MODULE 3: Protocols and Models Prior to communicating, they must agree on how to

communicate. If the communication is using voice, they

3.1.2. Communications Fundamentals
must first agree on the language. Next, when they have
Networks vary in size, shape, and function. They can be a message to share, they must be able to format that
as complex as devices connected across the internet, or message in a way that is understandable.
as simple as two computers directly connected to one
If someone uses the English language, but poor
another with a single cable, and anything in-between.
sentence structure, the message can easily be
However, simply having a wired or wireless physical
misunderstood. Each of these tasks describe protocols
connection between end devices is not enough to
that are used to accomplish communication.
enable communication. For communication to occur,
devices must know “how” to communicate. Network

People exchange ideas using many different

communication methods. However, all communication
methods have the following three elements in common:

 Message source (sender) – Message sources are

people, or electronic devices, that need to send
a message to other individuals or devices.

 Message Destination (receiver) – The

destination receives the message and interprets As shown in the animation, this is also true for
it. computer communication. Many different rules or
protocols govern all methods of communication that
 Channel – This consists of the media that exist in the world today.
provides the pathway over which the message
travels from source to destination. 3.1.4. Rule Establishment

3.1.3. Communication Protocols Before communicating with one another, individuals

must use established rules or agreements to govern the
Sending a message, whether by face-to-face conversation. Consider this message for example:
communication or over a network, is governed by rules
called protocols. These protocols are specific to the type humans communication between govern rules. It is
of communication method being used. In our day-to-day verydifficult tounderstand messages that are not
personal communication, the rules we use to correctly formatted and donot follow the established
communicate over one medium, like a telephone call, rules and protocols. A estrutura da gramatica, da
are not necessarily the same as the rules for using lingua, da pontuacao e do sentence faz a configuracao
another medium, such as sending a letter. humana compreensivel por muitos individuos diferentes.

The process of sending a letter is similar to Notice how it is difficult to read the message because it
communication that occurs in computer networks. is not formatted properly. It should be written using
rules (i.e., protocols) that are necessary for effective
Analogy communication. The example shows the message which
is now properly formatted for language and grammar.

Rules govern communication between humans. It is very

difficult to understand messages that are not correctly
formatted and do not follow the established rules and
protocols. The structure of the grammar, the language,
the punctuation and the sentence make the
configuration humanly understandable for many
different individuals.
Protocols must account for the following requirements Network
to successfully deliver a message that is understood by
Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate
the receiver:
format for the medium. Messages sent across the
 An identified sender and receiver network are first converted into bits by the sending
host. Each bit is encoded into a pattern of voltages on
 Common language and grammar
copper wires, infrared light in optical fibers, or
 Speed and timing of delivery microwaves for wireless systems. The destination host
receives and decodes the signals to interpret the
 Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements message.
3.1.5. Network Protocol Requirements

The protocols that are used in network communications

share many of these fundamental traits. In addition to
identifying the source and destination, computer and
network protocols define the details of how a message
is transmitted across a network. Common computer
protocols include the following requirements:

 Message encoding

 Message formatting and encapsulation

 Message size
3.1.7. Message Formatting and Encapsulation
 Message timing
When a message is sent from source to destination, it
 Message delivery options must use a specific format or structure. Message
formats depend on the type of message and the
3.1.6. Message Encoding channel that is used to deliver the message.
One of the first steps to sending a message is encoding. Analogy
Encoding is the process of converting information into
another acceptable form, for transmission. Decoding A common example of requiring the correct format in
reverses this process to interpret the information. human communications is when sending a letter.

Analogy

To communicate the message, she converts her

thoughts into an agreed upon language. She then
speaks the words using the sounds and inflections of
spoken language that convey the message. Her friend
listens to the description and decodes the sounds to
understand the message he received.

An envelope has the address of the sender and receiver,

each located at the proper place on the envelope. If the
destination address and formatting are not correct, the
letter is not delivered.
The process of placing one message format (the letter)
inside another message format (the envelope) is called
encapsulation. De-encapsulation occurs when the
process is reversed by the recipient and the letter is
removed from the envelope.

Network

Similar to sending a letter, a message that is sent over a

computer network follows specific format rules for it to
be delivered and processed.
Network
Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol with a similar
Encoding also occurs in computer communication.
function to the envelope example. In the figure, the
fields of the Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) packet
identify the source of the packet and its destination. IP
is responsible for sending a message from the message
source to destination over one or more networks.

Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate

format for the medium. Messages sent across the
network are first converted into bits by the sending
host. Each bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light
waves, or electrical impulses depending on the network
Note: The fields of the IPv6 packet are discussed in media over which the bits are transmitted. The
detail in another module. destination host receives and decodes the signals to
interpret the message.
3.1.8. Message Size
3.1.9. Message Timing
Another rule of communication is message size.
Message timing is also very important in network
Analogy
communications. Message timing includes the
When people communicate with each other, the following:
messages that they send are usually broken into smaller
Flow Control – This is the process of managing the rate
parts or sentences. These sentences are limited in size
of data transmission. Flow control defines how much
to what the receiving person can process at one time, as
information can be sent and the speed at which it can
shown in the figure. It also makes it easier for the
be delivered. For example, if one person speaks too
receiver to read and comprehend.
quickly, it may be difficult for the receiver to hear and
understand the message. In network communication,
there are network protocols used by the source and
destination devices to negotiate and manage the flow of
information.

Response Timeout – If a person asks a question and

does not hear a response within an acceptable amount
of time, the person assumes that no answer is coming Network communications has similar delivery options to
and reacts accordingly. The person may repeat the communicate. As shown in the figure, there three types
question or instead, may go on with the conversation. of data communications include:
Hosts on the network use network protocols that
 Unicast – Information is being transmitted to a
specify how long to wait for responses and what action
single end device.
to take if a response timeout occurs.
 Multicast – Information is being transmitted to a
Access method – This determines when someone can
one or more end devices.
send a message. Click Play in the figure to see an
animation of two people talking at the same time, then  Broadcast – Information is being transmitted to
a “collision of information” occurs, and it is necessary all end devices.
for the two to back off and start again. Likewise, when a
device wants to transmit on a wireless LAN, it is
necessary for the WLAN network interface card (NIC) to
determine whether the wireless medium is available.

3.1.11. A Note About the Node Icon

Networking documents and topologies often represent

3.1.10. Message Delivery Options networking and end devices using a node icon. Nodes
are typically represented as a circle. The figure shows a
A message can be delivered in different ways.
comparison of the three different delivery options using
Analogy node icons instead of computer icons.

Sometimes, a person wants to communicate

information to a single individual. At other times, the
person may need to send information to a group of
people at the same time, or even to all people in the
same area.

3.2. Protocols

3.2.1. Network Protocol Overview

You know that for end devices to be able to

communicate over a network, each device must abide
by the same set of rules. These rules are called protocols
Network
and they have many functions in a network. This topic
gives you a overview of network protocols.
Network protocols define a common format and set of
Protocol Type Description
rules for exchanging messages between devices.
Protocols are implemented by end devices and
intermediary devices in software, hardware, or both. automatic detection of
Each network protocol has its own function, format, and devices or services.
rules for communications. Examples of service
discovery protocols include
The table lists the various types of protocols that are
Dynamic Host
needed to enable communications across one or more
Configuration Protocol
networks.
(DHCP) which discovers
services for IP address
Protocol Type Description allocation, and Domain
Name System (DNS) which
Protocols enable two or is used to perform name-
more devices to Protocols to-IP address translation.
communicate over one or
more networks. The
Ethernet family of
3.2.2. Network Protocol Functions
technologies involves a
variety of protocols such as Network communication protocols are responsible for a
IP, Transmission Control variety of functions necessary for network
Network Protocol (TCP), HyperText communications between end devices. For example, in
Communications Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the figure how does the computer send a message,
Protocols and many more. across several network devices, to the server?

Protocols secure data to

provide authentication,
data integrity, and data
encryption. Examples of
secure protocols include
Secure Shell (SSH), Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL), and
Network Security Transport Layer Security
Protocols (TLS). Computers and network devices use agreed-upon
protocols to communicate. The table lists the functions
Protocols enable routers to of these protocols.
exchange route
information, compare path Function Description
information, and then to
select the best path to the Addressing This identifies the
destination network. sender and the
Examples of routing intended receiver of
protocols include Open the message using a
Shortest Path First (OSPF) defined addressing
Routing and Border Gateway scheme. Examples
Protocols Protocol (BGP). of protocols that
provide addressing
Service Discovery Protocols are used for the include Ethernet,
Function Description Function Description

IPv4, and IPv6. Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6,

and TCP.
This function
provides This function
guaranteed delivery contains
mechanisms in case information used
messages are lost or for process-to-
corrupted in transit. process
TCP provides communications
Reliability guaranteed delivery. between network
applications. For
This function example, when
ensures that data accessing a web
flows at an efficient page, HTTP or
rate between two HTTPS protocols are
communicating used to
devices. TCP communicate
Flow provides flow between the client
control control services. Application and server web
Interface processes.

