The Flower and the Land

INDRAPURA (CHAMPA)

Dr Uday Dokras

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 INTRODUCTION
History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia

Historic Indosphere cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of elements of Indian elements
such as the honorific titles, naming of people, naming of places, mottos of organisations and educational
institutes as well as adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and
dance, traditional Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has been also aided by the ongoing
historic expansion of Indian diaspora.

Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290 BCE to the 15th
century CE, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were incorporated into local political systems.
Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the Indian Subcontinent had established trade, cultural
and political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Bhutan, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia and Champa. This led
to the Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within the Indosphere, Southeast
Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Mandala (polities, city states and
confederacies).[
Indian culture itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also including early
Southeast Asian, specifically Austroasiatic influence onto early Indians. A reason for the
acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian

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culture already had similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which can be
explained by earlier Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as
early Munda and Mon Khmer groups), as well as later Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and
linguistic influence onto various Indian groups. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski,
Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic,
and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and traditions.
India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous traditions. This distinctly
Indian cultural system was later adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social construct
and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity, which rulers gained power and stability,
transforming small chieftains into regional powers.[3]
Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, the Pallava
empire which ruled the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula did not impose cultural
restrictions on people who wished to cross the sea. [citation needed] The Chola empire, which
executed the South-East Asian campaign of Rajendra Chola I and the Chola invasion of
Srivijaya, profoundly impacted Southeast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges with
Southeast Asia on the sea routes. Whereas Buddhism thrived and became the main religion in
many countries of Southeast Asia, it became a minority religion in India.
The peoples of maritime Southeast Asia — present-day Malaysia, Indonesia and
the Philippines — are thought to have migrated southward from South China sometime
between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of the civilization which existed on the Indian
Subcontinent gradually became predominant among them, and it also became predominant
among the peoples which lived on the Southeast Asian mainland.
Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the dominating
influences in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to
these states from India and for many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration.
Eventually the states of the mainland mainly became Buddhist.
The key drivers of the Indianisation of Southeast Asia were the Austronesianand Indian
maritime trade especially the Spice trade and the Maritime Silk Road, the emissaries
of Ashoka, and the Buddhist missions of Emperor Ashoka the Great. Indian ship on lead coin
of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the
Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.
Austronesian sailors from Island Southeast Asia first established contact and trade
with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 500 BCE. This resulted in the introduction of
Southeast Asian material culture and cultigens to South Asia; as well as connecting the
material cultures of India and China. These early Austronesian trade routes linking Island
Southeast Asia with India also became the maritime aspect of the wider spice trade network,
which were later also used by Tamil and Arab maritime trade. The sustained contact between
Southeast Asia and South Asia resulted in cultural exchange, in addition to the exchange of
commodities.
The first clear mention of a navy occurs in the mythological
epic the Mahabharata. Historically, however, the first attested attempt to organise a navy in
India, as described by Megasthenes (c. 350—290 BCE), is attributed to Chandragupta
Maurya (reign 322—298 BCE). The Mauryan empire (322–185 BCE) navy continued till the
times of emperor Ashoka (reign 273—232 BCE), who used it to send massive diplomatic
missions to Greece, Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia and Epirus. Following nomadic
interference in Siberia—one of the sources for India's bullion—India diverted its attention to
the Malay peninsula, which became its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the

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world via a series of maritime trade routes.The period under the Mauryan empire also
witnessed various other regions of the world engage increasingly in the Indian Ocean
maritime voyages.

Austronesian proto-historic and historic maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean/
Buddhist missions

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In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out
nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This
tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. To Sri Lanka, he sent
his own son Mahinda. Next, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as
Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra,
Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the
following missionaries. During his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to
Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.
Others argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.
Early Common Era—High Middle Ages

During this era, Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be
associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which
would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and
promotion of trading activities. Buddhism, in particular, travelled alongside the maritime
trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.
In Java and Borneo, the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics, and
trading posts here later served Chinese and Arab markets.Maritime history of Odisha, known
as Kalinga in ancient times, started before 350 BC according to early sources. The people of
this region of eastern India along the coast of the Bay of Bengal sailed up and down
the Indian coast, and travelled to Indo China and throughout Maritime Southeast
Asia, introducing elements of their culture to the people with whom they traded. The Chola
dynasty (200—1279) reached the peak of its influence and power during the medieval
period. Emperors Rajaraja Chola I (reigned 985–1014) and Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1012–
1044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits. At its peak, the Chola
Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north.
[27]
The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola
suzerainty.Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya and Srivijaya was the largest
empire in Maritime Southeast Asia.Goods and ideas from India began to play a major role in
the "Indianization" of the wider world from this period.The kingdoms
of Vijaynagara and Kalinga established footholds in Malaya, Sumatra and Western Java.
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas
to China and Southeast Asia.

Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and
commercial activity.The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east
coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.The Tang dynasty (618–
907) of China, the Srivijaya empire in Maritime Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and
the Abbasid caliphate at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
During the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765–790), the Chera dynasty were a
close ally of the Pallavas.Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the
help of a Chera king.[42] Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country
were common. Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-
Ghafiqi (1150 CE), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century). Chinese
traveler Xuanzang mentions the town of Puri where "merchants depart for distant countries.”

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Maritime route
Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the maritime section of historic Silk
Road that connects China to Southeast Asia, Indonesian archipelago, Indian
subcontinent, Arabian peninsula, all the way to Egypt and finally Europe [The trade route
encompassed numbers of bodies of waters; including South China Sea, Strait of
Malacca, Indian Ocean, Gulf of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The
maritime route overlaps with historic Southeast Asian maritime trade, Spice trade, Indian
Ocean trade and after 8th century – the Arabian naval trade network. The network also extend
eastward to East China Sea and Yellow Sea to connect China with Korean
Peninsula and Japanese archipelago. The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale
missionary movement in the history of world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to
assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs
together. Buddha's community of followers, the Sangha, consisted of male and female monks
and laity. These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha. As
the number of members within the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger
cities were able to afford having the Buddha and his disciples visit. It is believed that under
the control of the Kushans, Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the
middle of the first century to the middle of the third century. Extensive contacts started in the
2nd century, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the
Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, due to the missionary efforts of a great number of
Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists
scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian, or Kuchean.

Fragment of a wall painting depicting Buddha from a stupa in Miran along the Silk Road (200AD - 400AD)/A blue-
eyed Central Asian monk teaching an East-Asian monk, Bezeklik, Turfan, eastern Tarim Basin, China, 9th century;
the monk on the right is possibly Tocharian, although more likely Sogdian. // Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by
Indian Buddhist King Ashoka, 3rd century BCE; see Edicts of Ashoka, from Kandahar. This edict advocates the
adoption of "godliness" using the Greek term Eusebeia for Dharma. Kabul Museum.

The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE,
according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese
Emperor Ming (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast,
East, and Central Asia. Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary
forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.

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One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The
Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called
the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became
the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk.
Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first Buddhist text translations into the Chinese
language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of Merv, in due course and with the
coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the
2nd century.Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor
Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the
religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.
From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to
India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures.
There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The
Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were
both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement
of Buddhism first gained influence in the Khotan region.[62] The Mahayana, which was more
of a "pan-Buddhist movement" than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in
northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at
first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle" are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts
were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed
in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism
were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road. With the
rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This
form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality,
including material wealth." It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point;
this was often difficult for followers to understand.
During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, merchants played a large role in the spread of religion,
in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism an
appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, merchants supported Buddhist
monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere
to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign
encounters as they traveled. Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the
communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. As a
result, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized
marketplaces, lodging, and storage. The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped
the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese
society . The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century
with the rise of Islam in Central Asia.
Funan

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Angkor Wat
The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread importance was the Kingdom of
Funan founded in the 1st century CE in what is now Cambodia — according to legend, after
the marriage of a merchant Brahmin Kaundinya I with princess Soma who was the daughter
of the chieftain of the local Nāga clan. These local inhabitants were Khom, referring to a
group of people in the Chao Phraya River Basin in Thailand to Mae Kong river in Laos and
Cambodia. Funan flourished for some 500 years. It carried on a prosperous trade with India
and China, and its engineers developed an extensive canal system. An elite practised
statecraft, art and science, based on Indian culture. Vassal kingdoms spread to southern
Vietnam in the east and to the Malay Peninsula in the west.
In late 6th century CE, Funan empire is collapse and descendent of Funan Dynasty evacuated
to the sea in the South to Java Island, currently Indonesia and established The Shailendra
dynasty.
Chenla and Angkor
In late 6th century CE, dynastic struggles caused the collapse of the Funan empire. It was
succeeded by another Hindu-Khmer state, Chenla, which lasted until the 9th century. Then
a Khom king, Jayavarman II (about 800–850) established a capital at Angkor in central
Cambodia. He founded a cult which identified the king with the Hindu God Shiva – one of
the triad of Hindu gods, Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the god symbolising
destruction and reproduction. The Angkor empire flourished from the 9th to the early 13th
century. It reached the peak of its fame under Jayavarman VII at the end of the 12th century,
when The Influence from Indian architectures come through Ancient Khmer
Highway from Lavo Kingdom, Mon kingdom of Dwaravati of Thailand in the west and into
Champa in the east. Its most celebrated memorial is the great temple of Angkor Wat, built
early in the 12th century. This summarises the position on the South East Asian mainland
until about the 12th century. Meanwhile, from about the 6th century, and until the 14th
century, there was a series of great maritime empires based on the Indonesian islands of
Sumatra and Java. In early days these Indians came mostly from the ancient kingdom
of Kalinga, on the southeastern coast of India. Indians in Indonesia are still known as
"Klings", derived from Kalinga.
As a vassal of the Indianized Javanese Hindu empire of Majapahit (12th - 16th century)

Nagarakretagama, the chronicles of the Majapahit empire called Timor a tributary,but as

Portuguese chronologist Tomé Pires wrote in the 16th century, all islands east of Java were
called "Timor" Indonesian nationalist used the Majapahit chronicles to claim East Timor as
part of Indonesia.
Timor is mentioned in the 13th-century Chinese Zhu Fan Zhi, where it is called Ti-wu and is
noted for its sandalwood. It is called Ti-men in the History of Song of 1345. Writing towards
1350, Wang Dayuan refers to a Ku-li Ti-men, which is a corruption of Giri Timor, meaning
island of Timor.Giri from "mountain" in Sanskrit, thus "mountainous island of Timor".
Chiefdoms or polities
Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or
princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is the Wehali or Wehale
kingdom in central Timor, to which the Tetum, Bunak and Kemak ethnic groups were
aligned.

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History of Indonesia § Hindu-Buddhist civilisations

Aerial view of 9th century Borobudur, the elaborate stupas took the form of a step pyramid and mandala plan, built
by King Samaratungga of Shailendra dynasty, ruler of Mataram Kingdom./An exquisite statue
of Prajñāpāramitā from 13th century Singhasari, East Java, seated in lotus position on a lotus
throne performing dharmachakra-mudra.

Approximately for more than a millennia, between 5th to 15th centuries, the various
Indianised states and empires flourished in the Indonesian archipelago; from the era
of Tarumanagara to Majapahit. Though founded possibly by either early Indian settlers or by
native polities that adopted Indian culture, and have maintaining diplomatic contacts with
India, these archipelagic Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms remained politically independent from
the kingdoms of Indian subcontinent.
Srivijaya
The Indonesian archipelago saw the rise of Hindu-Buddhist empires of Sumatra and Java. In
the islands of Southeast Asia, one of the first organised state to achieve fame was the
Buddhist Malay kingdom of Srivijaya, with its capital at Palembang in southern Sumatra. Its
commercial pre-eminence was based on command of the sea route from India to China
between Sumatra and the Malay penninsula (later known as the Straits of Malacca). In the 6th
– 7th centuries Srivijaya succeeded Funan as the leading state in Southeast Asia. Its ruler was
the overlord of the Malay penninsula and western Java as well as Sumatra. During the era of
Srivijaya, Buddhism became firmly entrenched there.
Sailendra
The expansion of Srivijaya was resisted in eastern Java, where the powerful
Buddhist Sailendra dynasty arose. From the 7th century onwards there was great activity in
temple building in central Java. The most impressive of the ruins is at Borobudur, considered
to have been the largest Buddhist temple in the world. Sailendra rule spread to southern
Sumatra, and up to Malay penninsula to Cambodia (where it was replaced by
the Angkorian kingdom). In the 9th century, the Sailendras moved to Sumatra, and a union of
Srivijaya and the Sailendras formed an empire which dominated much of Southeast Asia for
the next five centuries. After 500 Years of supremacy, Srivijaya was superseded by
Majapahit.

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Mataram kingdom

The 9th-century Shivaistic temple of Prambanan in Central Java near Yogyakarta, the largest
Hindu temple in Indonesia
In the 10th century, Mataram to the challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting in the
destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century. Restored by
King Airlangga (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death and the new state of Kediri
was formed in eastern Java.
Kediri kingdom
Kediri kingdom, spread its influence to the eastern part of Southeast Asia and became the
centre of Javanese culture for the next two centuries. The spice trade was now becoming of
increasing importance, as the demand by European countries for spices grew. Before they
learned to keep sheep and cattle alive in the winter, they had to eat salted meat, made
palatable by the addition of spices. One of the main sources was the Maluku Islands (or
"Spice Islands") in Indonesia, and Kediri became a strong trading nation.
Singhasari kingdom
In the 13th century, however, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown by a revolution,
and Singhasari arose in east Java. The domains of this new state expanded under the rule of
its warrior-king Kertanegara. He was killed by a prince of the previous Kediri dynasty, who
then established the last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom, Majapahit.
Majapahit empire
With the departure of the Sailendras and the fall of Singhasari, a new Majapahit kingdom
appeared in eastern Java, which reverted from Buddhism to Hinduism. By the middle of the
14th century, Majapahit controlled most of Java, Sumatra and the Malay peninsula, part
of Borneo, the southern Celebes and the Moluccas. It also exerted considerable influence on
the mainland.
Funan kingdom
The first indigenous kingdom to emerge in Indochina was referred to in Chinese histories as
the Kingdom of Funan and encompassed an area of modern Cambodia, and the coasts of
southern Vietnam and southern Thailand since the 1st century CE. Funan was an Indianised
kingdom, that had incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft,
administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture and engaged in profitable Indian
Ocean trade.
Champa kingdom

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By the 2nd century CE, Austronesian settlers had established an Indianised kingdom known
as Champa along modern central Vietnam. The Cham people established the first settlements
near modern Champasak in Laos. Funan expanded and incorporated the Champasak region
by the sixth century CE, when it was replaced by its successor polity Chenla. Chenla
occupied large areas of modern-day Laos as it accounts for the earliest kingdom on Laotian
soil.
Chenla kingdom
The capital of early Chenla was Shrestapura which was located in the vicinity
of Champasak and the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Wat Phu. Wat Phu is a vast temple
complex in southern Laos which combined natural surroundings with ornate sandstone
structures, which were maintained and embellished by the Chenla peoples until 900 CE, and
were subsequently rediscovered and embellished by the Khmer in the 10th century. By the
8th century CE Chenla had divided into “Land Chenla” located in Laos, and “Water Chenla”
founded by Mahendravarman near Sambor Prei Kuk in Cambodia. Land Chenla was known
to the Chinese as “Po Lou” or “Wen Dan” and dispatched a trade mission to the Tang
Dynasty court in 717 CE. Water Chenla, would come under repeated attack from Champa,
the Medang sea kingdoms in Indonesia based in Java, and finally pirates. From the instability
the Khmer emerged.
Khmer kingdom
Under the king Jayavarman II the Khmer Empire began to take shape in the 9th century CE
Dvaravati city state kingdoms
In the area which is modern northern and central Laos, and northeast Thailand the Mon
people established their own kingdoms during the 8th century CE, outside the reach of the
contracting Chenla kingdoms. By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon
peoples had coalesced to create the Dvaravati kingdoms. In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura
(Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the
middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally
similar and introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries throughout the
region.

The Malay peninsula was settled by prehistoric people 80,000 years ago. Another batch of
peoples the deutro Malay migrated from southern China within 10,000 years ago. Upon
arrival in the peninsular some of them mix with the Australoid. This gave the appearance of
the Malays. It was suggested that the visiting ancient Dravidians named the peoples of
Malaysia peninsular and Sumatera as "Malay ur" meant hills and city based on the
geographical terrain of Peninsular Malay and Sumatera. Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek:
Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος; c. 90 – c. 168), known in English as Ptolemy, was a Greek
geographer, astronomer, and astrologer who had written about Golden Chersonese, which
indicates trade with the Indian Sub-Continent and China has existed since the 1st century
Hinduism and Buddhism from India dominated early regional history, reaching their peak
during the reign of the Sumatra-based Srivijaya civilisation, whose influence extended
through Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula and much of Borneo from the 7th to the 13th
centuries, which later gradually defeated and converted to Islam in 14th and 15th century
before the European colonisation began in 16th century.
In the first millennium CE, Malays became the dominant race on the peninsula. The small
early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of

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Southeast Asia.[89] Indian influence in the region dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE.
Tamil culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the Tamil Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th
century.

