2

Islam Expands
MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

EMPIRE BUILDING In spite of Muslims’ influence on three • caliph • Sufi

internal conflicts, the Muslims continents produced cultural • Umayyads • Abbasids
created a huge empire that blending that has continued • Shi’a • al-Andalus
included lands on three into the modern world. • Sunni • Fatimid
continents.

SETTING THE STAGE When Muhammad died in 632, the community faced a
crisis. Muslims, inspired by the message of Allah, believed they had a duty to
carry his word to the world. However, they lacked a clear way to choose a new
leader. Eventually, the issue of leadership would divide the Muslim world.

Muhammad’s Successors Spread Islam TAKING NOTES

Summarizing Use a table
Muhammad had not named a successor or instructed his followers how to choose to summarize develop-
one. Relying on ancient tribal custom, the Muslim community elected as their ments that occurred in
leader Abu-Bakr, a loyal friend of Muhammad. In 632, Abu-Bakr became the Islam during each ruler’s
first caliph (KAY•lihf), a title that means “successor” or “deputy.” period in power.

“Rightly Guided” Caliphs Abu-Bakr and the next three elected caliphs—Umar, Rulers Period Developments
of Rule in Islam
Uthman, and Ali—all had known Muhammad. They used the Qur’an and Rightly
guided
Muhammad’s actions as guides to leadership. For this, they are known as the caliphs
“rightly guided” caliphs. Their rule was called a caliphate (KAY•lih•FAYT). Umayyads
Abu-Bakr had promised the Muslim community he would uphold what Abbasids
Muhammad stood for. Shortly after the Prophet’s death, some tribes on the
Arabian Peninsula abandoned Islam. Others refused to pay taxes, and a few indi-
viduals even declared themselves prophets. For the sake of Islam, Abu-Bakr
invoked jihad. The word jihad means “striving” and can refer to the inner strug-
gle against evil. However, the word is also used in the Qur’an to mean an armed
struggle against unbelievers. For the next two years, Abu-Bakr applied this
meaning of jihad to encourage and justify the expansion of Islam.
When Abu-Bakr died in 634, the Muslim state controlled all of Arabia. Under
Umar, the second caliph, Muslim armies conquered Syria and lower Egypt,
which were part of the Byzantine Empire. They also took parts of the Sassanid
Empire. The next two caliphs, Uthman and Ali, continued to expand Muslim ter-
ritory. By 750, the Muslim Empire stretched 6,000 miles from the Atlantic Ocean
to the Indus River. (See the map on page 261.)
Reasons for Success The four “rightly guided” caliphs made great progress in
their quest to spread Islam. Before his death, Muhammad had expressed a desire
to spread the faith to the peoples of the north. Muslims of the day saw their vic-
tories as a sign of Allah’s support and drew energy and inspiration from their faith.
They fought to defend Islam and were willing to struggle to extend its word.
The Muslim World 269
 The Muslim armies were well disci-
plined and expertly commanded.
However, the success of the armies was
also due to weakness in the two empires
north of Arabia. The Byzantine and
Sassanid empires had been in conflict
for a long period of time and were
exhausted militarily.
Another reason for Muslim success
was the persecution suffered by people
under Byzantine or Sassanid rule because
they did not support the official state reli-
gions, Christianity or Zoroastrianism.
The persecuted people often welcomed
the invaders and their cause and chose to
accept Islam. They were attracted by the
appeal of the message of Islam, which
offered equality and hope in this world.
They were also attracted by the economic
benefit for Muslims of not having to pay Analyzing Causes
a poll tax. Why were
Muslims successful
Treatment of Conquered Peoples
conquerers?
Because the Qur’an forbade forced con-
version, Muslims allowed conquered
peoples to follow their own religion.
Christians and Jews, as “people of the
book,” received special consideration.
They paid a poll tax each year in
exchange for exemption from military
duties. However, they were also subject
▲ From 632 to 750, to various restrictions on their lives. Before entering the newly conquered city of
highly mobile Damascus in the northern Arabian province of Syria, Khalid ibn al-Walid, one of
troops mounted on
camels were
Abu-Bakr’s chief generals, detailed the terms of surrender:
successful in
conquering lands in PRIMARY SOURCE
the name of Allah. In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful, this is what Khalid ibn al-Walid
would grant to the inhabitants of Damascus. . . . He promises to give them security for
their lives, property and churches. Their city wall shall not be demolished, neither shall
any Muslim be quartered in their houses. Thereunto we give to them the pact of Allah
and the protection of His Prophet, the Caliphs and the believers. So long as they pay the
tax, nothing but good shall befall them.
KHALID IBN AL-WALID, quoted in Early Islam