This function
uniquely labels each
transmitted 3.2.3. Protocol Interaction
segment of data.
A message sent over a computer network typically
The receiving device
requires the use of several protocols, each one with its
uses the sequencing
own functions and format. The figure shows some
information to
common network protocols that are used when a device
reassemble the
sends a request to a web server for its web page.
information
correctly. This is
useful if the data
segments are lost,
delayed or received
out-of-order. TCP
provides sequencing
Sequencing services.

The protocols in the figure are described as follows:

Error This function is used
Detection to determine if data Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – This protocol
became corrupted governs the way a web server and a web client interact.
during transmission. HTTP defines the content and formatting of the requests
Various protocols and responses that are exchanged between the client
that provide error and server. Both the client and the web server software
detection include implement HTTP as part of the application. HTTP relies
on other protocols to govern how the messages are
transported between the client and server.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – This protocol

manages the individual conversations. TCP is
responsible for guaranteeing the reliable delivery of the
information and managing flow control between the
end devices.

Internet Protocol (IP) – This protocol is responsible for

delivering messages from the sender to the receiver. IP Protocol suites are sets of rules that work together to
is used by routers to forward the messages across help solve a problem.
multiple networks.
3.3.2. Evolution of Protocol Suites
Ethernet – This protocol is responsible for the delivery
A protocol suite is a set of protocols that work together
of messages from one NIC to another NIC on the same
to provide comprehensive network communication
Ethernet Local Area Network (LAN).
services. Since the 1970s there have been several
3.3. Protocol Suites different protocol suites, some developed by a
standards organization and others developed by various
3.3.1. Network Protocol Suites
vendors.
In many cases, protocols must be able to work with
During the evolution of network communications and
other protocols so that your online experience gives you
the internet there were several competing protocol
everything you need for network communications.
suites, as shown in the figure.
Protocol suites are designed to work with each other
seamlessly.

A protocol suite is a group of inter-related protocols

necessary to perform a communication function.

One of the best ways to visualize how the protocols

within a suite interact is to view the interaction as a
stack. A protocol stack shows how the individual
protocols within a suite are implemented. The protocols
are viewed in terms of layers, with each higher-level
service depending on the functionality defined by the
protocols shown in the lower levels. The lower layers of
the stack are concerned with moving data over the
Internet Protocol Suite or TCP/IP – This is the most
network and providing services to the upper layers,
common and relevant protocol suite used today. The
which are focused on the content of the message being
TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard protocol suite
sent.
maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force
As illustrated in the figure, we can use layers to describe (IETF).
the activity occurring in face-to-face communication. At
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols – This is
the bottom is the physical layer where we have two
a family of protocols developed jointly in 1977 by the
people with voices saying words out loud. In the middle
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
is the rules layer that stipulates the requirements of
the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The
communication including that a common language must
OSI protocol also included a seven-layer model called
be chosen. At the top is the content layer and this is
the OSI reference model. The OSI reference model
where the content of the communication is actually
categorizes the functions of its protocols. Today OSI is
spoken.
mainly known for its layered model. The OSI protocols
have largely been replaced by TCP/IP.
AppleTalk – A short-lived proprietary protocol suite
released by Apple Inc. in 1985 for Apple devices. In
1995, Apple adopted TCP/IP to replace AppleTalk.

Novell NetWare – A short-lived proprietary protocol

suite and network operating system developed by
Novell Inc. in 1983 using the IPX network protocol. In
1995, Novell adopted TCP/IP to replace IPX.