Avalokiteshvara statue found in Perak, 8th–9th century bronze./ The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating
to the 4th–5th century CE, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant, Buddha Gupta, as an expression of
gratitude for his safe arrival after a voyage to the Malay peninsula. It was found in Seberang Perai,
Malaysia and is kept in the National Museum, Calcutta, India.
In ancient Indian literature, the term Suvarnadvipa or the "Golden Peninsula" is used
in Ramayana, and some argued that it may be a reference to the Malay Peninsula. The ancient
Indian text Vayu Purana also mentioned a place named Malayadvipa where gold mines may
be found, and this term has been proposed to mean possibly Sumatra and the Malay
Peninsula.[91] The Malay Peninsula was shown on Ptolemy's map as the "Golden
Khersonese". He referred to the Straits of Malacca as Sinus Sabaricus.
Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC.Shards of
Chinese pottery have been found in Borneo dating from the 1st century following
the southward expansion of the Han Dynasty.[94] In the early centuries of the first millennium,
the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism,
religions which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in
Malaysia.The Sanskrit writing system was used as early as the 4th century.
Indianised Hindu Malay kingdoms (3rd century to 7th century
Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Malay kingdoms as vassal of Srivijaya empire (7th - 13th
century)[edit]
Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the Malay peninsula was under the
Buddhist Srivijaya empire. The site of Srivijaya's centre is thought be at a river mouth in
eastern Sumatra, based near what is now Palembang. [97] For over six centuries
the Maharajahs of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the
archipelago. The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community
leaders) swearing allegiance to the central lord for mutual profit
Relationship of the Srivijaya empire with the Tamil Chola empire
Chola empire also had profound impact on Southeast Asia, who executed South-East Asia
campaign of Rajendra Chola I and Chola invasion of Srivijaya.The relation between Srivijaya

12
and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but
during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire invaded Srivijaya cities.[99] In 1025
and 1026 Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire,
the Tamil emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to waste. Kedah—known
as Kedaram, Cheh-Cha (according to I-Ching) or Kataha, in ancient Pallava or Sanskrit—
was in the direct route of the invasions and was ruled by the Cholas from 1025. A second
invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty who conquered Kedah in the
late 11th century. The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a
Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty
of Srivijaya, which had exerted influence over Kedah, Pattani and as far as Ligor. During the
reign of Kulothunga Chola I Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya
province kedah in the late 11th century.The expedition of the Chola Emperors had such a
great impression to the Malay people of the medieval period that their name was mentioned
in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah MelayaEven
today the Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia as many Malaysian princes have names
ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan.
Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century CE, describes goods from Kedaram heaped in
the broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Indian drama, Kaumudhimahotsva, refers
to Kedah as Kataha-nagari. The Agnipurana also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha
with one of its boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe is Gunung Jerai.
Stories from the Katasaritasagaram describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The
Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king Chandrabhanu used
it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted
in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and in the Sri Lankan
chronicles, Mahavamsa.
Decline of the Srivijaya empire and conflicts between its capital and its former vassal
states (12th - 13th century)[edit]
At times, the Khmer kingdom, the Siamese kingdom, and even the Chola kingdom tried to
exert control over the smaller Malay states. [89] The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th
century as the relationship between the capital and its vassal states broke down. Wars with
the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and it may have also waged wars
with the Indian states. In the 11th century, the centre of power shifted to Malayu, a port
which was possibly located further up the Sumatran coast near the Jambi River.[98] The power
of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by the spread of Islam. Areas which were
converted to Islam early, such as Aceh, broke away from Srivijaya's control. By the late 13th
century, the Siamese kings of Sukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the
14th century, the Hindu Java-based Majapahit empire came into possession of the peninsula.
[97]

Defeat and conversion to Islamic sultanates in 14th and 15th century[edit]

In the 14th century that first Islamic sultanate was established. The adoption of Islam in the
14th century saw the rise of a number of sultanates, the most prominent of which was
the Sultanate of Malacca. Islam had a profound influence on the Malay people.
The Portuguese were the first European colonial powers to establish themselves on the Malay
Peninsula and Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641.
However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases
at Jesselton, Kuching, Penang and Singapore, ultimately secured their hegemony across the
territory that is now Malaysia. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 defined the boundaries
between British Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies (which became Indonesia). A fourth

13
phase of foreign influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs
of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.[107]
European colonisation and modern era (16th century - present day)[edit]
Colonisation commenced form European colonisation from 16th century and ended in 19th
century.

Map of South-east Asia c. 1300 CE, showing the Sukhothai kingdom/Phimai historical
park\Phimai historical park established around 11th-12th Century CE.
Thailand's relationship with India spans over a thousand years and understandably resulted in
an adaptation of Hindu culture to suit the Thai environment. Evidence of strong religious,
cultural and linguistic links abound.
Propagation of Buddhism in Thailand by emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE)
Historically, the cultural and economic interaction between the two countries can be traced to
roughly around the 6th century B.C. The single most significant cultural contribution of
India, for which Thailand is greatly indebted to India, is Buddhism. Propagated in Thailand in
the 3rd century B.C. by Buddhist monks sent by King Asoka, it was adopted as the state
religion of Thailand and has ruled the hearts and minds of Thais ever since. Presently
58,000,000 Thais, an overwhelming 94% of the total Thai populace adheres to Buddhism.
However, direct contact can be said to have begun only in the 3rd century B.C. when King
Asoka sent Buddhist monks to propagate Buddhism in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Besides
Buddhism, Thailand has also adopted other typically Indian religious and cultural traditions.
The ceremonies and rites especially as regards the Monarchy evidence a strong Hindu
influence.
One of the strongest evidence is Phimai Historical Park in Nakhon Ratchasima established
around 11th-12th Century CE.
Sukhothai period: Settlement of Indian traders and Brahmins in Thailand (1275–1350)
The Indians who moved into Thailand in the Sukhothai period (1275–1350) were either
merchants who came to Siam or Thailand, for the purpose of trading or Brahmans who
played an important role in the Siamese court as experts in astrology and in conducting
ceremonies. The first group of Brahmans who entered Siam before the founding of Sukhothai
as the first capital of Siam (1275–1350) popularized Hindu beliefs and traditions. During the

14
Sukhothai period Brahman temples already existed. Brahmans conducted ceremonies in the
court. The concepts of divine kingship and royal ceremonies are clear examples of the
influence of Brahmanism.
The Coronation of the Thai monarch are practiced more or less in its original form even up to
the present reign. The Thai idea that the king is a reincarnation of the Hindu deity Vishnu was
adopted from Indian tradition. (Though this belief no longer exists today, the tradition to call
each Thai king of the present Chakri dynasty Rama (Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu) with
an ordinal number, such as Rama I, Rama II etc. is still in practice.)
Ayutthaya period: Settlement of more Indian Tamil traders in Thailand (1350–1767
CE)
In the Ayutthaya kingdom era (1350–1767), more Tamil merchants entered the South of the
country by boat as evidenced by the statues of Hindu gods excavated in the South.
Later migration of Indians to Thailand (1855 CE - present day)
After the year 1855, the Tamils who migrated to Thailand can be classified into three groups
according to the religion they believed in, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.
Indian cultural influence on Thailand
Establishment of Indianised Hindu kingdom of Champa by Indonesian rulers (10th
century -)
In south-central Vietnam the Chams, a people of Indonesian stock, established the Hinduised
kingdom of Champa c. 400. Subject to periodic invasions by the Annamese and by the
Khmers of Cambodia, Champa survived and prospered. In 1471, a Vietnamese army of
approximately 260,000, invaded Champa under Emperor Lê Thánh Tông . The invasion
began as a consequence of Cham King's Trà Toàn attack on Vietnam in 1470. The
Vietnamese committed genocide against the Cham slaughtering approximately 60,000. The
Vietnamese destroyed, burnt and raided massive parts of Champa, seizing the entire
kingdom. Thousands of Cham escaped to Cambodia, the remaining were forced to assimilate
into Vietnamese culture. Today, only 80,000 Cham remain in Vietnam.
Influence of Indian-origin Buddhism on Vietnam via Chinese culture
Vietnam, or then known as Annam , experienced little Hindu influence – usually via Champa.
Unlike other Southeast Asian countries (except for Singapore and the Philippines), Vietnam
was influenced by the Indian-origin religion Buddhism via the strong impact of culture of
China.
South-East Asian Hindu temples

Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century),
examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled
after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.

15
Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE from
the Funan site of Oc Eo in the Mekong Delta. They were probably dedicated to a sun god,
Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a
small stepped pond.
The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the
mainland Southeast Asia is the Võ Cạnh inscription of Champa dated to 2nd or 3rd century
CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century CE. Prior to the 14th-century
local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often
mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-
East Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both.
Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on
Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles. However, the
Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple
in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as
if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple
building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their
own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more
conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of
Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. [43] Additionally, unlike the
Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with
the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of
gods.Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the
Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century), and the
Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century)

16
 The where and what of CHAMPA

Champa is not just a city, it’s a breathing thriving civilization which has its origin in the
Puranas. This city stands proof to the various facts from the Ramayana, Mahabharatha time
which are often referred to as Mythology by our historians. Cham’s CHAMPA Empire
Shares Its Name With one Ancient City in Central India, but more so from the favourite
flower of Goddess Saraswati.

An ancient city located in present-day Madhya Pradesh, Champa is a familiar name for
readers of ancient religious and literary texts. The kingdom of Champa which contrary to
popular notion, is not entirely fictional. According to historical records, Champa is a city
likely to have been located in central India, what is now the state of Madhya Pradesh. The
city finds mention in numerous records as well as tales, which suggest that it was a capital
city and an socio-political centre.

It is believed that Champa was a part of the Avanti kingdom, an ancient Indian janapada.
Puranic records suggest that Avanti was split by the Vindhyas into two parts—while the
capital was Ujjayini, located in the north, and was the headquarters of the Southern part.
Though historical accounts and stories offer conflicting views, the city is considered to
have been the erstwhile capital of the Haihayas, an ancient confederacy of five clans that
ruled over large parts of Western and Central India.

Sanskrit place-names in South East Asian Countries are formed with the help of theonymes
taken from the Indian faiths and words are derived from nouns and adjectives denoting
positive, favourable and auspicious notions. Simply put, they are related to hindu gods and
goddesses or dieties. Before the conquest of Champa by the Đại Việt ruler Le Thanh Tong in
1471, the dominant religion of the Cham upper class (Thar patao bamao maâh)
was Hinduism, and the culture was heavily influenced by that of India. The commoners
generally accepted Hindu influence, but they embedded it with much as possible indigenous
Cham beliefs to become parts of the Ahier religion today. The Hinduism of Champa was
overwhelmingly Shaiva and it was liberally combined with elements of local religious cults
such as the worship of the Earth goddess Lady Po Nagar. The main symbols of Cham
Shaivism were the lingam, the mukhalinga, the jaṭāliṅgam, the segmented liṅgam, and
the kośa.

17
Two Cham women playing Polo. c. 600–900 AD./Cham man playing flute. c. 600–750 AD.

Po Nagar/Ninh Thuận

Apsara with Saraswati (right)/Dancing Siva, c. 10th century AD

Cham port-cities

Champa was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of
what is contemporary present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd
century AD until 1832, when the last remaining principality of Champa was annexed by
the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty under its emperor Minh Mạng as part of its

18
expansionist Nam tiến policy. Anga was an ancient Indian kingdom that flourished on the
eastern Indian subcontinent and one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It lay to the east of its
neighbour and rival, Magadha, and was separated from it by the river Champa in the modern
day Bhagalpur and Munger in the state of Bihar. The capital of Anga was located on the bank
of this river and was also named Champa and Malini. It was prominent for its wealth and
commerce.
Champa was the capital of ancient Anga in the sixth century BC. It was of great commercial
importance. It was a river port from which ships world said down the Ganga and coast to
south India and Sri Lanka.
The kingdom was known as Nagaracampa (Sanskrit: नगरचम्प) and it contributes profound
and direct impacts to the history of Vietnam, Southeast Asia, as well as their present day.
Early Champa, evolved from seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh culture off the coast
of modern-day Vietnam. The emergence of Champa at the late 2nd century AD shows
testimony of early Southeast Asian statecrafting and crucial stage of the making of Southeast
Asia. The peoples of Champa had been established and maintained a vast system of lucrative
trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian Ocean and Eastern Asia, until the
17th century. In Champa, historians also witness the first and oldest native Southeast Asian
language literature being written down around c. 350 AD, predating
first Khmer, Mon, Malay texts by centuries.The Cambodians or Khmers also used Sanskrit
names. In my research paper- The Many PURAS of the Khmer Empire I pointed out the use
of the sanskrit toponym of Khmer cities .
https://www.academia.edu/83916391/
The_Many_Pur_as_of_the_Khmer_Empire_Dr_Uday_Dokras
In fact the country of |Cambodia is historically called by several Sanskrit names:
1. Kambudesa –
2. Kambujarashtára –
3. Kambupuri –
4. Dharmapradeh
5. India was called in ancient Cambodian inscriptions with two names, Aryadeasa and
Madhyadesa.
6. Two more names ending in -desa denote the country, i.e. Kambudesa and
Narapatidesa.
7. Five other names: Jayantadesa, Bhupendradesa, Madhyamadesa, Dviradadesa and
Muladesa, were granted after a god, after a founder, after a geographical feature, an
animal, and after a special event.
Pur means a town or settlement. Why the suffix pur has been translated as …PURA is not
understandable. It shows lack of knowledge of Sanskrit or other related languages.The
Chams, for instance, had the earliest pur.. Simhapura (605-757) Virapura (757-875)
Indrapura (875–982) and without the suffix towns such as Vijaya (982–1471) Kauthara polity
(757–1653) Panduranga polity (1471–1832).
Archaeological excavations at Tra Kieu (Simhapura), a early Lam Ap/Champa site, show that
the common assumption of Lam Ap as a merely "Indianized" polity is rather irrational and
fundamentally misunderstanding. Instead, evidence gathered from excavations displays a
fascinating, dynamic history of the early stages of formation of the Cham civilization, with
artifacts reflect cross multicultural influence and trade connections between early Champa

19
with ancient Eurasian powers such as the Han Empire, the Gupta Empire, the South
Indian Pallava dynasty, and the Mediterranean. The Gupta and Pallava ofcourse were Hindu
Kingdoms in what is today the territory of India.
The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman, who reigned from 380 to
413. At Mỹ Sơn, King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara, whose name
was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva. The
worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued
through the centuries that followed. Moreover, Bhadravarman's third inscription (C.
174, c. 4th–5th century AD) at Tra Kieu, which renders Old Cham, is the oldest surviving
text of any Southeast Asian language. The authorities of king Bhadravarman might have
spanned from nowadays Quảng Nam to Chợ Dinh, Phú Yên, near the Đà Rằng river.
Trà Kiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom, then named Simhapura,
from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world
since the late 19th century Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
ramparts. Bửu Châu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the
Simhapura. There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently
unknown if this was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else
entirely.
Trà Kiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics for household
use and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings about the iconic
roof tiles with faces on them. There are two main theories about why the faces start appearing
on the tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that workers at Trà Kiệu
began carving faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was an Indian mask maker
who introduced and popularized the face motifs as this style of decoration on roof tiles.

Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang) This Visnu gives
further evidence to the Hindu face motif theory.

20
At Mỹ Sơn, the name Campā occurs in the first time on a important Cham inscription code
named C. 96 dating from metaphysically year 658 AD
Consolidation under Prakasadharma and the Simhapura dynasty

Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary

In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of

Champa in Simhapura (Tra Kieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?)
and Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the
Simhapura dynasty. He embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in
the south, and by 658 AD the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from Quảng Bình
province in the north to present-day Ninh Hòa city, Khánh Hòa province in the south, was
unified under one ruler for the first time
Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures.
[52]
Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn. One
structure is amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king,
resembling a theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.
Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653,
654, 669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The
seventh century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief
tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast
and Baekje in the East — though the latter was rivaled by Japan.
Religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn
By the second half of the 7th century, royal temples were beginning to appear at Mỹ Sơn. The
dominant religious practice was that of the Hindu god Shiva, but temples were also dedicated
to Vishnu. Scholars have called the architectural style of this period Mỹ Sơn E1, in reference
to a particular edifice at Mỹ Sơn that is regarded as emblematic of the style. Important
surviving works of art in this style include a pedestal for a linga that has come to be known as
the Mỹ Sơn E1 Pedestal and a pediment depicting the birth of Brahma from a lotus issuing
from the navel of the sleeping Vishnu.

21
Stone pedestal of a temple with an Apsara dancer and a Gandharva musician (Trà Kiệu style)

In an important stone inscription dated 657, found at Mỹ Sơn, King Prakasadharma, who took
on the name Vikrantavarman I at his coronation, claimed to be descended through his mother
from the Brahman Kaundinya and the serpent princess Soma, the legendary ancestors of
the Khmer of Cambodia. This inscription underlines the ethnic and cultural connection of
Champa with the Khmer Empire, its perennial rival to the west. It also commemorates the
king's dedication of a monument, probably a linga, to Shiva. Another inscription documents
the king's almost mystical devotion to Shiva, "who is the source of the supreme end of life,
difficult to attain; whose true nature is beyond the domain of thought and speech, yet whose
image, identical with the universe, is manifested by his forms."
Temporary pre-eminence of Kauthara
Kathur means Hard and Cruel in Sanskrit. Katha means narrative or story. Kathura also
means head-quarters in Harnavi. What exactly was the pronounciation of Kathura and did it
lead to another (second) name with pur as the suffix is not known.The city of Pandurang
means
In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as "Huanwang", the
political center of Champa shifted temporarily from Mỹ Sơn southward to the regions of
Panduranga and Kauthara, centered around the temple complex of Po Nagar near
modern Nha Trang that was dedicated to the indigenous Earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In 774,
raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara, burned the temple of Po Nagar, and carried off
the image of Shiva. The Cham king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the raiders and
defeated them in a naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, declaring
that he had regained control of the area and had restored the temple. In 787, Javanese raiders
destroyed a temple dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga. Pandurang is the name of Shiva and
is a manifestation. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or
his avatar, Krishna.

Puras or PUR in FUNAN

Even earlier to the Chams were cities suffixed with Pur in Funan (perhaps a Chinese
transcription of pnom, “mountain”) which was the first important Hinduized kingdom in
southeast Asia. It covered portions of what are now Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia.
Vyādhapura, (Sanskrit: “City of the Hunters”), capital city of the ancient Hindu kingdom of
Funan, which flourished from the 1st to the 6th century ad in an area that comprises modern
Cambodia and Vietnam.
Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the
word Funan. It is often said that the name Funan. Later Han pronunciations represents

22
a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges
Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word Funan, ancient Chinese scholars were
transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning
"mountain").
However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a
mistranslation of the Sanskrit word parvatabùpála in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to
the Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in
them as the conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the
character 南 (pinyin: nán, Vietnamese: nam) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean
"South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of
Southeast Asia, such as Annam.
Thus, Funan may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all.
Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names,
such as >
1.Bhavapura,
2.Aninditapura,
3.Shresthapura and
4.Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in
the region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than
the names Funan or Zhenla are unknown in the Old Khmer language.

INDIANIZATION of FUNAN

Gupta and Pallava Dynasties: It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society,
including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization
advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava
dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a
scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia.
These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the
Funanese.
Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts. Among
the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants
of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of
Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma,
Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia.
In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a
Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he
tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that
Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King
Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over

23
Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states
honour his order to their heads”
The Capital City of Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter).

On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern
Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory
on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧, pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern
Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory
on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧, pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern
Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory
on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧, pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter."