Tolerance like this continued after the Muslim state was established. Though
Christians and Jews were not allowed to spread their religion, they could be offi-
cials, scholars, and bureaucrats.

Internal Conflict Creates a Crisis

Despite spectacular gains on the battlefield, the Muslim community had difficulty
maintaining a unified rule. In 656, Uthman was murdered, starting a civil war in
which various groups struggled for power. Ali, as Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-
law, was the natural choice as a successor to Uthman. However, his right to rule

270 Chapter 10
 was challenged by Muawiya, a governor of Syria. Then, in 661, Ali, too, was assas-
sinated. The elective system of choosing a caliph died with him.
A family known as the Umayyads (oo•MYE•yadz) then came to power. The
Umayyads moved the Muslim capital to Damascus. This location, away from
Mecca, made controlling conquered territories easier. However, the Arab Muslims
felt it was too far away from their lands. In addition, the Umayyads abandoned the
simple life of previous caliphs and began to surround themselves with wealth and
ceremony similar to that of non-Muslim rulers. These actions, along with the lead-
ership issue, gave rise to a fundamental division in the Muslim community.
Sunni–Shi’a Split In the interest of
peace, the majority of Muslims Basic Differences Between
accepted the Umayyads’ rule. However, Sunni and Shi’a Muslims
a minority continued to resist. This Sunni Shi’a
group developed an alternate view of
• Believe that the first four • Believe that Ali, the Prophet’s
the office of caliph. In this view, the
caliphs were “rightly guided” son-in-law, should have
caliph needed to be a descendant of the
succeeded Muhammad
Prophet. This group was called Shi’a,
meaning the “party” of Ali. Members • Believe that Muslim rulers • Believe that all Muslim rulers
of this group are called Shi’ites. Those should follow the Sunna, or should be descended from
who did not outwardly resist the rule Muhammad’s example Muhammad; do not recognize
of the Umayyads later became known the authority of the Sunna

as Sunni, meaning followers of • Claim that the Shi’a have • Claim that the Sunni have
Muhammad’s example. Another group, distorted the meaning of distorted the meaning of
the Sufi (SOO•fee), rejected the luxu- various passages in the Qur’an various passages in the Qur’an
rious life of the Umayyads. They pur-
sued a life of poverty and devotion to a Percentage Today
of Sunni and Shi’a
spiritual path. Muslims Worldwide
Shi’a
Vigorous religious and political 16%
Sunni Other
opposition to the Umayyad caliphate 83% 1%
led to its downfall. Rebel groups over-
Summarizing threw the Umayyads in the year 750.
What are three
groups within Islam
The most powerful of those groups, the
and how do they Abbasids (AB•uh•SIHDZ), took control
differ? of the empire.