3.3.3. TCP/IP Protocol Example

TCP/IP protocols are available for the application,

transport, and internet layers. There are no TCP/IP
protocols in the network access layer. The most
common network access layer LAN protocols are TCP/IP is the protocol suite used by the internet and the
Ethernet and WLAN (wireless LAN) protocols. Network networks of today. TCP/IP has two important aspects for
access layer protocols are responsible for delivering the vendors and manufacturers:
IP packet over the physical medium.  Open standard protocol suite – This means it is
The figure shows an example of the three TCP/IP freely available to the public and can be used by
protocols used to send packets between the web any vendor on their hardware or in their
browser of a host and the web server. HTTP, TCP, and IP software.
are the TCP/IP protocols used. At the network access  Standards-based protocol suite – This means it
layer, Ethernet is used in the example. However, this has been endorsed by the networking industry
could also be a wireless standard such as WLAN or and approved by a standards organization. This
cellular service. ensures that products from different
manufacturers can interoperate successfully.

Click each tab for a brief description of protocols at each

layer.

 Application Layer

 Transport layer

 Internet Layer

 Network Access Layer

Application Layer
3.3.4. TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Name System
Today, the TCP/IP protocol suite includes many protocols
 DNS - Domain Name System. Translates domain
and continues to evolve to support new services. Some
names such as cisco.com, into IP addresses.
of the more popular ones are shown in the figure.
Host Config

 DHCPv4 - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

for IPv4. A DHCPv4 server dynamically assigns
IPv4 addressing information to DHCPv4 clients
at start-up and allows the addresses to be re-
used when no longer needed.
  DHCPv6 - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol  HTTPS - HTTP Secure. A secure form of HTTP
for IPv6. DHCPv6 is similar to DHCPv4. A that encrypts the data that is exchanged over
DHCPv6 server dynamically assigns IPv6 the World Wide Web.
addressing information to DHCPv6 clients at
 REST - Representational State Transfer. A web
start-up.
service that uses application programming
 SLAAC - Stateless Address Autoconfiguration. A interfaces (APIs) and HTTP requests to create
method that allows a device to obtain its IPv6 web applications.
addressing information without using a DHCPv6
3.3.5. TCP/IP Communication Process
server.
The animations in the figures demonstrate the complete
Email
communication process using an example of a web
 SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. Enables server transmitting data to a client.
clients to send email to a mail server and
Click the Play in the figure to view an animation of a
enables servers to send email to other servers.
web server encapsulating and sending a web page to a
 POP3 - Post Office Protocol version 3. Enables client.
clients to retrieve email from a mail server and
download the email to the client's local mail
application. 3.4. Standards Organizations
 IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol. 3.4.1. Open Standards
Enables clients to access email stored on a mail
server as well as maintaining email on the When buying new tires for a car, there are many
server. manufacturers you might choose. Each of them will
have at least one type of tire that fits your car. That is
File Transfer because the automotive industry uses standards when
they make cars. It is the same with protocols. Because
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol. Sets the rules that
there are many different manufacturers of network
enable a user on one host to access and transfer
components, they must all use the same standards. In
files to and from another host over a network.
networking, standards are developed by international
FTP is a reliable, connection-oriented, and
standards organizations.
acknowledged file delivery protocol.
Open standards encourage interoperability,
 SFTP - SSH File Transfer Protocol. As an
competition, and innovation. They also guarantee that
extension to Secure Shell (SSH) protocol, SFTP
the product of no single company can monopolize the
can be used to establish a secure file transfer
market or have an unfair advantage over its
session in which the file transfer is encrypted.
competition.
SSH is a method for secure remote login that is
typically used for accessing the command line of A good example of this is when purchasing a wireless
a device. router for the home. There are many different choices
available from a variety of vendors, all of which
 TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol. A simple,
incorporate standard protocols such as IPv4, IPv6, DHCP,
connectionless file transfer protocol with best-
SLAAC, Ethernet, and 802.11 Wireless LAN. These open
effort, unacknowledged file delivery. It uses less
standards also allow a client running the Apple OS X
overhead than FTP.
operating system to download a web page from a web
Web and Web Service server running the Linux operating system. This is
because both operating systems implement the open
 HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol. A set of
standard protocols, such as those in the TCP/IP protocol
rules for exchanging text, graphic images,
suite.
sound, video, and other multimedia files on the
World Wide Web.
Standards organizations are usually vendor-neutral, non-  Internet Architecture Board (IAB) – Responsible
profit organizations established to develop and promote for the overall management and development
the concept of open standards. These organizations are of internet standards.
important in maintaining an open internet with freely
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) –
accessible specifications and protocols that can be
Develops, updates, and maintains internet and
implemented by any vendor.
TCP/IP technologies. This includes the process
A standards organization may draft a set of rules entirely and documents for developing new protocols
on its own or, in other cases, may select a proprietary and updating existing protocols, which are
protocol as the basis for the standard. If a proprietary known as Request for Comments (RFC)
protocol is used, it usually involves the vendor who documents.
created the protocol.
 Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) – Focused
The figure shows the logo for each standards on long-term research related to internet and
organization. TCP/IP protocols such as Anti-Spam Research
Group (ASRG), Crypto Forum Research Group
(CFRG), and Peer-to-Peer Research Group
(P2PRG).