PUR of ANGKOR
Hall, K. R. (2019). In his book Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast
Asia. United States: University of Hawaii Press talks about Suryavarman I who established
diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India (Tamilnadu) around 1012.
Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I. It seems that

24
 the Khmer king Suryavarman I requested aid from the powerful Chola Emperor Rajendra
Chola against the Tambralinga kingdom
And during his reign, 47 cities (known as 47 pura) were under the control of Khmer Empire.
Some of these names would never be known and some difficult to find on the knowledgebase
of the Internert. Angkor. ('Capital city'), was also known as Yasodharapura :यशोधरपुर in
Sanskrit, and was the capital city of the Khmer Empire. The city and empire flourished from
approximately the 9th to the 15th centuries.

 Hariharalaya. (early 9th cent.) The dwelling plave of HARI(Shiva)

 Lingapura: Koh Ker (9th cent.). Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of the Khmer
empire. In inscriptions the town is mentioned as Lingapura (city of lingams) or Chok
Gargyar (translated as city of glance, or as iron tree forest).
 Yasodharapura (Angkor) (928–944)

Names in ancient Sanskrit of Khmer cities and sites have been changed to Khmer or
Cambodian language today:

 Phnom Kulen.
 Preah Khan of Kampong Svay.
 Beng Mealea.
 The Ancient City of Koh Ker.
 Banteay Chhmar.
 Prasat Preah Vihear.
 Kompong Thom: Sambor Prei Kuk.
 Oudong.

1. Sambalpur,
2. Berhampur,
3. Rairangpur,
4. Subarnapur,
5. Nagpur
6. Kanpur
7. Jamshedpur and many more far too many in fact.

In fact the word Pur and the word Nagar which means CITY is Sanskrit are inter-changeable
but the fact is that historically when one name was given it was seldom changed because it
created a geographic entity and point of reference where travellers could travel to and
remember those days people travelled by horses, on foot or other animals( including
humans).

25
 Was Champa a sea port?
The Kingdom of Champa was founded in the second century, and the kingdom faced threats
from neighbouring kingdoms. The Champa military was founded as a means of protecting the
kingdom's borders and maintaining its independence. According to legends and oral
traditions, the Champa military was initially composed of small groups of warriors who were
organized into local militias. These militias were responsible for defending their local
communities and were led by local leaders who were appointed by the king. As the kingdom
grew and faced increasing external threats, the Champa military became more organized and
centralized. The Champa empire had a long naval history, and the Champa navy was an
important part of the kingdom's military forces. However, there is little information available
about the Champa navy's specific size and capabilities, as well as the types of ships and naval
tactics used.

The Champa navy is known to have been involved in a number of naval conflicts with the
Khmer and Dai Viet empires, as well as other neighbouring kingdoms. The Chams were
skilled seamen who were known to employ a variety of naval warfare tactics, including the
use of naval mines and the use of naval irregulars.Because of its superior seamanship and
tactical flexibility, the Champa navy may have been able to effectively defend against the
Khmer and Dai Viet empires. However, it is difficult to say for certain what factors
contributed to the Champa navy's success without more detailed information.

Khmer Kingdom of Cambodia was Phnom (Mountain) known as Funan by the Chinese.
Cham of Champa started to attack Khmer Phnom Kingdom since the 1st century, but failed
every time. How large and powerful was the Champa Navy? It was larger and powerful more
than the Khmer Empire that the Khmer had to call for the Chinese help. Champa became a
very powerful Kingdom in 1192, 1195, 1198–1199, 1201-1203 invading Khmer Empire of
Cambodia. Champa seized the palace complexes of Angkor Wat from the Khmer Empire of
Cambodia and ruled Khmer for a short period of time. What kind of ships and naval tactics
did the Cham use against the Khmer? All ships in ancient times built from woods no metal
blades in the front to cut enemy ships in half when ramming. Cham and Khmer soldiers stood
up on the frontships while others sitting down for rowing. The Cham probably used the same
Khmer tactics, soldiers to swim, hide in water and clim up behind on the enemy ship to kill
the enemy behind. When the warships approached, soldiers jumped up up to the enemy ships
and fought with the spiked spears. Our Khmer King Jayavarman VII formed the large Khmer

26
resistance armies at Banteay Chhmar and called China for help. China sent the Chinese army
to fight side by side with the Khmer army against the Cham. The war was mostly on the
Mekong River and on the Tonle Sap Lake as people can see the Khmer-Cham navy battles on
King Jayavarman VII Bayon temple bas-reliefs in the 11th century.

Champa Civil Wars

Champa Civil Wars were conflicts throughout the history of the Champa Kingdom. These
civil wars were typically fought between rival factions or claimants to the throne, and were
often sparked by political or economic grievances, and were fought between rival factions or
claimants to the throne. Despite the conflicts, the Champa kingdom was able to survive for
many centuries, and its legacy continues to be felt today.
The first Champa Civil War took place in the early 6th century, when a prince named Fan
Hsiung rebelled against his father, the king of Champa. The rebellion was successful, and Fan
Hsiung established himself as the new king of Champa.
In the 8th century, another civil war broke out between two Champa princes who were vying
for the throne. The conflict lasted for several years and resulted in the weakening of the
Champa kingdom.

The Khmer rowing warships in the 11th century.

27
The Chinese army carried spiked spear in their hand wearing the Khmer army uniform.

In the 10th century, a Champa king named Jaya Simhavarman III was overthrown by a rival
claimant to the throne, who established himself as the new king of Champa. The conflict
resulted in the splitting of the Champa kingdom into two separate states, with one based in
the north and the other based in the south.
In the 14th century, another civil war broke out between rival factions in the Champa court.
The conflict was sparked by political grievances and resulted in the weakening of the
Champa kingdom.
Champa was the capital of ancient Anga in the sixth century BC. It was of great commercial
importance. It was a river port from which ships world said down the Ganga and coast to
south India and Sri Lanka. During the medieval age, the Champa Kingdom benefited greatly
from the luxurious maritime trade routes through the South China Sea and overland trade
networks connecting Angkor and Bagan to Champa. Urbanization in Champa took place
progressively from the first to eighth centuries AD, from the late Sahuynhian to the early
Champa period. List of Sanscritized names of the Champa polity include:
1. Simhapura
2. Amarendrapur

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 3. Indrapur
4. Amravati
5. Vijaya
6. Virapura
7. Panduranga
8. Ratnapura
9. Vishnupura

CAPITALS
The Cham came to power in the 2nd century, AD, which eventually grew and became the site
of five capital cities:

- Simhapura (4th-8th centuries)

- Indrapura (9th-10th centuries)
- Vijaya (10th-15th centuries)
- Kauthara (8th-17th centuries)
- Panduranga (8th-19th centuries)
Champa concentrated its wealth in highly urbanized port-cities, some of them located in self-
governing regions The earliest of those was Simhapura, emerged as a riverine port-city and
Cham political center around 400 AD. Prominent examples include Amarendrapura (the
modern city of Huế); Visnupura (Nhan Bieu, Quảng Trị) and Vrddha Ratnapura (Ðại
Hữu, Quảng Bình) in the north; Indrapura and Amavarati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Qui Nhon)
in the central region; and Nha Trang, Virapura (near Phan Rang), and Panduranga in the
south. These cosmopolitan cities were loaded with surplus amount of trading goods and
exotic products, overcrowded by merchants not just from other Cham states, but also
Chinese, Khmer, Malay, Viet, Arab, and Indian traders and travellers.
The Zhu Fan Zhi describes the port cities of Champa, 'on the arrival of a trading ship in this
country, officials are sent on board with a book made of folded slips of black leather.' After
an inventory has been taken, the cargo may be landed. 20% of the goods carried on is claimed
as tax, and the rest may be traded privately. If they discovered that 'any items were hidden
away during the customs check, the whole cargo will be confiscated.'
When French scholars arrived in the mid-19th century, they were impressed with Cham ruins,
Cham urbanism, and medieval networks throughout the former kingdom. The middle-age
densely populated areas of Tra Kieu and My Son were well connected by paved stone roads,
bridges, urban ruins that were 16 feet high, rampart and stone citadel in a rectangle shape of
984 feet by 1640 feet, which hosted temples, fortified palaces, and resident structures, and
were supplied by canals, irrigation projects, underground aqueducts and wells.
From the 4th to 15th century, these cities were relatively wealthy. Foreign traders and
travelers from across medieval Eurasia were well-aware of Champa's richness and
eyewitnessed the crowded, prosperous Cham port-cities. Abu'l-Faradj described the city
of Indrapura "this temple is ancient that all the Buddhas found there enter into conversation
with the faithful and reply to all the requests made to them." Columbus during his fourth
voyage in 1502 along the coast of Central America, in accordance with contemporary
knowledge that confused Central America with eastern Asia, thought that he had reached the
kingdom of "Ciampa" visited by Marco Polo in 1290. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera recorded
in De Orbe Novo Decades that on his fourth voyage in 1502, Columbus: "found a vast
territory called Quiriquetana [ Quiriguá. in the language of the inhabitants, but he called it

29
Ciamba (Champa)". Portuguese travelers in the early 16th century, such as Fernão Mendes
Pinto, reported vestiges of these cities "a town of above ten thousand households" which
"encircled by a strong wall of brick, towers, and bulwarks." Because of this, Champa was the
target of multiple warring powers surrounding: the Chinese in 4th century-605 AD; the
Javanese in 774 and 787, the Vietnamese in 982, 1044, 1069, 1073, 1446, and 1471; the
Khmer in 945–950, 1074, 1126–1128, 1139–1150, 1190–1220; and the Mongol Yuan in
1283–85, many cities were ransacked by invaders and rebuilt or repaired overtime. They also
had to face constant threats from hazards per annum such as flood, tropical cyclones, fire.
Some Cham port-cities later ended up captured by Vietnamese in the mid-15th century,
which later resulted in the rise of Nguyễn domain depending on these port-cities, whom
benefited international trades, and was well-balanced enough to fend off several
northern Trịnh invasions in the 17th centur

Champa art, Hindu temples and statues have been found in many parts of Vietnam.The term
"Balamon" derived from "Brahman" or "Brahmin", one of Hindu caste of religious elite.
Balamon Chams adhere to the old religion of their ancestor, an indigenized form of Hinduism
that thrived since the ancient era of Kingdom of Champa in the 5th century AD. While today
the Bacam (Bacham) are the only surviving Hindus in Vietnam, the region once hosted some
of the most exquisite and vibrant Hindu cultures in the world. The entire region of Southeast
Asia, in fact, was home to numerous sophisticated Hindu kingdoms. From Angkor in
neighbouring Cambodia, to Java and Bali in Indonesia. The Cham Sunni in the Mekong Delta
often refer the Balamon as Kafir (Derived from Arabic Kāfir for infidels).

10th-century Cham Saivite relief of Śiva/Cham Bodhisattva on a relief cube, c. 12th century
 A liṅga (or liṅgam) is black stone pillar that serves as a representation of Shiva. Cham
kings frequently erected and dedicated stone lingas as the central religious images in
royal temples. The name a Cham king would give to such a linga would be a composite
of the king's own name and suffix "-iśvara", which stands for Shiva.
 A mukhaliṅga is a linga upon which has been painted or carved an image of Shiva as a
human being or a human face.
 A jaṭāliṅga is a linga upon which has been engraved a stylised representation of Shiva's
chignon hairstyle.

30
 A segmented liṅga is a linga post divided into three sections to represent the three
aspects of the Hindu godhead or trimurti: the lowest section, square in shape,
represents Brahma; the middle section, octagonal in shape, represents Vishnu, and the top
section, circular in shape, represents Shiva.
 A kośa is a cylindrical basket of precious metal used to cover a linga. The donation of a
kośa to the decoration of a liṅga was a distinguishing characteristic of Cham Shaivism.
Cham kings gave names to special kośas in much the way that they gave names to the
liṅgas themselves.

Bas relief of animals and beasties from Tra Kieu, c. 900–1100. Museum of Cham Sculpture/ 9th-century Dong
Duong (Indrapura) lintel describing the early life of Prince Siddhārtha Gautama (who is sitting on a mule).

The predominance of Hinduism in Cham religion was interrupted for a time in the 9th and
10th centuries AD, when a dynasty at Indrapura (modern Đồng Dương, Quảng Nam
Province, Vietnam) adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith. King Indravarman II (r. 854–
893) built a giant Buddhist monastery, meditation halls, and temples for Champa's monks
(Sangha), and celebrated the veneration of the Buddhist deity Lokeśvara under the name
Laksmindra Lokeśvara Svabhayada in 875. Mahayana in Champa was blended with
observable elements of Tantric Buddhism, manifesting in many traces.[165] For example,
Indravarman's successor Jaya Simhavarman I (r. 897–904) according to his verbatim in
902, Vajrapāṇi is the Bodhisattva capable of leading humans into the "path of the Vajra."
The Buddhist art of Đồng Dương has received special acclaim for its originality.
Buddhist art of Champa also shared the same unique aesthetics, paralleling
with Dvāravatī (Mon) art, highlighting in the similarities of both cultures in their
iconographic form of the Buddha-Stūpa-Triad, where the Buddha seats in padmāsana (lotus)
flanked by on either side by a depiction of a stūpa. Other shared features are makara lintel,
fishtail-shaped sampot illustrating, Gaja-Lakṣmī, pendant-legged Buddhas.[168] The sources
of Mon–Cham cultural interaction may be the inland routes between the Muang Fa Daed site
on Khorat region, near a lost kingdom called Wèndān by the Chinese (probably the site of
Kantarawichai in Kantharawichai, Maha Sarakham), Southern Laos, via Savannakhet, then to
Central Vietnam coast through Lao Bảo and Mụ Giạ Passes.
Beginning in the 10th century AD, Hinduism again became the predominant religion of
Champa. Some of the sites that have yielded important works of religious art and architecture
from this period are, aside from Mỹ Sơn, Khương Mỹ, Trà Kiệu, Chanh Lo, and Tháp Mắm.
From the 13th to 15th centuries, Mahayana among the Cham was practiced in form of
syncretic Saivite–Buddhism or the fusion of the worship of Śiva (seen as the protector)

31
and Buddha (seen as the savior). Buddhism prevailed secondary. With the decline of royal
power of the ruling Simhavarmanid dynasty in the 15th century and the fall of their
capital Vijaya in 1471, all Mahayana or Vajrayana traces of Champa disappeared, enabling
space for the rising Islamic faith.
Flowers have a special significance in Hindu culture and worship. They are not only used
for pandal decoration but also offered to all the deities as a reverence. If you want to know
more about the best pooja flowers that you can offer to deities, then read more on Which God
Likes Which Flower!

Why Flowers are Offered to Hindu Deities?

Each god in Hindu pantheon has a favorite flower and leaves. Lord Muruga, also
known as Skanda or Subrahmanya, is usually offered white or red oleander (Arali)
flower. Other favorite flowers of Muruga includes rose and Champa flowers
(Shenbagam).Oleander is known as Arali in Tamil; Kaner in Hindi and Raktakarabi in
Bengali.Golden champa or yellow champa locally known as chambugam or
chempaka is another favorite flower of Lord Muruga.

According to Sharad Tilk book, ”Daivasya Mastakam Kuryatkusumopahitam Sada” that

states, the heads of all the deities must always be festooned with fresh flowers.According to
Hindu scriptures, each Hindu deity is known for their favorite flower that they love the most.
During the rituals, it is believed that gods and goddesses descend on earth and devotees adore
them by offering various bhogs, flowers, and itar. It is believed that scents from these bring
them to the place of worship.All scented things like incense, flowers, itar are used in
worshipping and rituals. Besides, devotees believe that if you rever Gods with their favorite
flower, then the God blesses that person and also fulfills all their desires.
Which God Likes Which Flower- 1. Krishna / श्रीकृष्णा

2. Vishnu / विष्णु

32
Vishnu is among the Trimurti, the triple deity of the supreme divinity of Brahma, Vishnu,
and Mahesh. He is said to be the preserver of the universe, restoring the equilibrium of good
and evil. Among the four arms, Vishnu holds Kamal in one.
3. Saraswati / सरस्वती

Saraswati is the goddess of wisdom, knowledge, learning, and music. She is depicted as
sitting atop a lotus flower, in a white saree with veena. Worshipping Goddess Saraswati
bestows with a clear vision, creativity, wisdom, and eternal knowledge. Her flower is
Champa

4. Ganesha / गणेश

33
According to scripture Acha Bhushan Granth, Ganesha can be worshipped with all the
flowers except for tulasidal. As per the Padmapurana Acharatna”na Tulasya
Ganadhipam” Ganesha should never be revered with basil leaves and
flowers.Flowers: Marigold and Red Hibiscus
5. Shani Dev / शनिदेव

Shani dev is the God of justice and karma in Hinduism, and rewards or punishes people
according to their deeds. Besides, Shani dev also wards off hurdles from devotee’s life. This
diety is fond of dark colors, so you can use any deep blue flowers for worship and rituals.
Flowers: Shameplant / Blue Lajwanti

Shiva or Mahadev is the third lord among the Trimurti and has been depicted
as sanharkarta and srijankarta, as he destroys the world when it reaches a peak and then re-
creates it. Devotee can offer all the flowers to shiva, except for the ketaki and champa.
Flowers: Crown Flower / Aak / Madaar, Asian pigeonwings / Aparajita, Night Flowering
Jasmine / Parijat / Harsingar, Jimsonweed / Datura, and Nerium Oleander / Pile Kaner

34
7. Maa Durgaa / दुर्गामाँ
Deity Durga is an incarnation of parvati who is fond of red color. She is portrayed with a red
saree, and red bangles. Any flower in red color can be offered. Offering a garland of red roses
or red hibiscus to deity Durga removes all troubles in one’s life. Hibiscus is, however, the
common offering.Flowers: Hibiscus / Jason, Red Rose / Laal Gulab, and Palash

8. Laxmi / लक्ष्मीदेवी

Lakshmi is a deity of wealth, prosperity, and good fortune. She is portrayed with four arms,
standing on a large lotus flower, and adorned with gold jewels. Offer white and red-hued
flowers during worship and rituals.
Flowers: White Lotus / Safed kamal, White Rose / Safed gulab, Laal Gulaab / Red rose,
Rajnigandha / Tuberose, and Mogra / Arabian Jasmine

35
9. Hanuman / हनुमान

HANUMAN-MUKHI ORCHID

Dracula simia, called also monkey orchid is the flower of the monkey God Hanuman.
Shree Hanuman needs no introduction, who is a vanar companion and ardent devotee
of Lord Rama as depicted in Ramayana. To please Lord Hanuman, you can offer white
fragrant flowers along with vermilion while chanting Hanuman Chalisa.