Control Extends Over Three Continents

When the Abbasids came to power in 750, they ruthlessly murdered the remaining
members of the Umayyad family. One prince named Abd al-Rahman escaped the
slaughter and fled to Spain. There he set up an Umayyad caliphate. Spain had
already been conquered and settled by Muslims from North Africa, who were
known as Berbers. The Berber armies advanced north to within 200 miles of Paris
before being halted at the Battle of Tours in 732. They then settled in southern
Spain, where they helped form an extraordinary Muslim state in al-Andalus
(al•AN•duh•LUS).
Abbasids Consolidate Power To solidify power, the Abbasids moved the capital
of the empire in 762 to a newly created city, Baghdad, in central Iraq. The location
on key trade routes gave the caliph access to trade goods, gold, and information
about the far-flung empire.
The Abbasids developed a strong bureaucracy to conduct the huge empire’s
affairs. A treasury kept track of the money flow. A special department managed the
business of the army. Diplomats from the empire were sent to courts in Europe,
The Muslim World 271
 Africa, and Asia to conduct imperial business. To support this bureaucracy, the
Abbasids taxed land, imports and exports, and non-Muslims’ wealth.
Rival Groups Divide Muslim Lands The Abbasid caliphate lasted from 750 to
1258. During that time, the Abbasids increased their authority by consulting reli-
gious leaders. But they failed to keep complete political control of the immense ter-
ritory. Independent Muslim states sprang up, and local leaders dominated many
▼ This 13th- smaller regions. The Fatimid (FAT•uh•MIHD) caliphate was formed by Shi’a
century Muslims who claimed descent from Muhammad’s daughter Fatima. The caliphate
miniature shows
began in North Africa and spread across the Red Sea to western Arabia and Syria.
Arab traders
navigating the However, the Fatimids and other smaller states were still connected to the Abbasid
Indian Ocean. caliphate through religion, language, trade, and the economy.
Muslim Trade Network At this time, two major sea-trading net-
works existed—the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean.
Through these networks, the Muslim Empire could engage in sea
trade with the rest of the world. The land network connected the
Silk Roads of China and India with Europe and Africa. Muslim Recognizing
merchants needed only a single language, Arabic, and a single Effects
currency, the Abbasid dinar, to travel in the empire. Why would a
To encourage the flow of trade, Muslim money changers set up single language and
a single currency be
banks in cities throughout the empire. Banks offered letters of
such an advantage
credit, called sakks, to merchants. A merchant with a sakk from a to a trader?
bank in Baghdad could exchange it for cash at a bank in any other
city in the empire. In Europe, sakk was pronounced “check.”
Thus, using checks dates back to the Muslim Empire.
At one end of the Muslim Empire was the city of Córdoba in al-
Andalus. In the tenth century, this city had a population of 200,000; Paris, in contrast,
had 38,000. The city attracted poets, philosophers, and scientists. Many non-Muslims
adopted Muslim customs, and Córdoba became a dazzling center of Muslim culture.
In Córdoba, Damascus, Cairo, and Baghdad, a cultural blending of people
fueled a period of immense achievements in the arts and the sciences.

SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• caliph • Umayyads • Shi’a • Sunni • Sufi • Abbasids • al-Andalus • Fatimid

USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING

2. Which period of rule do you 3. How did Muslims under the 6. EVALUATING COURSES OF ACTION Do you think
think was most effective? rightly guided caliphs treat Muhammad should have appointed a successor? Why or
conquered peoples? why not?
Rulers Period Developments
of Rule in Islam 4. Why did the Shi’a oppose the 7. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS What attracted non-Muslims to
Rightly rule of the Umayyads? Islam and Islamic culture?
guided
caliphs 5. What tied the Abbasid 8. MAKING INFERENCES What does opposition to the
caliphate and the independent luxurious life of the Umayyads suggest about what is
Umayyads
Muslim states together? important to most Muslims?
Abbasids
9. WRITING ACTIVITY EMPIRE BUILDING Write a one-
paragraph summary in which you determine whether or
not the Muslim Empire was well run.

INTERNET ACTIVITY
Use the Internet to find out the number of Sunni and Shi’a INTERNET KEYWORD
Muslims today in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Create a pie country studies, Sunni, Shi’a
chart showing the results of your research.
272 Chapter 10