The next figure displays standards organizations

involved with the development and support of TCP/IP
and include IANA and ICANN.

3.4.2. Internet Standards

Various organizations have different responsibilities for

promoting and creating standards for the internet and
TCP/IP protocol.  Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
The figure displays standards organizations involved Numbers (ICANN) – Based in the United States,
with the development and support of the internet. ICANN coordinates IP address allocation, the
management of domain names, and assignment
of other information used in TCP/IP protocols.

 Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) –

Responsible for overseeing and managing IP
address allocation, domain name management,
and protocol identifiers for ICANN.

3.4.3. Electronic and Communications Standards

Other standards organizations have responsibilities for

promoting and creating the electronic and
communication standards used to deliver the IP packets
 Internet Society (ISOC) – Responsible for as electronic signals over a wired or wireless medium.
promoting the open development and evolution
of internet use throughout the world. These standard organizations include the following:

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”) – Organization of
electrical engineering and electronics dedicated to  Fostering competition because products from
advancing technological innovation and creating different vendors can work together
standards in a wide area of industries including power
 Preventing technology or capability changes in
and energy, healthcare, telecommunications, and
one layer from affecting other layers above and
networking. Important IEEE networking standards
below
include 802.3 Ethernet and 802.11 WLAN standard.
Search the internet for other IEEE network standards.  Providing a common language to describe
networking functions and capabilities
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) – Organization is
best known for its standards relating to electrical wiring, As shown in the figure, there are two layered models
connectors, and the 19-inch racks used to mount that are used to describe network operations:
networking equipment.
 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Reference
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) – Model
Organization responsible for developing communication
standards in a variety of areas including radio  TCP/IP Reference ModelLab – Research
equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, Networking Standards
satellite communications, and more. The figure shows
an example of a certified Ethernet cable which was
developed cooperatively by the TIA and the EIA.

International Telecommunications Union-

Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) –
One of the largest and oldest communication standards
organizations. The ITU-T defines standards for video
compression, Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), and
broadband communications, such as a digital subscriber
line (DSL).

3.5. Reference Models

3.5.1. The Benefits of Using a Layered Model

You cannot actually watch real packets travel across a 3.5.2. The OSI Reference Model
real network, the way you can watch the components of
The OSI reference model provides an extensive list of
a car being put together on an assembly line. so, it helps
functions and services that can occur at each layer. This
to have a way of thinking about a network so that you
type of model provides consistency within all types of
can imagine what is happening. A model is useful in
network protocols and services by describing what must
these situations.
be done at a particular layer, but not prescribing how it
Complex concepts such as how a network operates can should be accomplished.
be difficult to explain and understand. For this reason, a
It also describes the interaction of each layer with the
layered model is used to modularize the operations of a
layers directly above and below. The TCP/IP protocols
network into manageable layers.
discussed in this course are structured around both the
These are the benefits of using a layered model to OSI and TCP/IP models. The table shows details about
describe network protocols and operations: each layer of the OSI model. The functionality of each
layer and the relationship between layers will become
 Assisting in protocol design because protocols more evident throughout this course as the protocols
that operate at a specific layer have defined are discussed in more detail.
information that they act upon and a defined
interface to the layers above and below
 instance, the physical layer is referred to as Layer 1 of
OSI Model Description
the OSI model, data link layer is Layer2, and so on.
Layer
3.5.3. The TCP/IP Protocol Model
The application layer contains The TCP/IP protocol model for internetwork
7– protocols used for process-to- communications was created in the early 1970s and is
Application process communications. sometimes referred to as the internet model. This type
of model closely matches the structure of a particular
The presentation layer provides protocol suite. The TCP/IP model is a protocol model
for common representation of the because it describes the functions that occur at each
6– data transferred between layer of protocols within the TCP/IP suite. TCP/IP is also
Presentation application layer services. used as a reference model. The table shows details
about each layer of the OSI model.