CHAMPA
The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka, which refers to Magnolia
champaca, a species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers.It is proposed
that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from Central
Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri, an ancient
sacred city in Buddhism, for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in their
homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa was brought by Indians to
Central Vietnam. All this doen not bolster the claim of the author that the area was named
after the Godess SARASWATI the Hindu Goddess of Knowledge whose favourite flower
was indeed “Champa” literal and figurative meaning.It is quite possible that the name
CHAMPA was given in honor of Goddess Saraswati or God Murugan both of whom are
offered Champa. In this context CHAMPA would mean the land of Saraswati or land of
Murugan.

36
Goddess Saraswati and her flower Champa Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the
major remnants of this former kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily
of Malayo-Polynesian closely related to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that is spoken
throughout maritime Southeast Asia. Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the
broader culture of Champa, the kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted
of Austronesian Chamic-speaking peoples that made up the majority of its demographics.
The people who used to inhabit the region are the present-day Chamic-
speaking Cham, Rade and Jarai peoples in South and Central Vietnam and Cambodia;
the Acehnese from Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, along with elements
of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic-speaking peoples in Central Vietnam.
“Other Chinese writers have left us brief descriptions of the Cham fighters themselves. One
such writer characterized the Cham as "warlike and cruel." They were, he said, armed with
bows and arrows, sabers, lances and crossbows. Yet another writer describes a troop of Cham
imperial guards who fought with bows made of bamboo, crossbows, and javelins, who wore
breastplates made of rattan, and who rode elephants into battle.”

37
Champa were like the Vikings of SE Asia. Thus, their troops overall morale was probably
lower than the Khmer armies overall morale. However, the Champas elite units probably had
the ability to frighten nearby enemy infantry. As for horses, the Champa, like the Khmer, had
very few. Select generals would have had rode on horses rather than Elephants, and very
rarely would they use light cavalry units. Because neither the horse nor the rider could afford
to wear armour of any kind, these would typically be used to chase routing enemies. As for
the armaments of the Khmer and Champa armies, they were almost completely identical due
to the locality of the two cultures. However, their armies wouldve appeared different, as the
Khmer military wore buddhist uniforms and the Champa wore Hindu uniforms. And, despite
popular belief, both the Khmer and Champa had technology like crossbows and arcuballistas
before they even knew the Han chinese existed. Ballistas that werent mounted on elephant
back would generally be drawn by oxen/water buffalo.

The Khmer and Champa were expert swordsmiths, and mass produced them. They were not
only a tool of war but an heirloom, to be passed from father to son. Most families would have
two, one used in actual combat and one that was used as a sortof family crest or symbol. The
Dai Viet and the Siamese (who emerged later) did not share this same level of connection
with swords, and thus, their swordsmen should probably be more expensive, and perhaps
even not as well trained. It is for these reasons that later on, the Siamese armies enlisted
Khmer swordsmen into their ranks, and vietnamese factions such as the Nguyen Lords
enlisted Champa swordsmen into their ranks.

And, depending on how late your mod will go, know that later on, when the europeans
arrived, it was the Champa who, because of their connection to the south china sea and also
because of their pirating, were able to get hold of firearms and create military units with them
(although perhaps too late, as by 1500 they were more or less just puppets of the Nguyen
Lords). The Khmer, too, were able to get firearms eventually, however to a much lesser
extent, as they relied on the Siamese, who for a very long time ruled them either directly or
indirectly, to provide them with them. Of all these factions, however, it was the Dai Viet
under the Le dynasty that adapted and mastered firearms the quickest.

Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi , that was
in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship between Linyi and Champa is not
clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual
decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi.
In 1832, the Vietnamese emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.
Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the 4th
century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by the many
Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former
religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are now World Heritage Sites. Today,
many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which began in the 10th century, with the ruling
dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th century; they are called the Bani. There are,
however, the Bacam who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals.
The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a
culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hindus of
the Balinese of Indonesia.

38
Plumeria (/pluːˈmɛriə/), also known as frangipani, is a genus of flowering plants in the
subfamily Rauvolfioideae, of the family Apocynaceae. Most species are deciduous shrubs or
small trees. The species variously are endemic to the Neotropical realm (in Mexico, Central
America, and the Caribbean, and as far south as Brazil and north as Florida in the United
States), but are sometimes grown as cosmopolitan ornamentals in warm regions.

In eastern India and Bangladesh, plumeria is traditionally considered as a variety of

the champak flower, the golok chapa, meaning the champaka that resides in the heavenly
home of Sri Krishna, a Hindu god at the highest realm of heaven. The flower, considered
sacred, is also known by the names gulancha and kath golap (literally, wood rose).

Frangipani trunk in Kolkata, West Bengal, India/Plumeria branches are succulent. The trunk and branches of
the Plumeria species have a milky latex sap that, like many other Apocynaceae, contains poisonous compounds that
irritate the eyes and skin.

Flowers
Plumeria trees flower from early summer to fall. Their blossoms grow in clusters on ends of
the stems, they are made of tubular corolla with a length of 2–4 inches (5.1–10.2 cm) that
split sharply into five rounded and waxy petals that overlap each other. These flowers come
in many colours including pink, red, white and yellow, orange, or pastel. They have separate
anthers.
The flowers are highly fragrant especially at night, their scent is perceived to have smells
from some flowers like jasmine, citrus, and gardenia. However, they yield no nectar. Their
scent tricks sphinx moths into pollinating them by transferring pollen from flower to flower
in their fruitless search for nectar.
Insects or human pollination can help create new varieties of plumeria. Plumeria trees from
cross-pollinated seeds may show characteristics of the mother tree or their flowers might just
have a distinct appearance.Its fruit separate into two follicles with winged seeds.

39
Plumeria blossoms are infertile. Plants of the species may be propagated by cutting stem tips
in spring, allowing them to dry at their bases, then planting in well-drained soil. These are
particularly susceptible to rot in moist soil. Applying rooting hormone to the clean fresh-cut
end will enable callusing.
Plumeria cuttings can also be propagated by grafting to an already rooted system. The
Plumeria Society of America lists 368 registered cultivars of Plumeria as of 2009.

Plumeria relief in Penataran temple, Blitar, East Java/Plumeria is commonly used to

make leis in Hawaii

40
In Southeast Asia the plumeria tree and flower are considered sacred. A relief in
the Penataran temple ruins in East Java shows a plumeria tree with its distinct flower petals
and skeleton-like branches A relief in the Borobudur temple, at the west side 1st zone, also
depicts plumeria.These reliefs were created before European exploration. Borobudur was
constructed in the 9th century and Penataran in the 14th century. Taken together, their dates
fail to establish when plumeria came to Southeast Asia.In Mesoamerica, plumerias have
carried complex symbolic significance for over two millennia, with striking examples from
the Maya and Aztec periods into the present. Among the Maya, plumerias have been
associated with deities representing life and fertility, and the flowers also became strongly
connected with female sexuality. Nahuatl-speaking people during the height of the Aztec
Empire used plumerias to signify elite status, and planted plumeria trees in the gardens
of nobles
These are now common naturalized plants in South and Southeast Asia. In local folk beliefs,
they provide shelter to ghosts and demons. They are also associated with temples in
both Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cultures.
In several Pacific islands, such as Tahiti, Fiji, Samoa, Hawaii, New Zealand, Tonga, and
the Cook Islands, Plumeria species are used for making leis. In Hawaii, the flower is called
melia. In modern Polynesian culture, the flower can be worn by women to indicate their
relationship status—over the right ear if seeking a relationship, and over the left if taken. [21]

41
Plumeria alba is the national flower of Laos, where it is known under the local
name champa or dok champa.
In Bengali culture, most white flowers, and in particular, plumeria
(Bengali, chômpa or chãpa), are associated with funerals and death.
Also in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia, the plumeria is often associated with ghosts
and cemeteries. Yangsze Choo in her novel The Night Tiger for example described it as is
“the graveyard flower of the Malays.” Plumerias often are planted on burial grounds in all
three nations. They are also common ornamental plants in houses, parks, parking lots, and
other open-air establishments in the Philippines. Balinese Hindus use the flowers in their
temple offerings. The plumeria's fragrance is also associated with the Kuntilanak, an evil
vampiric spirit of a dead mother in Malaysian-Indonesian folklores.
Indian incenses scented with Plumeria rubra have "champa" in their names. For
example, nag champa is an incense containing a fragrance combining plumeria and
sandalwood. While plumeria is an ingredient in Indian champa incense, the extent of its use
varies between family recipes. Most champa incenses also incorporate other tree resins, such
as Halmaddi (Ailanthus triphysa) and benzoin resin, as well as other floral ingredients,
including champaca (Magnolia champaca), geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), and vanilla
(Vanilla planifolia) to produce a more intense, plumeria-like aroma. In the Western
Ghats of Karnataka, the bride and groom exchange garlands of cream-coloured plumeria
during weddings. Red-colored flowers are not used in weddings. Plumeria plants are found in
most of the temples in these regions.In Sri Lankan tradition, plumeria is associated with
worship. One of the heavenly damsels in the frescoes of the fifth-century rock
fortress Sigiriya holds a five-petalled flower in her right hand that is indistinguishable from
plumeria.In Eastern Africa, frangipani are sometimes referred to in Swahili love poems.Some
species of plumeria have been studied for their potential medicinal value.
Plumeria is commonly used to make leis in Hawaii

42
Magnolia champaca, known in English as champak is a large evergreen tree in the
family Magnoliaceae. It was previously classified as Michelia champaca. It is known for its
fragrant flowers, and its timber used in woodworking.The species epithet, champaca, comes
from the Sanskrit word campaka
Vernacular names
Other vernacular names in English include joy perfume tree, yellow jade orchid tree and
fragrant Himalayan champaca.The tree is native to the Indomalayan realm, consisting of
South Asia, Southeast Asia−Indochina, and southern China.It is found in tropical and
subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregions, at elevations of 200–1,600 metres (660–
5,250 ft). It is native to the Maldives, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Chinam it is native to
southern Xizang and southern/southwestern Yunnan Provinces. In 2021, an isolated,
presumably native population of M. champaca was identified in Yemen, making M.
champaca the only species in the Magnoliaceae known to inhabit the Arabian Peninsula.

White champak flower

43
In its native range Magnolia champaca grows to 50 metres (160 ft) or taller. Its trunk can be
up to 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) in diameter. The tree has a narrow umbelliform crown. It has
strongly fragrant flowers in varying shades of cream to yellow-orange which bloom during
June to SeptemberThe obovoid-ellipsoid carpels produce 2−4 seeds during September to
October.

Magnolia champaca flower

Champak flower parts

Magnolia champaca varieties and hybrids include:

 Magnolia (Michelia) champaca var. champaca — Huang lan (yuan bian zhong), (黄兰(原变
种)) in Chinese. To 30 metres (98 ft) tall, documented in China.[13]
 Magnolia (Michelia) champaca var. pubinervia — Mao ye mai huang lan ( 毛 叶 脉 黄 兰 ) in
Chinese. To 50 metres (160 ft) tall or taller, documented in China.[14]
 Magnolia × alba — white-flowered hybrid of Magnolia champaca and Magnolia
montana.[6]
In Thailand, there are other purported hybrids cultivated with other species, including
with Magnolia liliifera and Magnolia coco.

Orange coloured variety flower at over bloom/ fruits of the champak tree

In Theravada Buddhism, champaca is said to have been used as the tree for achieving
enlightenment, or Bodhi, by the fourteenth Buddha called "Aththadassi - අත්ථදස්සි".
According to Tibetan beliefs, the Buddha of the next era will find enlightenment under the
white flower canopy of the champaca tree.
The flowers are used in South Asia for several purposes. Especially in India, they are
primarily used for worship at temples, whether at home or out, and more generally worn in
hair by girls and women as a means of beauty ornament as well as a natural perfume. Flowers
are floated in bowls of water to scent the room, as a fragrant decoration for bridal beds, and
for garlands.
"Magnolia champaca, however, is more rare and has a strong perfume, and is not that
commonly or plentifully used - for example in hair it is worn singly or as a small corsage but
rarely as a whole garland, and for bridal beds it is most often jasmine and roses while for
bowls of water to be placed around rooms usually other, more colourful for visual decoration
and less strongly perfumed flowers are used."

44
The tree was traditionally used to make fragrant hair and massage oils. Jean Patou’s famous
perfume, 'Joy', the second best selling perfume in the world after Chanel No. 5, is derived in
part from the essential oils of champaca flowers. The vernacular name "Joy perfume tree"
comes from this. Many niche perfumers are now once again using Champaca Absolute as
single note fragrances.The scent similar to the scent of this plant is said to emit by
a civet in Sri Lanka, Paradoxurus montanus. Because all the other civets are known to emit
very unpleasant odours, this species is renowned to emit pleasant odour similar to this plant's
scent.
Timber
In its native India and Southeast Asia, champaca is logged for its valuable timber It has a
finely textured, dark brown and olive-colored wood, which is used in furniture making,
construction, and cabinetry.
The species is protected from logging in some states of India, especially in the Southwestern
region, where certain groves are considered sacred by Hindus and Buddhists. Magnolia
champaca is cultivated by specialty plant nurseries as an ornamental plant, for its form as an
ornamental tree, as a dense screening hedge, and for its fragrant flowers. It is planted in the
ground in tropical and in subtropical climate gardens, such as in coastal Southern and Central
California. It is planted in containers in cooler temperate climates.It requires full sun and
regular watering.

II
The Principalities of Indrapura
(CHAMPA)named after Gods of Hinduism

45
46
Popular Hindu Gods
Hinduism is one of the most interesting religions in the world; with a pantheon of Gods and
Goddesses, each one has a story worth looking at and a knowing. But there are certain stories
that just grip people, and the characters associated with them become memorable. Such is the
case with this list! Whether you practice Indian spirituality or not, it’s hard to be at least
somewhat aware of these figures. These 5 Gods are so memorable, they have come to signify
the entire culture of India. And don’t worry- if you are looking for the Goddesses, we’ll be
doing those soon!

Krishna

Krishna is considered to be one of the most important Gods ever in Hindu mythology, namely
because of his hand in creating the Bhagavad Gita, the most widely read Hindu text of all
time. The most complete incarnation of Vishnu, he is probably the most popular God on this
list. He has influenced nearly every single aspect of Indian culture- music, literature, art,
philosophy, dance, and mysticism. His blue likeness is nearly always depicted when
referencing Hinduism; in fact, most people think of Krishna when they think of the religion!

47
Ganesha

Ganesha has become almost a pop icon in the last 5 years. With his elephant head, human
body, and mouse for a ride, he’s unmistakable. Created by Parvati and known as the
harbinger of success and destroyer of obstacles, it’s easy to understand how so many people
would be attracted to this God.

Hanuman

Hanuman is one of the most popular deities, and is a symbol of strength, devotion, loyalty,
and perseverance. Believed to be an incarnation of Shiva, the Hanuman Chalisa is often
chanted in Hindu culture when troubles plague the devotee.

Shiva

Known as “the destroyer”, Shiva is easily the most powerful God on this list. Shiva
represents the immortal quality of death and dissolution in the universe, and is part of the
Hindu trinity (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva). Shiva is worshiped in the form of a “Shiva
Lingam”, a phallic symbol that symbolizes the universe and is considered to be the first form
in creation.

Rama

Of all the Hindu Gods, Rama is the one of the few that’s considered to be an actual historical
figure, possibly a famous king. According to myth, however, Rama is the incarnation of
Vishnu- the God of “preservation” or life in the Hindu trinity. Rama is considered to be the
embodiment of truth, chivalry, virtue, and an ideal king. His stories inspired the creation of
the Ramayana, one of the most popular written texts in Hinduism next to the Bhagavad Gita.

48
 Cities of the Srivijaya Monuments of the Srivijaya
1. Palembang 1. Borobudur
South Sumatra, Indonesia Central Java, Indonesia
GPS: -3.01485, 104.73436 GPS: -7.60721, 110.20334
2. Muaro Jambi (Jambi) 2. Candi Muara Takus
Jambi, Indonesia Riau, Indonesia
GPS: -1.47763, 103.66707 GPS: 0.33456, 100.64098
3. Batujaya 3. Candi Muaro Jambi
Jakarta, Indonesia Jambi, Indonesia
GPS: -6.05634, 107.15491 GPS: -1.47763, 103.66707
4. Singapura (Singapore) 4. Candi Bahal Portibi Temples
Singapore, Singapore North Sumatra, Indonesia
GPS: 1.34789, 103.87427 GPS: 1.40516, 99.73049
5. Tambralinga (Nakhon Si 5. Wat Long
Thammarat) Surat Thani, Thailand
Nakhon Si Thammarat, GPS: 9.38213, 99.19039
Thailand
GPS: 8.41206, 99.96645
6. Chaiya
Surat Thani, Thailand
GPS: 9.38461, 99.18544

Champa was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of
what is contemporary present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd
century AD until 1832, when the last remaining principality of Champa was annexed by
the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty under its emperor Minh Mạng as part of its
expansionist Nam tiến policy.The kingdom was known as
Nagaracampa (Sanskrit: नगरचम्प) The Kingdoms of Champa and the Chams contribute
profound and direct impacts to the history of Vietnam, Southeast Asia, as well as their
present day. Early Champa, evolved from seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh
culture off the coast of modern-day Vietnam. The emergence of Champa at the late 2nd
century AD shows testimony of early Southeast Asian statecrafting and crucial stage of
the making of Southeast Asia. The peoples of Champa had been established and maintained a

49
vast system of lucrative trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian
Ocean and Eastern Asia, until the 17th century. In Champa, historians also witness the first
and oldest native Southeast Asian language literature being written down around c. 350 AD,
predating first Khmer, Mon, Malay texts by centuries.

50
 Map of Mainland Southeast Asia circa 1000 - 1100 CE, showing Khmer Empire in red, Lavo
kingdom/Dvaravati in light blue, Haripunjaya in green, Champa in yellow, Dai Viet in blue,
Kingdom of Pagan in pink, Srivijaya in lime and surrounding states.

