCISES C
1 {r ∈ Q : r < 5}
2 {r ∈ Q : r 2 ≤ 5}
3 Let S be a nonempty bounded subset of R and let m = sup S. Prove
that m ∈ S iff m = max S.

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE(PhD) (KNUST) MATH 277 April 11, 2022 23 / 23

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