The session layer provides

services to the presentation layer
The definitions of the standard and the TCP/IP protocols
to organize its dialogue and to
are discussed in a public forum and defined in a publicly
5 – Session manage data exchange.
available set of IETF RFCs. An RFC is authored by
networking engineers and sent to other IETF members
The transport layer defines for comments.
services to segment, transfer, and
reassemble the data for individual 3.5.4. OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison
4– communications between the end The protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite
Transport devices. can also be described in terms of the OSI reference
model. In the OSI model, the network access layer and
The network layer provides the application layer of the TCP/IP model are further
services to exchange the divided to describe discrete functions that must occur at
individual pieces of data over the these layers.
network between identified end
3 – Network devices. TCP/IP Description
Model Layer
The data link layer protocols
describe methods for exchanging Represents data to the
data frames between devices over 4– user, plus encoding and
2 – Data Link a common media Application dialog control.

The physical layer protocols Supports communication

describe the mechanical, 3– between various devices
electrical, functional, and Transport across diverse networks.
procedural means to activate,
maintain, and de-activate physical
connections for a bit transmission Determines the best path
1 – Physical to and from a network device. 2 – Internet through the network.

Note: Whereas the TCP/IP model layers are referred to Controls the hardware
only by name, the seven OSI model layers are more 1 – Network devices and media that
often referred to by number rather than by name. For Access make up the network.
At the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite This simulation activity is intended to provide a
does not specify which protocols to use when foundation for understanding the TCP/IP protocol suite
transmitting over a physical medium; it only describes and the relationship to the OSI model. Simulation mode
the handoff from the internet layer to the physical allows you to view the data contents being sent across
network protocols. OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the the network at each layer.
necessary procedures to access the media and the
As data moves through the network, it is broken down
physical means to send data over a network.
into smaller pieces and identified so that the pieces can
be put back together when they arrive at the
destination. Each piece is assigned a specific name and
is associated with a specific layer of the TCP/IP and OSI
models. The assigned name is called a protocol data unit
(PDU). Using Packet Tracer simulation mode, you can
view each of the layers and the associated PDU. The
following steps lead the user through the process of
requesting a web page from a web server by using the
web browser application available on a client PC.

Even though much of the information displayed will be

discussed in more detail later, this is an opportunity to
The key similarities are in the transport and network explore the functionality of Packet Tracer and be able to
layers; however, the two models differ in how they visualize the encapsulation process.
relate to the layers above and below each layer: 3.5.5 Packet Tracer – Investigate the TCP-IP and OSI
 OSI Layer 3, the network layer, maps directly to Models in Action
the TCP/IP internet layer. This layer is used to 3.6. Data Encapsulation
describe protocols that address and route
messages through an internetwork. 3.6.1. Segmenting Messages

 OSI Layer 4, the transport layer, maps directly to Knowing the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP
the TCP/IP transport layer. This layer describes protocol model will come in handy when you learn
general services and functions that provide about how data is encapsulated as it moves across a
ordered and reliable delivery of data between network. It is not as simple as a physical letter being
source and destination hosts. sent through the mail system.

 The TCP/IP application layer includes several In theory, a single communication, such as a video or an
protocols that provide specific functionality to a email message with many large attachments, could be
variety of end user applications. The OSI model sent across a network from a source to a destination as
Layers 5, 6, and 7 are used as references for one massive, uninterrupted stream of bits. However,
application software developers and vendors to this would create problems for other devices needing to
produce applications that operate on networks. use the same communication channels or links. These
large streams of data would result in significant delays.
 Both the TCP/IP and OSI models are commonly Further, if any link in the interconnected network
used when referring to protocols at various infrastructure failed during the transmission, the
layers. Because the OSI model separates the complete message would be lost and would have to be
data link layer from the physical layer, it is retransmitted in full.
commonly used when referring to these lower
layers. A better approach is to divide the data into smaller,
more manageable pieces to send over the network.
3.5.5. Packet Tracer – Investigate the TCP/IP and OSI Segmentation is the process of dividing a stream of data
Models in Action into smaller units for transmissions over the network.
Segmentation is necessary because data networks use
the TCP/IP protocol suite send data in individual IP shown in the figure. TCP is responsible for sequencing
packets. Each packet is sent separately, similar to the individual segments.
sending a long letter as a series of individual postcards.
Packets containing segments for the same destination
can be sent over different paths.