The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka (pronounced /tʃampaka/), which
refers to Magnolia champaca, a species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers.It is
proposed that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from
Central Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri, an
ancient sacred city in Buddhism, for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in
their homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa was brought by Indians to
Central Vietnam. All this doen not bolster the claim of the author that the area was named
after the Godess SARASWATI the Hindu Goddess of Knowledge whose favourite flower
was indeed “Champa” literal and figurative meaning.

Goddess Saraswati and her flower Champa

Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation, which was conceived
by Louis Finot, a colonial-era board director of the École française d'Extrême-Orient. In his
2005 Champa revised, Michael Vickery challenges Finot's idea. He argues that the Cham
people always refer themselves as Čaṃ rather than Champa (pa–abbreviation
of peśvara, Campādeśa, Campānagara). Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in
Central Vietnam such as the Rade, Jarai, Chru, Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar
lexemes which likely derived from Čaṃ. Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham
named as Chiêm. Most importantly, the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical
texts was Zhànchéng –meaning "the city of the Cham," "why not city of the Champa?,"
Vickery doubts.

The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former
kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related
to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia.
Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa, the
kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted of Austronesian Chamic-speaking
peoples that made up the majority of its demographics. The people who used to inhabit the
region are the present-day Chamic-speaking Cham, Rade and Jarai peoples in South and
Central Vietnam and Cambodia; the Acehnese from Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, along with
elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic-speaking peoples in Central Vietnam.

51
Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi ,
that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship
between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th
centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the
Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese
emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.
Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the
4th century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by
the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham
lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are
now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which
began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th
century; they are called the Bani. There are, however, the Bacam who still retain and preserve
their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-
Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a culture dating back thousands of years.
The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese of Indonesia.
Historical Champa consisted of up to six principalities:Interesting to note the names –all after
Hindu Gods:
Indrapura (Champa)

Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of Champa
from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern village of Đồng
Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da Nang is the ancient
Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which has been identified with
an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a
number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The associated port was at
modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality included present-
day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.It was built and ruled under the
reign of Buddhist king Indravarman II (r. 875-890) and some of his successors belonging to
the Bhrgu dynasty in Đồng Dương. [5] The word Indrapura means "City of Indra" in Sanskrit,
Indra being the Hindu God of Storm and War, and King of the Gods in the Rig Veda.
Indrapura (nowadays Đồng Dương) was transcribed in both Chinese and Vietnamese sources
as Fóshì/Phật Thệ .

52
Sculpture of Cham monks, c. 10th century, Dong Duong style. Museum of Cham Sculpture, Danang.

Influence of Mahayana Buddhism

Buddhist temples extended as far north as Quảng Bình and across northern Champa. This led
the 13th century Vietnamese king Trần Nhân Tông, a Buddhist devotee, to travel to Champa
for nine months during which he visited Buddhist sacred sites.[8]
End and destruction

The rise of two neighboring powers, Đại Cồ Việt in the north and the Khmer empire in the
West, posed new threats to Champa. A war between Champa and the Khmer empire in 945,
and another with Đại Cồ Việt under the Early Lê dynasty in 979, together weakened Champa.
In 982, King of the Đại Việt, Lê Hoàn, led armies to sack a city in Northern Champa (Quảng
Bình) in the Cham–Vietnamese War (982), killing the Cham king Paramesvaravarman I. His
successor retreated 700 li (300 km/186 mi) to the city of Indrapura.
In 983, a Vietnamese named Lưu Kế Tông (Liu Jizong) dethroned the ruling king of Champa,
and in 986 he proclaimed himself king of Champa, while sending envoy to Song China to
find recognition, and his story was recorded in the History of the Song dynasty (Song Shi)
and Song Huiyao Jigao. Many Chams fled to China's Hainan Island. In 988, the new king of
Champa, Harivarman II, who was referred to in Chinese sources (in the Song Shi and SHYJG)
as Yángtuópái sent an envoy to the Song dynasty. The Song Shi reports that a Cham envoy in
1007 reported that "my country was formerly subject to Jiaozhou, then we fled to Foshi
[Indrapura], 700 li south of our former location." The Vietnamese chronicle Khâm định Việt
sử Thông giám cương mục relates that Huế was once in Cham territory, or had been belonged
to the Principality of Foshi [Indrapura]. There was no proof that yāï po ku vijaya śrī
Harivarman (r. 989–997), who was elected by the Cham to overthrow Lưu Kế Tông, had ever
moved the capital south to Bình Ðịnh. These historical accounts could be seen as evidence
that a Vietnamese attack in 982 not on Indrapura, but on a city ruled by a minor king from the
same Indrapura dynasty in modern-day Quảng Bình. Early scholarship misinterpretation had
failed to recognize the fact that 'Foshi' in both Chinese and Vietnamese sources was indeed
Indrapura, not Vijaya. Michael Vickery suggests it was likely an ostensibly endeavor of
colonial-era scholars to link Chinese eponym Foshi with Southeast Asian Vijaya to solder the
existence of the posited Srivijaya empire (rediscovered in 1911) which located in modern-
day Indonesia

53
Đồng Dương before its destruction during the Vietnam War/Crumbling ruins of the
Monastery in 2011
Đồng Dương and surrounding sites during the height of the war were hotspots of the NLF
(Vietcong) activities and bunkers. After the war as Champa sites throughout South Vietnam
had received massive destructions, research on Champa resumed in the late 1980s and 1990s.
In recent decades, Indrapura/Đồng Dương has been re-excavated, revealing new insights
about the city during its magnificence.
Modern-day vestiges of Indrapura/Đồng Dương are barely recognizable: eroded citadel; the
royal palace area; watch towers; ruins of the Monastery; paved roads, bridges, and sewer
system. It was a highly organized, well-urbanized city. Except for the remaining temples and
shrines, most buildings in medieval Indrapura might have been constructed with wooden
materials such as logs or bamboo.

Indrapura ruins in Champa

The Buddhist dynasty at Indrapura

54
Buddhist altar from Đồng Dương, 9th-10th century AD. Museum of Cham
Sculpture, Danang.
In 875, King Indravarman II founded a new northern dynasty at Indrapura . (Dong Duong
near Da Nang in modern Vietnam). Eager to claim an ancient lineage, Indravarman declared
himself the descendant of Bhrigu, the venerable sage whose exploits are detailed in
the Mahabharata, and asserted that Indrapura had been founded by the same Bhrigu in ancient
times. From 877 onward, the Chinese knew Champa as "Cheng-cheng", discontinuing their
use of the term "Huan-wang." Indravarman II repulsed an invasion by the Khmer
King Yasovarman I. Indravarman was the first Cham monarch to adopt Mahayana
Buddhism as an official religion. At the center of Indrapura, he constructed a Buddhist
monastery (vihara) dedicated to the bodhisattva Lokesvara The foundation, regrettably, was
devastated during the Vietnam War. Thankfully, some photographs and sketches survive
from the prewar period. In addition, some stone sculptures from the monastery are preserved
in Vietnamese museums. Scholars have called the artistic style typical of the Indrapura
the Dong Duong Style. The style is characterized by its dynamism and ethnic realism in the
depiction of the Cham people. Surviving masterpieces of the style include several tall
sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or temple guardians that were once positioned around the
monastery. The period in which Buddhism reigned as the principal religion of Champa came
to an end in approximately 925, at which time the Dong Duong Style also began to give way
to subsequent artistic styles linked with the restoration of Shaivism as the national religion.[
Kings belonging to the dynasty of Indrapura built a number of temples at Mỹ Sơn in the 9th
and 10th centuries. Their temples at Mỹ Sơn came to define a new architectural and artistic
style, called by scholars the Mỹ Sơn A1 Style, again in reference to a particular foundation at
Mỹ Sơn regarded emblematic for the style. With the religious shift from Buddhism back to
Shaivism around the beginning of the 10th century, the center of Cham religion also shifted
from Dong Duong back to Mỹ Sơn.

Principalities of Champa
Champa was the capital of ancient Anga in the sixth century BC. It was of great commercial
importance. It was a river port from which ships world said down the Ganga and coast to
south India and Sri Lanka. During the medieval age, the Champa Kingdom benefited greatly
from the luxurious maritime trade routes through the South China Sea and overland trade
networks connecting Angkor and Bagan to Champa. Urbanization in Champa took place

55
progressively from the first to eighth centuries AD, from the late Sahuynhian to the early
Champa period. List of Sanscritized names of the Champa polity include:
10. Simhapura( City of Lions- Lion here could mean Avatara NARASIMHA
11. Amarendrapur
12. Indrapur
13. Amravati
14. Vijaya
15. Virapura
16. Panduranga
17. Ratnapura
18. Vishnupura

CAPITALS
The Cham came to power in the 2nd century, AD, which eventually grew and became the site
of five capital cities:

- Simhapura (4th-8th centuries)

- Indrapura (9th-10th centuries)
- Vijaya (10th-15th centuries)
- Kauthara (8th-17th centuries)
- Panduranga (8th-19th centuries)

These were also named after Hindu Gods or incidental to these

 Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. Amaravati,
meaning “Abode of the Gods,” was said to be the site where the mythical beings devas,
yakshas, and kinnaras performed penance to the Hindu god Shiva to vanquish the demon
Tarakasura.

Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes
feats by King Jaya Indravarman I (r. 960-972).Amravati Stupa,India

56
 Vijaya meaning Victory and could be the victory of Ram over Ravana or Pandavas over
Kauravas in Mahabharata.was located in present-day Bình Định
Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po
Nagar. The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The
associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been
conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre.
Vijaya became the political and cultural centre of Champa around 1150s. It remained the
center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa
was again displaced toward the south. In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled
much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru)
Provinces. Interesting parallels may be observed between the history of northern Champa
(Indrapura and Vijaya) and that of its neighbor and rival to the west,
the Khmer civilization of Angkor, located just to the north of the great lake Tonlé Sap in
what is now Cambodia. The foundation of the Cham dynasty at Indrapura in 875 was
followed by the foundation of the Khmer empire at Roluos in 877 by King Indravarman I,
who united two previously independent regions of Cambodia. The parallels continued as
the two peoples flourished from the 10th through 12th centuries, then went into gradual
decline, suffering their ultimate defeat in the 15th century. In 982, King Lê Hoàn of Đại
Việt sent army invaded Champa, sacked Indrapura and beheaded Champa king. The new
Champa king agreed to pay tributes to Vietnamese court every year until 1064. In 1238,
the Khmer lost control of their western possessions around Sukhothai as the result of a
Thai revolt. The successful revolt not only ushered in the era of Thai independence but
also foreshadowed the eventual abandonment of Angkor in 1431, following its sack by
Thai invaders from the kingdom of Ayutthaya, which had absorbed Sukhothai in 1376.
The decline of Champa was roughly contemporaneous with that of Angkor and was
precipitated by pressure from Đại Việt of what is now northern Vietnam, culminating in
the conquest and obliteration of Vijaya in 1471.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural centre was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784
AD inscription at Po Nagar. The word Kauthar is derived from the root Kathu , which has
meanings of "to increase in number, to outnumber, to happen frequently; to show pride in
wealth and/or children; to be rich, plentiful, abundance." The form Kawthar itself is an
intensive deverbal noun, meaning "abundance, multitude."

In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as "Huanwang",
the political center of Champa shifted temporarily from Mỹ Sơn southward to the regions
of Panduranga and Kauthara, centered around the temple complex of Po Nagar near
modern Nha Trang that was dedicated to the indigenous Earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In
774, raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara, burned the temple of Po Nagar, and
carried off the image of Shiva. The Cham king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the
raiders and defeated them in a naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po
Nagar, declaring that he had regained control of the area and had restored the temple. In
787, Javanese raiders destroyed a temple dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga.

 Panduranga named after Vishnu, was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–
Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with
capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was
the most autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of
Champa. Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.

57
 Simhapura or city of Lions meaning the avatar of Shiva as |Narasimha

Plo kong Garai

Within the principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in Vietnamese)
and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in Amravati and
Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans differed in their
customs and habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even war. But they
usually managed to settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Indrapura and Vijaya, Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were
the principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga. When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to the
Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to
the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍurṅga
had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and
European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its
foreign affairs without permission from the court of the king of kings.
Trà Kiệu is located in the Thu Bồn river valley 18 kilometres (11 mi) inland from Hội An,
which has since moved putting the site on the southern bank of the Bà Rén river, a tributary
of the Thu Bồn river.
Simhapura
Trà Kiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom, then named Simhapura,
from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world
since the late 19th century. Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
ramparts. Bửu Châu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the
Simhapura. There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently
unknown if this was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else
entirely.[1] There has been much debate regarding Trà Kiệu, as it is believed by some to be the
capital city of Champa Kingdom and by others to be the capital city of the Kingdom of Lâm
Ấp (Linyi). Trà Kiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics

58
for household use and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings
about the iconic roof tiles with faces on them. There are two main theories about why the
faces start appearing on the tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that
workers at Trà Kiệu began carving faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was
an Indian mask maker who introduced and popularized the face motifs as this style of
decoration on roof tiles.

1. The Trà Kiệu pedestal of the 10th century supports a massive lingam and ablutionary
cistern.

2. A row of apsaras, or celestial nymphs, is depicted on the base of the Trà Kiệu Pedestal.

3. The Dancers' Pedestal of Trà Kiệu features this apsara or dancer and gandharva or
musician.

Champa theory
Occupation of the Trà Kiệu site began in the 1st-2nd century, while Cham influence at the
site didn't begin until the mid to late 4th century. [7] The city of Simhapura, now known as Trà
Kiệu, had its perimeter walls built in the early centuries of the Common Era which support
the above statements. While Champa influence began traveling out of India and into South-
Eastern Asia in the 4th century, Simhapura isn't believed to have become the capital of the
Champa Kingdom until the 10th century AD. Further mentions of Simhapura dating from the
11th century (1074–1076) when king Harivarman IV decided to restore the city back to its
golden age. Evidence of Cham influence in Trà Kiệu are sketches from Claeys that show the
district foundations on which Cham built their towers. [9] There's evidence of bricks both
broken and intricately laid that denote the Cham's influence in Trà Kiệu. Additionally, the
border wall was made of brick which tells us that Trà Kiệu had enough Cham influence to
fashion their border walls after the Cham style. There was additionally a lot of Cham style
pottery found at Trà Kiệu, and while this is not definitive evidence there was enough pottery
to make it highly significant.[3] Ultimately, while there is no absolute proof of the Champa
Theory, there is significant evidence of Chinese influence as well. However, the Cham
influence is undeniable and many Vietnamese Archeologists conclude that Simhapura now
known as Trà Kiệu was the capital of the Champa Kingdom.

59
Ceramic end tile with decoration from Trà Kiệu. Example of roof tiles with face motif//Stone sculpture of
the god Siva on a pedestal and on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture (Da Nang). The presence of
Siva gives some credence to the Champa theory

Lin Yi theory
This theory is proposed by Leonard Aurousseau, who sent out the original documenter of Trà
Kiệu, J.-Y. Claeys. Claeys conducted flyovers of Trà Kiệu in 1927 and his research went on
to undermine Aurousseau, who thought Trà Kiệu was the capital of the Lin Yi empire that
enveloped parts of Vietnam.[9] This deviates even from the later developed "Champa theory"
explained above because Aurousseau believed Trà Kiệu to be the city that was invaded by
China in the 5th century. This theory was based on the ancient Chinese records of the
invasion and was a shot in the dark as the precise location of Lin Yi has remained uncertain.
It was unclear from said Chinese records if Lin Yi referred to a Kingdom or a City.
Another scholar, Andrew David Hardy, theorizes the name Lin Yi may have been used by the
Chinese as a catch-all for a hostile Vietnamese polity. According to Hardy, Lin Yi was
located north of Cham territory and was likely not a Cham settlement and was instead later
absorbed into the Champa polity as it expanded north. He further theorizes that the Chinese
simply extended the name Lin Yi to the Champa Thu Bồn valley. As with Aurousseau's
theory, Hardy bases this hypothesis on speculation and on documentation of China's
interactions with the Champa, as well as an elusive Vietnamese polity.
Chronology
There are two main phases in the chronology of Trà Kiệu, which are as follows: Trà Kiệu I
Phase (which can be further subdivided into Ia and Ib) and Trà Kiệu II Phase. [1] The largest
difference between Trà Kiệu I and II Phase lie in the styles of roof tiles found at the site. Trà
Kiệu I Phase is represented by the presence of roof tiles with textile impressions, while Trà
Kiệu II Phase roof tiles lack impressions. Roof tiles from Trà Kiệu II Phase are instead
decorated with motifs of human faces. A further breakdown of the chronology of Trà Kiệu
from researcher Trường Giang Đỗ is as follows:

 Trà Kiệu I Phase

o A range of pottery of coarse fabric, including:

60
 o Ovoid jars, cord-marked jars, lids, dishes, bowls, pedestal cups and stoves and roof
tiles
 Trà Kiệu I Phase Ia
o Roof tiles marked with textile impressions
 Trà Kiệu II Phase
o No roof tiles with textile impressions on concave surface, instead decorated with
human faces
o Eaves tiles with human face motifs can be dated from the third century CE, likely
from the second quarter and onwards
Origins of face motifs

Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang) This
Visnu gives further evidence to the Hindu face motif theory.
The leading theory on the origins of the face motifs on roof tiles from Trà Kiệu comes from
Japanese researcher Nishimura Masanari, who studied roof tiles excavated from the site
of Lũng Khê in Thuận Thành district, Bắc Ninh province, and compared them to roof tiles
excavated from Nanjing, China. Roof tiles from these locations include face motifs similar to
those found at Trà Kiệu. The main difference in the styles of these tiles is that those
excavated from Lũng Khê also feature lotus motifs, which are not seen in Trà Kiệu. [1] Dr.
Nishimura attributes this difference in motif styles to religious and ideological differences,
mainly that of Hinduism (face motif) and Buddhism (lotus motif). His theory states that the
spread of Buddhism did not have as much as an impact at Trà Kiệu as it did at Lũng Khê, and
that Trà Kiệu may have had more Hindu influence. An additional theory of Indian influence
is the possibility that the face motif roof tiles at Trà Kiệu may have been introduced and
popularized by an Indian mask maker.

Panduranga or Prangdarang or Pandharpur ( the city “pur” of Pandhari)

Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump state successor of
the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471.
It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam. It stood until late 17th century as the
Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham
polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng
was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th century onward, it had been

61
ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the court of the king of kings
at Vijaya, central Champa.

In the map, Panduranga is at lower right

In the Bhakti tradition, there is a highly revered Saint known as Pundalik. Pundalik has come
to be known as a symbol for Supreme, Unconditional Love. His heart was so open and his
Love forgot no one. Pundalik’s devotion caused God to go looking for him.

Champa, Chinese Lin-yi, ancient Indochinese kingdom lasting from the 2nd to the 17th
century AD and extending over the central and southern coastal region of Vietnam from
roughly the 18th parallel in the north to Point Ke Ga (Cape Varella) in the south. Established
by the Cham, a people of Malayo-Polynesian stock and Indianized culture, Champa was
finally absorbed by the Vietnamese, who in turn were strongly influenced by Cham culture.

Champa was formed in AD 192, during the breakup of the Han dynasty of China, when the
Han official in charge of the region established his own kingdom around the area of the
present city of Hue. Although the territory was at first inhabited mainly by wild tribes
involved in incessant struggles with the Chinese colonies in Tonkin, it gradually came under
Indian cultural influence, evolving into a decentralized country composed of four small
states, named after regions of India—Amaravati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Binh Dinh); Kauthara
(Nha Trang); and Panduranga (Phan Rang)—whose populations remained concentrated in
small coastal enclaves. It had a powerful fleet that was used for commerce and for piracy.

62
In about AD 400 Champa was united under the rule of King Bhadravarman. In retaliation for
Cham raids on their coast, the Chinese invaded Champa in 446, bringing the region under
their suzerainty once again. Finally, under a new dynasty in the 6th century, Champa threw
off its allegiance to China and entered into an era of great independent prosperity and artistic
achievements. The centre of the nation began to shift from north to south; around the middle
of the 8th century Chinese sources cease to mention Lin-yi and begin to refer to the kingdom
as Huan-wang, a Sinicization of the name of the northernmost province, Panduranga (Phan
Rang). In the late 8th century the Chams were distracted by attacks from Java, but in the 9th
century they renewed their pressure on the Chinese provinces to the north and the growing
Khmer (Cambodian) Empire to the west. Under Indravarman II, who established the
Indrapura dynasty (the sixth in Champan history) in 875, the capital of the country was
moved back to the northern province of Amaravati (Quang Nam), near present Hue, and
elaborate palaces and temples were constructed.

In the 10th century the Vietnamese kingdom of Dai Viet began to exert pressure on Champa,
forcing it to relinquish Amaravati in 1000 and Vijaya in 1069. Harivarman IV, who in 1074
founded the ninth Cham dynasty, was able to stave off further Vietnamese and Cambodian
attacks, but in 1145 the Khmers, under the aggressive leadership of Suryavarman II, invaded
and conquered Champa. Two years later a new Cham king, Jaya Harivarman I, arose and
threw off Khmer rule, and his successor, in 1177, sacked the Cambodian capital at Angkor.
Between 1190 and 1220 the Chams again came under Cambodian suzerainty, and later in the
13th century they were attacked by the Tran kings of Vietnam, as well as by the Mongols in
1284. By the late 15th century, incessant wars of aggression and defense had for all practical
purposes wiped out the Champa kingdom; one by one their provinces were annexed until
Champa was entirely absorbed in the 17th century.

Its end marked the demise of the only culture of mainland Asia with Oceanian features. Cham
painting is known only from the inscriptions on the temples. Cham sculptors, under the
influence of Indian Gupta art, evolved a very personal style, characterized by forms springing
with wild energy. Architecture generally was confined to tiered brick towers.

Early period
From 1060 to 1074, Panduranga was the capital of king Rudravarman III (r. 1061–1074).
During the 12th century when Khmer Empire invaded Champa and occupied most of the
kingdom in 1145–1150, prince Sivänandana or Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1147–1162), son of
refugee king Rudravarman IV, fled to Panduranga, then led a rebellion that resisted the
Khmer and inflicted defeats on the invaders, forcing them to make a withdrawal in 1149. In

63
1151, province of Amaravarti (Quảng Ngãi province) revolted against Harivarman, followed
by Panduranga in 1155. In 1190, Cham Prince Vidyanandana (r. 1192–1203) who had
defected to the Khmer was nominated as puppet king of Pänduranga. Revolts ousted Khmer
Prince In of Vijaya in 1191, which prompted Vidyanandana to rebel against the Khmer in
1192 and then reunified Champa. He faced massive retribution from Jayavarman VII of
Angkor in the next year, but Vidyanandana's struggle for Champa lasted until 1203 when the
capital of Vijaya fell to the Khmer and Vidyanandana himself fled and died in Dai Viet.
According to the Sakarai dak rai patao (Panduranga annals), the first king of Panduranga
Principality was Sri Aragang. His rule lasted between 1195/1205 to 1235/1247. The king of
kings at Vijaya still wrested certain suzerainty over Panduranga. Sri Aragang was succeeded
by Cei Anâk, who reigned between 1235/1247 - 1269/1281. After the Aragang dynasty,
Panduranga continued maintaining its sovereignty under the Dobatasuar dynasty (1269-
1373).
By the late 14th century, the whole of Champa had been unified again under the rule of a
single strong dynasty, founded by Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). Panduranga
remained autonomous but asymmetrical and maintained a tributary relationship with the
Simhavarmanids in Vijaya.

Collapse of Vijaya and the beginning of Panduranga period

When the Vietnamese under Le Thanh Tong attacked Champa in early 1471, the whole
northern part of the kingdom was razed, cities ransacked, and tens of thousand people were
killed, either massacred or enslaved by the invaders. The Vietnamese king also captured the
Cham king Tra Toan and Vijaya clansmen, deporting them to the north, ending the dynasty's
reign. This event is widely recognized as the end of the Champa Kingdom, according
to Georges Maspero's logics.[13] However, it is noteworthy to know that the fall of Vijaya was
not a "shift" of Champa power to the south or the end of the kingdom, but rather, reflects the
multicentric nature of Champa, a confederation of semiindependent kingdoms which now
were no longer under the prestige of the Vijaya king of kings.
Unsurprisingly, a massive wave of Cham emigration radiated across Southeast Asia: In
Cambodia, Cham refugees were welcomed, but the sources do not provide how they arrived
in Cambodia and where they settled. In Thailand, there were records of Cham presence since
Ayudhaya period. In the Malay archipelago, the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) states that
after the collapse of Vijaya in 1471, two Cham princes named Indera Berma Shah and Shah
Palembang sought asylum in Melaka and Aceh. Shortly after his conversion to Islam, Indera
Berma Shah was appointed minister at the court of Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sejarah
Melayu also mentions Cham presences in Pahang, Kelantan, where the Kampung Laut
Mosque is said to be built by Champa sailors, on their way to Java and Aceh.
According to Vietnamese sources, on 22 March 1471, after the loss of the capital Vijaya to
the Vietnamese force under Le Thanh Tong, a Cham general named Bố Trì Trì (T'chai Ya Ma
Fou Ngan in Chinese annals) fled to Panduranga's capital Pa Rang and set up his own rule
and submitted to Le Thanh Tong seven days later. Thanh Tong agreed, but he divided the
Cham remnants into three smaller polities: Kauthara, Panduranga, and the northern part
of Central Highlands.[19] Champa was reduced in six regions: Aia Ru (Phú Yên), Aia Trang
(Khánh Hòa), Panrang (Phan Rang), Kraong (Long Hương), Parik (Phan Rí Cửa) and Pajai
(Phú Hài [vi]). The Chinese Ming Shilu provides another deviation of the timeline: Although
the Vietnamese sacking of Vijaya in March 1471, T'chai Ya Ma Fou Ngan still facilitated
token diplomacy with Ming Empire in unoccassional years, in 1478, 1505, and 1515, the son

64
of Fou Ngan received succession prescription from the Ming; their last contact occurred in
1543.
According to the Cham annal, from 1421/1448 to 1567/1579, the capital of Panduranga was
Biuh Bal Batsinâng. From 1567/1579 to 1653, it had been relocated to Bal Pangdarang
(present day Phan Rang). From the late 17th century until 1832, the capital of Panduranga
was once again moved south to Phan Rí Cửa.
The Cham stopped paying tribute to the Viet court when the Le was usurped by the Mac
dynasty in 1526.
Revival

Temple of King Po Rome (r. 1627-1651)///The Boxer Codex depiction of Chamcia

(Cham) couple, c. 1595
During the sixteenth century, as Dai Viet fragmented in the north, Panduranga Champa again
gained prosper from the rise of the international trade. Throughout the seventeenth century,
Cham merchants traded actively in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani,
and Makassar. A Spanish record reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu
king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with
Hindu temples.
In 1578, Panduranga assaulted Nguyen lord's domain near Đà Rằng River. In 1594,
Panduranga king sent a fleet of 400 warships to aid the Johor Sultanate in its struggles against
the Portuguese in Melaka
Panduranga also helped its neighbor Cambodia during the Cambodian–Spanish War, which
resulted in delivering a fiasco to the Spanish conquistadors. Governor of Malina, Luis Pérez
Dasmariñas (fl. 1593–96) sent a letter to the court of king Philip II in late 1595, antagonizing
the Cham king as "a vicious dangerous tyrant who was treacherous and full of evil deeds,"
while his second letter suggested that just around 200–300 Spanish soldiers and 500 local
mercenaries would be needed to conquer Champa. During that time, the Cham were
remembered by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants and seamen as ferocious pirates of
the South China Sea who numerously boarded merchant ships, plundering cargos, kidnapping
crew members, and routinely took European hostages to slavery. Cham kings were described
to be at least involved or actively encouraging raids against foreign ships.

65
In 1611, in an attempt to retake land from the Nguyen lord, Champa mounted an attack in
Phu Yen, but gained no success, and the Kauthara principality was lost to the Nguyen after a
counterattack.

Later period under Po Rome dynasty

With the rise of nearby Hội An, most foreign traders now were leaving Champa. Japanese
seal trade ships ceased to trade with Champa in 1623. [30] In 1611, lord Nguyen Phuc
Nguyen sent an army led by Văn Phong, a Cham defector, attacking Panduranga, annexing
the entire Kauthara Principality. Nguyen lord then resettled 30,000 Trinh POWs in Phu Yen.
Notable Cham king of this period, Po Rome (r. 1627-1651), was known for his great
erudition of Islam after having a sojourn study in Kelantan, Malay Peninsula, and the mass
conversion to Islam by his people. He encouraged trade, granting the Dutch permission to
arrange free trade in his country unless they do not attack Portuguese merchants at his ports.
[32]
To resolve discontents between Muslims and Balamon, Po Rome ordered the Cham Bani
to have their religion more integrated with Cham customs and beliefs, while pressing the
Ahier to accept Allah as the most supreme God but allowed them to retain their worships of
traditional Cham divinities, excellently reforging peace and cohesion in his kingdom. King
Po Rome is an important deity that is being venerated by the Cham people today.
Connections between Pandaranga and the extra Malay/Islamic world blossomed. Syncretism
was widely practiced at all levels, best known for incorporating cosmopolitan Islamic
doctrines into existing indigenous Cham beliefs and Hindu pantheons. The multipurpose
lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely Po Rome's best combination of previous Cham Śaka
era with the Islamic lunar calendar.
European missionaries described Champa in the 1670s as having the majority of its
population being Muslims, a Muslim sultan, and a Muslim court. In 1680 Panduranga
king Po Saut (r. 1659–1692) styled himself with Malay horrific Paduka Seri Sultan in his
hand letter to the Dutch in Java. In 1686, the Cham and Malay Muslim communities in Siam
reportedly joined the Makassars rebellion against king Narai of Ayudhya.
WARS
Under Po Rome's dynasty, Panduranga suffered several incursions from the Southern
Vietnamese Nguyen kingdom which centered around trading centers Hue-Hoi An, the old
center region of Champa which had been recently Vietnamized. Lords Nguyễn Phúc
Nguyên, Nguyễn Phúc Tần, and Nguyễn Phúc Chu repeatedly invaded Panduranga in 1611,
1629, 1653, 1692. During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Nguyen of Cochinchina
were too preoccupied dealing with their northern enemies, the Trịnh, rather than with the
Cham. Though was not recorded in official chronicles, but in dynastic genealogy and
pseudonymous Cham sources, in 1631 Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên arranged the marriage of his
princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Khoa to king Po Rome.[36][37] Alexander de Rhodes describes
sometime in 1639, the Nguyen still placed several galleys in the port of Ran Ran (Phú Yên)
to prevent seaborne incursion from Champa.
Having successfully fended off the Trinh, the Nguyen thalassocracy turned its attention to the
south, dispatching their first interference in Cambodia, overthrowing its first and only
Muslim king Ramathipadi I in 1658. The Nguyen had periodically invaded Cambodia several
times from 1658 to 1692 on par with Siam. In 1682, Panduranga reportedly sent envoys led
by the king's brothers who had fled after the king's coronation to Ayudhya in a possible
search for Siamese protection.

66
In 1692, lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu invaded Panduranga, arresting King Po Saut and renaming
Panduranga to Trấn Thuận Thành (Principality of Thuận Thành). The lord established Bình
Thuận District inside the Principality as free lands for ethnic Viet settler colonialism,[40] but
Cham revolts in 1693–96 forced the Nguyen lord to mitigate the resentment by abolishing the
Binh Thuan county, restoring the Cham monarchy with full rights, however, becoming a
vassal of the Nguyen, according to a following treaty signed in 1712. In 1694 Panduranga
king Po Saktiraydapatih (r. 1695–1727) received the title King of Thuan Thanh From 1695
onward, Panduranga had been reduced to a client state of the Nguyen domain, known as
the Principality of Thuận Thành (Trấn Thuận Thành – Principality of 'Submissive Citadel').

Mercantile Role
During the 16th century, Cham merchants renewed their commercial links and actively traded
in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani, and Makassar. Among their
exports, Cham textile was famously consumed.
The 17th-century Chinese compendium Xiyang Chao Gong Dian Lu (Tributes from the
countries of the Western Sea, c. 1650) describes a type of Cham brewed liquor that is made
from cooked rice, mixed with wine and medicines, contained in pottery, and is drunk by long
bamboo straws. People would sit around the container and take sips.
Proselytization of Islam increased sharply after the fall of Vijaya, as missionary Gabriel de
San Antonio wrote a description in 1585: "The locals (Chams) hated the Castilians and
believed prophecies made by the Moro, that there would be a king Mahoma, and many would
embrace the new faith."
Currently, there are two theories among academic consensus regard the apostle of Islam to
Champa, proposed by scholars Antoine Cabaton and Pierre-Yves Manguin. The first theory
states that Islam could have been introduced by Arab, Persian, Indian merchants, scholars,
religious leaders, during from the 10th to 14th century. The second theory argues that Islam
arrived in Champa through a later, shorter, indirectly way from the Malays (jawa, melayu,
chvea), according to Manguin, is more convincing and valid. Most historians agree that the
Cham only began converting to Islam en masse after the destruction of Vijaya. [44] In his
conclusion, Manguin attributes the Islamization of the Cham people to their active
participation in the regional maritime networks, and the Malay states and Malay traders
which also contributed great impacts to the process. Panduranga had its own revolt against
the court of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman I (r. 1044–1060) in 1050.[ In contrast with
scholars who view Champa as the kingdom exclusively of the Cham, recent scholars such
as Po Dharma and Richard O’Connor, rebrand Champa as a multiethnic kingdom. They note
that Champa was highly likely a coalition of the Cham lowlanders and the indigenous
inhabitants of the Central Highlands, although Cham culture is usually associated with the
broader culture of Champa

67
Panduranga is named after Panduiranga another toponym of Lord Vishnu

III
The Champa from the Age of Empires
Age of Empires is a series of historical real-time strategy video games originally developed by Ensemble
Studios and published by Microsoft Studios. The first game, Age of Empires, was released in 1997 and the
series has spanned five major titles and several spin-offs, selling over 20 million copies to date. A very
well researched serie, it is a pleasure to read all the knowledge emanating from the written description

68
 Champa Kingdoms
Marauders of the Sea: When enemies ship, Towers, or Keeps catches fire, it has a 25%
chance of being converted. Units un-garrisoning from Transport Ship, Battering Rams, and
Defensive buildings gain 33% more attack speed for 15 seconds.

 Po Nagar:
 Bang An Tower
 Po Klong Gerai Towers: .
 Duong Long Towers:
Imperial Age:
 Khu Tuc Citadel: .
 Po Rome:
Wonder:
 Mỹ Sơn

Unique Building:
Kalan
Mandapa
Kosaghra
Gopura
.
Architecture: this is a little difficult. The final Dai Viet conquest of the Champa thoroughly
destroyed everything. And anything that remained got even further destroyed by the heavy
bombing of the Vietnam war. However, they would most likely fall within the architecture
that the Khmer used. Where most buildings were made of wood, but the important sites,
especially such as their temples were made of Red Brick, contra to the Khmer grey sandstone
structures. They would incorporate many Hindu elements, that eventually took on the Khmer
style and later got more influence by Muslim and Buddhist elements. However, the Champa
really varied in many different architectural styles depending on region as they were never
really a Single-Kingdom. Each Kingdom developed its own flare to the Cham styles.But here
was a common trend:My Son / Dong Duong - style architecture dates somewhere 7th-10th
century. Khuong My - first half of the 10th Century.Tra Kieu - second half of the 10th
Century.Chanh Lo - end of 10th century to mid 11th century. And Thap Mam - 11th to 14th
century.

69
Naval units would mostly consist of large war boats powered by oars and ships designed of
typical Malay design, having junk sails and long ship hulls lined with oars. Although there is
very little info on them. But it is said that Chinese ship designs were based on the Indo-Malay
part of the world. (It is said that the iconic Junk sails stem from this region, and are rumored
to be introduced by the Cham people, who learned it from the Malay).

Language progression: The Cham language is a difficult one. As the Champa people were
pretty much stomped out, many fled over to Cambodia, However, the Chinese did record the
Cham language pretty well making a dictionary over the Cham words used in that
era.Currently, the Cham language that is closely related to the one spoken in the Champa
kingdoms, is the one found in the Cham minority in Vietnam, and those in Cambodia, as well
as a minor population in Indonesia.The language is related to Indonesian and Philippine
languages.The Champa would start off with Old Cham during the Dark and Feudal age, and
develop into the early form of Coastal Cham in the castle and imperial age.There is an issue
where it's hard to tell which of the Cham languages to use as Eastern and Western Cham have
diverged so much after the fall of the Champa. That the Cambodian cham is no longer
mutually intelligible with the Vietnamese cham. But my best guess is to try to find out which
of these are closest to old cham.