This leads to segmenting messages having two primary

benefits:

 Increases speed – Because a large data stream

is segmented into packets, large amounts of
data can be sent over the network without tying
up a communications link. This allows many
different conversations to be interleaved on the
network called multiplexing.
3.6.3. Protocol Data Units
 Increases efficiency -If a single segment is fails
to reach its destination due to a failure in the As application data is passed down the protocol stack on
network or network congestion, only that its way to be transmitted across the network media,
segment needs to be retransmitted instead of various protocol information is added at each level. This
resending the entire data stream. is known as the encapsulation process.

Note: Although the UDP PDU is called datagram, IP

packets are sometimes also referred to as IP datagrams.

The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called

a protocol data unit (PDU). During encapsulation, each
succeeding layer encapsulates the PDU that it receives
from the layer above in accordance with the protocol
being used. At each stage of the process, a PDU has a
different name to reflect its new functions. Although
there is no universal naming convention for PDUs, in this
course, the PDUs are named according to the protocols
of the TCP/IP suite. The PDUs for each form of data are
3.6.2. Sequencing shown in the figure.

The challenge to using segmentation and multiplexing to

transmit messages across a network is the level of
complexity that is added to the process. Imagine if you
had to send a 100-page letter, but each envelope could
only hold one page. Therefore, 100 envelopes would be
required and each envelope would need to be
addressed individually. It is possible that the 100-page
letter in 100 different envelopes arrives out-of-order.
Consequently, the information in the envelope would
need to include a sequence number to ensure that the
receiver could reassemble the pages in the proper order.

In network communications, each segment of the

message must go through a similar process to ensure
that it gets to the correct destination and can be  Data – The general term for the PDU used at the
reassembled into the content of the original message, as application layer
  Segment – Transport layer PDU 3.7.1. Addresses

 Packet – Network layer PDU As you just learned, it is necessary to segment messages
in a network. But those segmented messages will not go
 Frame – Data Link layer PDU
anywhere if they are not addressed properly. This topic
 Bits – Physical layer PDU used when physically gives an overview of network addresses. You will also
transmitting data over the medium get the chance to use the Wireshark tool, which will
help you to ‘view’ network traffic.
Note: If the Transport header is TCP, then it is a
segment. If the Transport header is UDP then it is a The network and data link layers are responsible for
datagram. delivering the data from the source device to the
destination device. As shown in the figure, protocols at
3.6.4. Encapsulation Example both layers contain a source and destination address,
When messages are being sent on a network, the but their addresses have different purposes:
encapsulation process works from top to bottom. At  Network layer source and destination
each layer, the upper layer information is considered addresses – Responsible for delivering the IP
data within the encapsulated protocol. For example, the packet from the original source to the final
TCP segment is considered data within the IP packet. destination, which may be on the same network
or a remote network.

 Data link layer source and destination

addresses – Responsible for delivering the data
link frame from one network interface card
(NIC) to another NIC on the same network.

3.6.5. De-encapsulation Example

This process is reversed at the receiving host and is 3.7.2. Layer 3 Logical Address
known as de-encapsulation. De-encapsulation is the
An IP address is the network layer, or Layer 3, logical
process used by a receiving device to remove one or
address used to deliver the IP packet from the original
more of the protocol headers. The data is de-
source to the final destination, as shown in the figure.
encapsulated as it moves up the stack toward the end-
user application.

The IP packet contains two IP addresses:

 Source IP address – The IP address of the

sending device, which is the original source of
the packet.
3.7. Data Access
  Destination IP address – The IP address of the
receiving device, which is the final destination
of the packet.

The IP addresses indicate the original source IP address

and final destination IP address. This is true whether the
source and destination are on the same IP network or
different IP networks.

An IP address contains two parts:

 Network portion (IPv4) or Prefix (IPv6) – The

left-most part of the address that indicates the
3.7.4. Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Same IP
network in which the IP address is a member. All
Network
devices on the same network will have the same
network portion of the address. When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on
the same network, the data link frame is sent directly to
 Host portion (IPv4) or Interface ID (IPv6) – The
the receiving device. On an Ethernet network, the data
remaining part of the address that identifies a
link addresses are known as Ethernet Media Access
specific device on the network. This portion is
Control (MAC) addresses, as highlighted in the figure.
unique for each device or interface on the
network.

Note: The subnet mask (IPv4) or prefix-length (IPv6) is

used to identify the network portion of an IP address
from the host portion.