Landmark references:Po Nagar Towers:

Named after a Godess of local origin, who is said to have created the Earth, Eaglewood, and
Rice. The temple was built during the Hindu period of the Champa. Po Nagar is now used by
Vietnamese Buddhists who have dressed the Goddess statue in Buddhist robes**.**
Bang An Tower:

70
A unique structure among the Champa monuments for its octagonal plan. Possibly inspired
by the shape of Lingas. It once houses the Linga Paramshvara (The Supreme Lord). Today a
tree has taken root on top of the structure.
Po Klong Gerai Towers:

These are among the last towers the Cham built, dating to around the 13-14th century.
According to legend, named after a wise king Po Klong Garai (Dragon king of J'rai people).
Started life as a lowly cowherd, but became king of Champa by destiny, ruling wisely and for
the good of the people. When the Khmer invaded his kingdom, he challenged them to settle
the matter peacefully in a tower-building contest. The king prevailed, and the invaders

71
returned home. After his death, he became a god and protector of the people on earth. It is
said that the tower he built in the contest with the Khmer is the tower today known by his
name.
Duong Long Towers:

Tallest brick structures in all of southeast Asia. It was suggested to be an important ritual site
for the Chams, decorated richly in a variety of animal, vegetal, and, human forms. It was also
heavily influenced by the heavy stonework of the Khmer, which had regular contact with the
Cham. It is possible the site was a Tantric Buddhist place.
Khu Tuc Citadel:

Served as the main HQ on the border between the Champa and the northern neighbors' Dai
Viet, it was built to defend the northern border region. It also where many times a battlefield
where the Cham fought bravely and won several victories over the Dai Viet armies. It was
positioned near the Gianh River and the Con River, allowing the Champa army to quickly
build up forces around the citadel area.

72
Po Rome:

Named after the King Po Rome, who built dams and canals to nurture agriculture. During his
reign, Champa traded with all its neighboring countries, including the western countries of
France and Portugal. He also succeeded to subdue the Hindu and Muslim factions of the
Cham people. Forcing peace between the Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist Chams.
Wonder: My Son:

No, not my son even though he is a wonder in itself, but Mỹ Sơn, is a cluster of abandoned
and partially ruined Hindu temples. It served as the capital religious site for the Champa
kingdoms, where religious ceremonies for Kings of the ruling dynasties of Champa, as well
as a burial place for Cham royalty and national heroes. At its height, it encompassed over 70
temples, and numerous steles bearing historically important inscriptions in Sanskrit and
Cham. A large majority of this was sadly destroyed by American bombing after a single week
of the Vietnam War.
Unique Building:

73
Kalan:

Health: 2100 (to a total of 3000HP fully upgraded)

Unique Unit:
Haluwbilau:

Battle Elephants are units that excel at melee combat, Although with considerably fewer
hitpoints than their Dheli counterparts. They serve as a form of Melee version of a Mangonel,
or a much more expensive and tankier Landsknecht.But due to lack of armor is very
vulnerable against anti-cavalry units, such as spears and camels. As well as against range
damage.

74
 Illustration of the Dai Viet elephants from the Khmer Empire

Write-up:
The Champa is a maritime nation famous for dominating the sea of Champa (south china sea)
for more than a millennia. They excelled at piracy as well as naval warfare until the
Vietnamese overtook them by implementing gunpowder early in their navy, something the
Champa and many of the southeast Asian nations failed to do. I wanted to try to represent this
piracy and try to differentiate them a little from the Mongol raid bonus. Where instead of
gaining resources, they have a small chance of capturing the ships and defensive buildings
outright. While the Marauders of the Sea might seem a bit awkward to function in the early
game, it is there to boost their fighting power when doing early coastal raids, as well as make
early battering rams a little more useful. They do get access to an upgrade that removes the
need of garrisoning the units, as I feel giving it early would make them much too strong.
Their Kalan kinda functions like the Abbasid landmark where you build it and can upgrade it
further. These buildings were frequent and many throughout the Champa kingdoms and are
pretty much the only remains of the Champa today and played a very important role for the
Champa people. So making them a building with some flexible utility and serving as a
defensive garrison.

The Champa Kingdom is a fascinating empire that lasted for one and a half millennia, from
early 200-400AD all the way to 1832, Surviving as broken up city-states after the Dai Viet
had thoroughly crushed their once-great empire and burned it to the very ground. Eventually,
2 City-states remained one of them, Pandurangga, being able to hold out all the way to the
early 19th century. Before finally being annexed by the Dai Viet, only 50 years later, the
French would turn Vietnam into a colony, imposing the same fate on the Dai Viet.

75
The eerie thing is that the fate of Champa was strangely similar to the faith of the South
Vietnamese during the Vietnam war. Also, the border between the Champa and Dai Viet was
also, the same border as the north and south Vietnam.

The Champa were excellent builders, making their structures out of brick but without mortar,
instead of using a vegetable resin to bind the bricks together.The Cham were also very
multicultural, being a vast trading nation, they were among the first to get Indianized,
eventually, Buddhism got introduced and then Islam through Arabic merchants, primarily
Hindu, they also had a sizable amount of Muslims and Buddhists, and yet they unified most
of their time and was able to work together to expand the empire.

Early 13th century vietnamese rattan shield// Illustration of a potential Feudal or Castle Era
Dai Viet MaA

76
 Annamese(Dai Viet) Fire lances

Additional Notes:
Architecture varies to some degree, Traditional houses in Vietnam were characterized by
wooden structures topped by steep roofs. The roofs would be covered with fish-scale tiles and
curve outwards, while beams and rafters held up the main building. In some places, stilt
houses were built and the houses usually had an odd number of rooms. However, the coming
of various dynasties shaped cultural landmarks in the country in different ways. Over the
Ages, the buildings will become more and more Sinicized with their own distinct flair.
The feudal age representing The Ly Dynasty of the 11th century, for example, was deeply
influenced by Buddhism and incorporated intricate reliefs and motifs into their architecture.
Castle Age representing the Tran dynasty*,* which gained a foothold in the 13th century,
brought its own set of beliefs and customs that made its mark in Vietnam's architectural
history. Buildings became more complex and demarcated, and gardens became a part of
temples and places of worship.
Imperial Age representing the Le Dynasty thrived in the 16th and 17th centuries and
witnessed the rise of folk art and sculpture being used in contemporary carvings and
paintings.
Naval units would be a mix of junk-style, ships, however their early ships (arrow ships)
would be elongated boats with multiple oars, and their Imperial cannon boats would be their
own style that is more of a mix between a Chinese War Junk and a Portuguese Galley.
Language progression: The Vietnamese language belongs to the Austroasiatic language
family, in its own subgroup called Viet-Muong. In the early days, Vietnamese shared more
characteristics common to other languages in South East Asia and with the Austroasiatic
family, such as an inflectional morphology and a richer set of consonant clusters, which have
subsequently disappeared from the language under Chinese influence. Vietnamese is heavily
influenced by its location in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, with the result that it
has acquired or converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and
phonemically distinctive tones. The ancestor of the Vietnamese language is usually believed
to have been originally based in the area of the Red River Delta in what is now northern

77
Vietnam. Distinctive tonal variations emerged during the subsequent expansion of the
Vietnamese language and people into what is now central and southern Vietnam through the
conquest of the ancient nation of Champa and the Khmer people of the Mekong Delta in the
vicinity of present-day Ho Chi Minh City, also known as Saigon. The Vietnamese would
progress their language throughout the ages, starting off;
 Dark Age: Proto-Vietnamese*,* the oldest reconstructable version of Vietnamese,
dated to just before the entry of massive amounts of Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary into
the language, c. 7th to 9th century AD. At this stage, the language had three tones.
 Feudal Age: Archaic Vietnamese*,* the state of the language upon adoption of the
Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and the beginning of the creation of the Vietnamese
characters during the Ngô Dynasty, c. 10th century AD.
 Castle Age: Ancient Vietnamese**,** the language represented by Chữ Nôm (15th
century), widely used during the Lê and the Chinese–Vietnamese, and the Ming
glossary "Annanguo Yiyu" By this point, a tone split had happened in the language,
leading to six tones but a loss of contrastive voicing among consonants.
 Imperial Age: Middle Vietnamese*,* the language of the Dictionarium Annamiticum
Lusitanum et Latinum of the Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes (17th century) the
dictionary was published in Rome in 1651. Another famous dictionary of this period
was written by P. J. Pigneau de Behaine in 1773 and published by Jean-Louis Taberd
in 1838.

Landmark references:Temple of Literature:

Old picture showing the 3 entry gates to the temple in the back

78
 After the reconstruction from the Vietnam War

Built by Emperor Lý Thánh Tông, it was Vietnam's first National University. Despite nearly
two centuries, of wars and disasters, the temple preserved ancient architectural styles of many
dynasties as well as precious relics.
One Pillar Pagoda:

One Pillar Pagoda in Hanoi

Built by Emperor Lý Thái Tông (Father of Lý Thánh Tông), as a token of gratitude to the
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, who handed him a baby son while seated on a lotus flower in a
dream, as the Emperor was Childless. Shortly after, he met a peasant girl who bore him a son.

79
The Temple was said to be constructed in the lotus pond that he saw in his dreams. The
temple was the site of Annual royal ceremonies on the occasion of Vesak, the birthday of the
Guatama Buddha.
Binh Khuong Shrine:

The Temple honors the spirit of Binh Khuong, a young widow who died protesting her
husband's unjust execution of being buried alive.He was proclaimed a traitor by the current
Emperor Hồ Quý Ly, who had her Husband being a Supervisor overseeing the construction
of the walls of a mighty fortress. As the four walls were on the verge of completion, the earth
suddenly subsided under the east wall, bringing a large section crashing down. Although he
survived the accident, the emperor was incensed and ordered his execution believing that the
Supervisor had sabotaged the design and was ordered to be buried alive beneath the east wall
as a warning to any other “traitors”.The Wife hearing the news, rushed to the spot where her
husband was buried and demanded the Emperor to give him a proper burial. She decided to
take matters into her own hands and started to move and chip away at the heavy stones
herself, in frustration she banged her head against one of the stones and clawed at it until her
body was raw and bloody. Eventually succumbing to the injuries. In 2009 during renovation,
the bones of a young woman were found at the presumed location, and it was believed to be
the remains of Bin Khuong herself, the remains were buried with full Buddhist ceremony,
and the temple remains in active use today by local villagers who gather there every full
moon to pay their respects.
Ho Citadel:

Artwork of HO Citadel

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The Ho citadel was built by Hồ Quý Ly, the founder of the short-lived Ho dynasty (less than
10 years), he was emperor in all but name only, as Trần Thiếu Đế still held on as the nominal
ruler. Partly in an attempt to distance himself further from Trần centers of power, and to bring
the seat of government closer to the Cham threat in the south, Hồ Quý Ly decided to move
the country's capital to a new location in Thanh Hoa province. He dubbed the new capital Tay
Do, the western capital, in opposition to the old capital of Thang Long (and the seat of Trần
authority) which was renamed Dong Do.

Thiên Mụ Temple:

Thiên Mụ Temple complex

Built in 1601, it was related to the dream of Nguyen Lord. According to the royal annals,
First Nguyen Lord while traveling the vicinity, was told of the local legend in which an old
lady, known as Thiên Mụ (in Vietnamese “Celestial Lady”), dressed in red and blue sat at
the side, rubbing her cheeks. She foretold that a lord would come and erect a pagoda on the
hill to pray for the country’s prosperity. She then vanished after making her prophecy. Upon

81
hearing this, First Nguyen Lord ordered the construction of a temple at the site, so it became
the pagoda we visit today.
Doan Mon Gate:

Main gate to the Imperial palace

Doan Mon is one of the main entrances to the Imperial Citadel of Thang Long, considered a
Forbidden City of Vietnam. Based on construction materials and the remaining architectural
style of the relics, it can be affirmed that the current Doan Mon was built under Le Dynasty
and restored in Nguyen Dynasty. The royal enclosure was first built during the Lý dynasty
(1010) and subsequently expanded by the Trần, Lê, and finally the Nguyễn dynasty. It
remained the seat of the Vietnamese court until 1810 when the Nguyễn dynasty chose to
move the capital to Huế. The ruins roughly coincide with the Hanoi Citadel today.
Wonder: Bút Tháp Temple: The temple is also popularly called Nhan Thap Temple. The
temple was built in the 13th century. The temple houses the largest Avalokiteśvara statue
with one thousand eyes and a thousand arms. But Thap Temple is one of the most famous
temples in Viet Nam. Inside, there are various valuable ancient objects and statues, which are
considered to be Vietnamese masterpieces of 17th-century wood carving. Inside the temple
are more than 50 statues of different sizes including the Triad Buddha, Manjusri (Van Thu)
on a blue lion, and Samantabhadra (Pho Hien) on a white elephant. The most remarkable is
the thousand-handed and thousand-eyed Guanyin, which is described as a sculptural
masterpiece of Vietnam.

Nỏ thần:

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Giao Chỉ Arquebusier:

Voi Chiến:

83
 Civ6 Vietnam war elephant

War Elephants of the Vietnamese is able to garrison units for additional firepower. Similar to
a Tower. Strong against Light melee infantry, and able to effectively destroy buildings with
its melee attacks.
Write-up:War, War never changes. Well, one could say that about Vietnam. Vietnam never
changes.Reading up on its History one quickly realizes, that the Vietnam war America waged
on Vietnam, was nothing but a drop in the ocean of the countless wars Vietnam has had to
deal with against empires and nations, far bigger and greater than themselves.Yet they never
lost a war. And by that I mean, sure they lost battles and were pushed back. But they always
came out the victor at the end of each war.So no wonder the Americans had such problems
against the Vietnamese.While the Vietnamese might have a lot of internal conflict among
themselves.If it's one thing that unites them quickly, is an outside threat. Able to set aside
their differences temporarily to effectively fight back against the enemies.And it is one of the
things I really wanted to reflect on with the Vietnamese.
I gotta say though, It was surprisingly hard to do thorough research on the Vietnamese. Not
due to lack of information. But due to a lot of information being locked behind the
Vietnamese language, and Chinese claims over Vietnamese heritage. And on top of it all.
Trying to filter through what might be “propaganda” Both by the Vietnamese, and modern-
day China.
However, one thing came out clear. Vietnam and Gunpowder. While the Chinese might have
invented gunpowder. Vietnam quickly became true masters of Gunpowder. Quickly adapting
Arquebuses and Firelances, and many other forms of gunpowder weapons and inventions.
The Ming Dynasty quickly realized the superiority of craftmanship of the Dai Vietnamese
weapons (known to china as the Annamese), especially the Firelance, they started importing
Vietnamese weapons at masse and hiring Vietnamese Instructors for the use and training of
the weapons.
While the Europeans and especially the Ming Dynasty were fond of their Arquebuses more
commonly known as the Jiaozhi Arquebus. Being exceptionally accurate with a devastating
penetration force for its era, easily penetrating most armor in the region.It was very similar
Java Arquebus that was Pioneered by the Majapahit empire to the south. (Malay people). And
it was this early and rapid adaptation of Gunpowder weapons that gave the Vietnamese an
edge over its neighbors and eventually had them conquer their neighbor of Champa. And they
were profound guerrilla fighters, fighting in much the same manner against their ancient

84
enemies, as they did in recent times against the Americans. Although I couldn't find any
documents about them making tunnels, they did have several hideouts they would stock up
on food and supplies after applying scorched earth tactics in their own lands to starve the
enemies. This was a doctrine that was well engraved in the Vietnamese mindset, often going
by the expression Lấy sức nhàn thắng sức mỏi (Our troops in good health smite the tired
enemy troops). Which they applied efficiently against several Mongol and Chinese invasions.
And giving the mongols a taste of their own hit-and-run Tactics.

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 IV
History of Champa
The history of Champa begins in prehistory with the migration of the ancestors of the Cham
people to mainland Southeast Asia and the founding of their Indianized maritime kingdom
based in what is now central Vietnam in the early centuries AD, and ends when the final
vestiges of the kingdom were annexed and absorbed by Vietnam in 1832.

The Vo Canh Stele is the oldest Sanskrit inscription ever found in Southeast Asia, 2nd or 3rd
century CE
One theory holds that the people of Champa were descended from settlers who reached the
Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huỳnh culture, though
genetic evidence points to exchanges with India. Sa Huỳnh sites are rich in iron artifacts, by
contrast with the Đông Sơn culture sites found in northern Vietnam and elsewhere in
mainland Southeast Asia, where bronze artifacts are dominant. The Cham language is part of
the Austronesian family. According to one study, Cham is related most closely to
modern Acehnese.
Founding Stories
Cham tradition says that the founder of the Cham state was Lady Po Nagar. She hailed
from Khánh Hòa Province, in a peasant family in the mountains of Dai An. Spirits assisted
her when she drifted on a piece of sandalwood to China, where she married a Chinese crown
prince, the son of the Emperor of China, with whom she had two children. She then became
Queen of Champa.[3] When she returned to Champa to visit her family, the Prince refused to
let her go, but she flung the sandalwood into the ocean, disappeared with her children and
reappeared at Nha Trang to her family. When the Chinese prince tried to follow her back to
Nha Trang, she was furious and turned him and his fleet into stone.
The Sa Huỳnh culture was a late prehistoric metal age society on the central coast of Viet
Nam. In 1909, urns containing cremated remains and grave goods were discovered at Thanh
Duc, near Sa Huỳnh, a coastal village located south of Da Nang. Since then, many more
burials have been found, from Huế to the Đồng Nai river delta. The jar burials
contain bronze mirrors, coins, bells, bracelets, axes and spearheads, iron spearheads, knives
and sickles, and beads made of gold, glass, carnelian, agate and nephrite. Radiocarbon
dating of the Sa Huỳnh culture remains range from 400 BC to the first or second century AD.