3.7.3. Devices on the Same Network

In this example we have a client computer, PC1,

communicating with an FTP server on the same IP
network.

 Source IPv4 address – The IPv4 address of the

sending device, the client computer PC1:
MAC addresses are physically embedded on the
192.168.1.110.
Ethernet NIC.
 Destination IPv4 address – The IPv4 address of
 Source MAC address – This is the data link
the receiving device, FTP server: 192.168.1.9.
address, or the Ethernet MAC address, of the
Notice in the figure that the network portion of both the device that sends the data link frame with the
source IPv4 address and destination IPv4 address are on encapsulated IP packet. The MAC address of the
the same network. Notice in the figure that the network Ethernet NIC of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA,
portion of the source IPv4 address and the network written in hexadecimal notation.
portion of the destination IPv4 address are the same
 Destination MAC address – When the receiving
and therefore; the source and destination are on the
device is on the same network as the sending
same network.
device, this is the data link address of the
receiving device. In this example, the
destination MAC address is the MAC address of
the FTP server: CC-CC-CC-CC-CC-CC, written in
hexadecimal notation.

The frame with the encapsulated IP packet can now be

transmitted from PC1 directly to the FTP server.
3.7.5. Devices on a Remote Network address of the Ethernet interface of PC1 is AA-
AA-AA-AA-AA-AA.
But what are the roles of the network layer address and
the data link layer address when a device is  Destination MAC address – When the receiving
communicating with a device on a remote network? In device, the destination IP address, is on a
this example we have a client computer, PC1, different network from the sending device, the
communicating with a server, named Web Server, on a sending device uses the Ethernet MAC address
different IP network. of the default gateway or router. In this
example, the destination MAC address is the
3.7.6. Role of the Network Layer Addresses
MAC address of the R1 Ethernet interface, 11-
When the sender of the packet is on a different network 11-11-11-11-11. This is the interface that is
from the receiver, the source and destination IP attached to the same network as PC1, as shown
addresses will represent hosts on different networks. in the figure.
This will be indicated by the network portion of the IP
address of the destination host.

 Source IPv4 address – The IPv4 address of the

sending device, the client computer PC1:
192.168.1.110.

 Destination IPv4 address – The IPv4 address of

the receiving device, the server, Web Server:
172.16.1.99.

Notice in the figure that the network portion of the

source IPv4 address and destination IPv4 address are on
different networks. The Ethernet frame with the encapsulated IP packet can
now be transmitted to R1. R1 forwards the packet to the
destination, Web Server. This may mean that R1
forwards the packet to another router or directly to
Web Server if the destination is on a network connected
to R1.

It is important that the IP address of the default gateway

be configured on each host on the local network. All
packets to a destination on remote networks are sent to
the default gateway. Ethernet MAC addresses and the
3.7.7. Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Different default gateway are discussed in more detail in other
IP Networks modules.

When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on 3.7.8. Data Link Addresses
different networks, the Ethernet data link frame cannot
The data link Layer 2 physical address has a different
be sent directly to the destination host because the host
role. The purpose of the data link address is to deliver
is not directly reachable in the network of the sender.
the data link frame from one network interface to
The Ethernet frame must be sent to another device
another network interface on the same network.
known as the router or default gateway. In our example,
the default gateway is R1. R1 has an Ethernet data link Before an IP packet can be sent over a wired or wireless
address that is on the same network as PC1. This allows network, it must be encapsulated in a data link frame,
PC1 to reach the router directly. so it can be transmitted over the physical medium.
 Source MAC address – The Ethernet MAC Host to Router
address of the sending device, PC1. The MAC
  Destination data link address – The physical
address of the NIC that is receiving the data link
frame. This address is either the next hop router
or the address of the final destination device.

Router to Router

Router to Server

As the IP packet travels from host-to-router, router-to-

router, and finally router-to-host, at each point along
the way the IP packet is encapsulated in a new data link
frame. Each data link frame contains the source data link
address of the NIC card sending the frame, and the
destination data link address of the NIC card receiving
the frame.

The Layer 2, data link protocol is only used to deliver the

packet from NIC-to-NIC on the same network. The
router removes the Layer 2 information as it is received
on one NIC and adds new data link information before
forwarding out the exit NIC on its way towards the final
destination.

The IP packet is encapsulated in a data link frame that

contains the following data link information:

 Source data link address – The physical address

of the NIC that is sending the data link frame.