86
The Sa Huỳnh exchanged items along maritime trade routes with Taiwan and the Philippines.
"At present, the consensus of all evidence points to a relatively late intrusive settlement of
this region by sea from Borneo, a move which stimulated the rise of Sa Huỳnh, and then the
development of the Cham states."
Field research conducted in the Thu Bon River Valley by joint British-Italian-Japanese
archaeologists concludes that by the early centuries AD, late Sa Huynh settlements had
developed into semiurbanized riverine and coastal port-cities, and ancient citadels such as Trà
Kiệu and Gò Cấm might have become important trading hubs during the transition from late
Sahuynhian (Proto-Chamic) culture to proto-Cham. By the third century AD, proto-Cham
centers apparently had moved away from the sand dunes of the coast to further inland plains
between rivers to avoid hostile conditions; in addition to the growth of fortified settlements,
urbanization, trade, and expansion of rice cultivating communities along those rivers
centuries afterwards, along with the improvement of road networks and overland
communications, ultimately resulting in the emergence of more centralized state to be formed
in the eight and ninth centuries
Initial Kingdoms of Lâm Ấp, Xitu, and Quduqian
Ancient Champa–Central Vietnam is said, during the regency of Duke of Zhou (1042–1035
BC), there was a tribe called Yuèshāng then Rinan) brought two black pheasants and one
albino to the court of the Zhou dynasty, presented as tributes. The Nanyue kingdom (204–111
BC) based from present-day Guangzhou, was founded by Zhao Tuo, a former Chinese
general of Qin Shihuangdi.[9] Nanyue projected its power into present-day northern Vietnam,
which eventually then was becoming the southernmost parts of Nanyue. The region was
annexed by the Han emperor Wudi in 111 BC, who incorporated those territories
corresponding to modern-day north and central Vietnam into the Han Empire. Central
Vietnam from south of Ngang Pass in Hà Tĩnh then became known as Rinan (日南) province,
meaning "south of the sun."
To the Chinese, the country of Champa was known as Linyi Mandarin and Lam Yap in
Cantonese and to the Vietnamese, Lâm Ấp . According to Chinese texts, in 192 AD, a revolt
erupted in Rinan led by Khu Liên , son of a local official, killing the Han magistrate
in Xianglin ( 象 林 Xiànglín in Chinese or Tượng Lâm in Vietnamese) county (modern-
day Thừa Thiên Huế province). Khu Liên then established a kingdom known to the Chinese
as Lâm Ấp or Linyi. Over the next several centuries, Chinese forces made repeated
unsuccessful attempts to retake the region.From its neighbor Funan to the west, Lâm Ấp soon
came under the influence of Indian civilization.[16] Scholars locate the historical beginnings of
Champa in the 4th century, when the process of Indianization was well underway. It was in
this period that the Cham people began to create stone inscriptions in both Sanskrit and in
their own language, for which they created a unique script. One such Sanskrit inscription,
the Vo Canh stele Pallava Grantha inscription hails from the early Cham territory of
Kauthara, and establishes the descendant of the local Hindu king related to
the Funan kingdom, Sri Mara. He is identified with both Champa founder Khu Liên and Fan
Shih-man of Funan.

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The towers of Po Sa Nu (Pho Hai) near Phan Thiết may be the oldest extant Cham buildings.
In style, they exhibit the influence of pre-Angkorian Cambodia.
The Book of Jin has some records about Lam Ap during the 3rd to 5th centuries. Fan Wen (范
文) became the king in 336. He attacked and annexed Daqijie, Xiaoqijie, Ship, Xulang, Qudu,
Ganlu, and Fudan. Fan Wen sent a message and paid tribute to the Chinese Emperor, and the
message was "written in barbarian characters".[25] Lam Ap sometimes maintained the tributary
status and sometimes was hostile to the Jin dynasty, and the Commandery of Rinan
Chinese:Rinan, Vietnamese:Nhật Nam) was frequently under attack from Lam Ap.
Archaeological excavations at Tra Kieu (Simhapura), an early Lam Ap/Champa site, show
that the common assumption of Lam Ap as a merely "Indianized" polity is rather irrational
and fundamentally misunderstanding. Instead, evidence gathered from excavations displays a
fascinating, dynamic history of the early stages of formation of the Cham civilization, with
artifacts reflect cross global influence and trade connections between early Champa with
ancient Eurasian powers such as the Han Empire, the Gupta Empire, the South Indian Pallava
dynasty, and the Mediterranean.
The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman, who reigned from 380 to
413. At Mỹ Sơn, King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara, whose name
was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva. The
worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued
through the centuries that followed.[33] Moreover, Bhadravarman's third Đông Yên
Châu inscription (C. 174, c. 4th–5th century AD) at Tra Kieu, which renders Old Cham, is
the oldest surviving text example of Indonesian, Malay or any Southeast Asian language.

Some historians doubt that the Cham of medieval time were direct descendants from the early
state of what the Chinese called Lâm Ấp/Linyi which encompassed the present-day areas
north of Hải Vân Pass to the Ngang Pass. Another significant issue that historians also
concern is the Champa unitary theory argued by early scholarship who believed that there
was only one single kingdom of early Champa and that was Lâm Ấp/Linyi recorded by the
Chinese. Linyi left no textual information, while south of Linyi were the kingdoms
of Xitu, Boliao, Quduqian, and dozens more kingdoms that their names had been lost to
history. For example, William Southworth, hypothesizes that the emergence of Champa in
the 6th century was the result of a gradual process of Chamic northward expansion from
the Thu Bồn River valley to Thừa Thiên Huế and its periphery around the 5th to 6th century
AD, though very faint. From 220 to 645, Chinese annals give almost the same title for rulers
of Linyi, that may be connected with the Khmer title poñ found in seventh-century Khmer
inscriptions. Michael Vickery proposes that the Linyi (Huế) of what Chinese historians had

88
described, was not the actual Champa or Chamic at all. Instead, Linyi's demographics might
have been predominantly Mon-Khmer, perhaps the Vieto-Katuic ethnolinguistic branch.

Sculpture of an unidentified female goddess from An My, Quang Nam, 7th-8th century
AD.Could be Saraswati
Archaeologists also have discovered early 5th-century Cham sculptures showing different
traits and styles per location, thus perhaps indicate the certainly existence of many different
Proto-Cham kingdoms/settlements developed independently. Those archaic male and female
sculptures and images, however, questioned by historians, whether they represent Indian
Hindu gods, or could be purely local spirits and deities, revealing facets of early Cham
religion and society. Some of the sculptures from Khanh Hoa, Phu Yen, Binh Dinh,
and Quang Nam apparently share some similar elements with Gupta art of the 4th and 5th
centuries.[37]
The capital of Lâm Ấp at the time of Bhadravarman was the citadel of Simhapura, the "Lion
City" at present-day Trà Kiệu, located along two rivers and had a wall eight miles in
circumference. A Chinese writer described the people of Lâm Ấp as both warlike and
musical, with "deep eyes, a high straight nose, and curly black hair."[35]: 49–50 [38]
According to Chinese records, Sambhuvarman (Fan Fan Tche) was crowned king of Lâm Ấp
in 529. Inscriptions credit him with rehabilitating the temple to Bhadresvara after a fire.
Sambhuvarman also sent delegations and tribute to China and unsuccessfully invaded what is
now northern Vietnam. George Cœdès states that this was actually Rudravarman I, followed
by his son Sambhuvarman; their combined reigns extended from 529 to 629. When the
Vietnamese gained a brief independence under the Early Lý dynasty (544-602), King Lý
Nam Đế sent his general, Pham Tu, to pacify the Chams after they raided southern border, in
543; the Chams were defeated.
In 605, a general Liu Fang of the Chinese Sui dynasty invaded Lâm Ấp, won a battle by
luring the enemy war-elephants into an area booby-trapped with camouflaged pits,
massacring the defeated troops, and captured the capital. Sambhuvarman rebuilt the capital
and the Bhadravarman temple at Mỹ Sơn, then received Chenla King Mahendravarman's

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ambassador . In the 620s, the kings of Lâm Ấp sent delegations to the court of the recently
established Tang dynasty and asked to become vassals of the Chinese court.
Chinese records report the death of the last king of Lâm Ấp in 756. Thereafter for a time, the
Chinese referred to Champa as "Hoan Vuong" or "Huanwang". The earliest Chinese records
using a name related to "Champa" are dated 877; however, such names had been in use by the
Cham themselves since at least 629, and by the Khmer since at least 667. Some academics
such as Anton Zakharov and Andrew Hardy recently have come to the conclusion that the
Linyi of Chinese history texts and the Champa Kingdom from indigenous epigraphic sources
might have nothing in common and are obscure, unrelated to each other.
At Mỹ Sơn, the name Campā occurs in the first time on an important Cham inscription code
named C. 96 dating from metaphysically year 658 AD. Another undatable inscription from
Dinh Thị, Thừa Thiên Huế mentions a king with titles cāmpeśvara ('"Lord of the Cham'")
and śrī kandarppapureśvarāya ("Lord of the City of Kandarpapura of Love"), perhaps
attribute to Kandarpadharma, the eldest son of Sambhuvarman. Correspondingly, Cambodian
inscription K. 53 (written in Sanskrit) from Kdei Ang, Prey Veng recorded an envoy
dispatched from the ruler of Champa (Cāmpeśvara) in 667 AD.[51]

Asia in 800 AD, showing the Champa city-states and their neighbors
From the 7th to the 10th centuries, the Cham controlled the trade in spices and silk between
China, India, the Indonesian islands, and the Abbasid empire in Baghdad. They supplemented
their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging
in piracy and raiding.

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Consolidation under Prakasadharma and the Simhapura dynasty

Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary

In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of
Champa in Simhapura (Tra Kieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?)
and Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the
Simhapura dynasty. He embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in
the south, and by 658 AD the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from Quảng Bình
province in the north to present-day Ninh Hòa city, Khánh Hòa province in the south, was
unified under one ruler for the first time.
Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures.
Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn. One structure is
amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king, resembling
a theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.
Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653,
654, 669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The
seventh century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief
tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast
and Baekje in the East — though the latter was rivaled by Japan.
Religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn
By the second half of the 7th century, royal temples were beginning to appear at Mỹ Sơn. The
dominant religious practice was that of the Hindu god Shiva, but temples were also dedicated
to Vishnu. Scholars have called the architectural style of this period Mỹ Sơn E1, in reference
to a particular edifice at Mỹ Sơn that is regarded as emblematic of the style. Important
surviving works of art in this style include a pedestal for a linga that has come to be known as
the Mỹ Sơn E1 Pedestal and a pediment depicting the birth of Brahma from a lotus issuing
from the navel of the sleeping Vishnu.[56]

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Stone pedestal of a temple with an Apsara dancer and a Gandharva musician (Trà Kiệu style)
In an important stone inscription dated 657, found at Mỹ Sơn, King Prakasadharma, who took
on the name Vikrantavarman I at his coronation, claimed to be descended through his mother
from the Brahman Kaundinya and the serpent princess Soma, the legendary ancestors of
the Khmer of Cambodia. This inscription underlines the ethnic and cultural connection of
Champa with the Khmer Empire, its perennial rival to the west. It also commemorates the
king's dedication of a monument, probably a linga, to Shiva. Another inscription documents
the king's almost mystical devotion to Shiva, "who is the source of the supreme end of life,
difficult to attain; whose true nature is beyond the domain of thought and speech, yet whose
image, identical with the universe, is manifested by his forms."
Javanese raids (774, 787–799)

Javanese attacks on Champa and Jiaozhi

In 767, Tonkin coast was hit by Java (Daba) and Kunlun raids,[61][62][63] around modern day
Hanoi the capital of Tonkin (Annam).[64][65] Around Son-tay they were vanquished at the
hands of Chang Po-i the governor, after the Kunlun and Java (Shepo) assaulted Tongking in
767.[66]
Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787.[67][68][69] In
774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha-trang where the pirates demolished temples,
while in 787 an assault was launched on Phang-rang. [70][71][72] Several Champa coastal cities
suffered naval raids and assault from Java. Java armadas was called as Javabala-sanghair-

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nāvāgataiḥ (fleets from Java) which are recorded in Champa epigraphs. [73][74] All of these
raids believed was launched by the Sailendras, ruler of Java and Srivijaya.[75][76][77] The
possible cause of Javanese assault on Champa was probably prompted by commerce rivalry
on serving Chinese market. The 787 epigraph was in Yang Tikuh while the 774 epigraph was
Po-nagar.
In Kauthara province in 774, Champa's Siva-linga temple of Po Nagar was assaulted and
demolished.[80] Champa source mentioned their invader as foreigners, sea-farers, eaters of
inferior food, of frightful appearance, extraordinarily black and thin. The 774 assault by the
Javanese happened in the rule of Isvaraloka (Satyavarman). Cham record mentioned that their
country was hit by ferocious, pitiless, dark-skinned sea raiders, which modern historians
believed to by Javanese. Java had commercial and cultural links to Champa. [84] And assault
was initiated on Cambodia. Javanese raid was launched via the Pulo Condor island. Malaya,
Sumatra or Java all could have been the origin of the assaulters.The Kauthara Nha Trang
temple of Po Nagar was ruined when ferocious, pitiless, dark-skinned men born in other
countries, whose food was more horrible than corpses, and who were vicious and furious,
came in ships . . . took away the [temple linga], and set fire to the temple. In 774 according to
the Nha Trang epigraph in Sanskrit by the Chams. Men born in other lands, living on other
foods, frightful to look at, unnaturally dark and lean, cruel as death, passing over the sea in
ships assaulted in 774.
In 787, warriors from Java borne over in ships assaulted Champa. In Phan-rang the Sri
Bhadradhipatlsvara temple was arsoned by seaborne Java troops in 787, when Indravarman
was in power at the hands of the Javanese. It was mentioned the armies of Java, having come
in vessels of the 787 assault, and of the previous assault, that Satyavarman, the King of
Champa vanquished them as they were followed by good ships and beaten at sea and they
were men living on food more horrible than cadavers, frightful, completely black and gaunt,
dreadful and evil as death, came in ships in the Nha-trang Po Nagar epigraph in Sanskrit,
which called them men born in other countries. The ruin of the temple at Panduranga in 787
came at the hands of the assaulters.
Champa was an important commerce link between China and Srivijaya. . The Majapahit and
their predecessors the Javanese Mataram had ties with Champa.
Further Cham diplomatic relations with Java occurred in 908 and 911 during the reign
of Bhadravarman II (r. 905–917), which the king sent two envoys to the island.
The Buddhist dynasty at Indrapura

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Buddhist altar from Đồng Dương, 9th-10th century AD. Museum of Cham
Sculpture, Danang.
In 875, King Indravarman II founded a new northern dynasty at Indrapura (Dong Duong
near Da Nang in modern Vietnam). Eager to claim an ancient lineage, Indravarman declared
himself the descendant of Bhrigu, the venerable sage whose exploits are detailed in
the Mahabharata, and asserted that Indrapura had been founded by the same Bhrigu in ancient
times. From 877 onward, the Chinese knew Champa as "Cheng-cheng", discontinuing their
use of the term "Huan-wang." Indravarman II repulsed an invasion by the Khmer
King Yasovarman I.
Indravarman was the first Cham monarch to adopt Mahayana Buddhism as an official
religion. At the center of Indrapura, he constructed a Buddhist monastery (vihara) dedicated
to the bodhisattva Lokesvara.. The foundation, regrettably, was devastated during
the Vietnam War. Thankfully, some photographs and sketches survive from the prewar
period. In addition, some stone sculptures from the monastery are preserved in Vietnamese
museums. Scholars have called the artistic style typical of the Indrapura the Dong Duong
Style. The style is characterized by its dynamism and ethnic realism in the depiction of the
Cham people. Surviving masterpieces of the style include several tall sculptures of
fierce dvarapalas or temple guardians that were once positioned around the monastery. The
period in which Buddhism reigned as the principal religion of Champa came to an end in
approximately 925, at which time the Dong Duong Style also began to give way to
subsequent artistic styles linked with the restoration of Shaivism as the national religion
Kings belonging to the dynasty of Indrapura built a number of temples at Mỹ Sơn in the 9th
and 10th centuries. Their temples at Mỹ Sơn came to define a new architectural and artistic
style, called by scholars the Mỹ Sơn A1 Style, again in reference to a particular foundation at
Mỹ Sơn regarded emblematic for the style. With the religious shift from Buddhism back to
Shaivism around the beginning of the 10th century, the center of Cham religion also shifted
from Dong Duong back to Mỹ Sơn.

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9th-century Campa bronze statues of Avalokiteśvara (Lokeśvara) and Prajñāpāramitā, from
Ðại Hữu, Quảng Bình province.
Interesting parallels may be observed between the history of northern Champa (Indrapura and
Vijaya) and that of its neighbor and rival to the west, the Khmer civilization of Angkor,
located just to the north of the great lake Tonlé Sap in what is now Cambodia. The foundation
of the Cham dynasty at Indrapura in 875 was followed by the foundation of the Khmer
empire at Roluos in 877 by King Indravarman I, who united two previously independent
regions of Cambodia. The parallels continued as the two peoples flourished from the 10th
through 12th centuries, then went into gradual decline, suffering their ultimate defeat in the
15th century. In 982, King Lê Hoàn of Đại Việt sent army invaded Champa, sacked Indrapura
and beheaded Champa king. The new Champa king agreed to pay tributes to Vietnamese
court every year until 1064. In 1238, the Khmer lost control of their western possessions
around Sukhothai as the result of a Thai revolt. The successful revolt not only ushered in the
era of Thai independence but also foreshadowed the eventual abandonment of Angkor in
1431, following its sack by Thai invaders from the kingdom of Ayutthaya, which had
absorbed Sukhothai in 1376. The decline of Champa was roughly contemporaneous with that
of Angkor and was precipitated by pressure from Đại Việt of what is now northern Vietnam,
culminating in the conquest and obliteration of Vijaya in 1471.
Trade with China
According to the Daoyi Zhilue documents, around the 11th century Chinese merchants who
went to Cham ports in Champa married Cham women, to whom they regularly returned after
trading voyages. A Chinese merchant from Quanzhou, Wang Yuanmao, traded extensively
with Champa and married a Cham princess.[98]
Contact with San-fo-qi
The Song Huiyao Jigao lists San-fo-qi (Sanfoche, Three Boja?) for being Champa's one
important trade partner. San-fo-qi is mentioned in a Cham envoy 1011 as home for a lion that
the Cham had offered the Song court as tribute, though in fact the animal presumably came
from Africa or Central Asia.
Contact with Ma-i, Butuan, and Sulu

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The History of Song notes that to the east of Champa through a two-day journey lay the
country of Ma-i, while Pu-duan (Butuan) need a seven-day journey, and there were mentions
of Cham commercial activities in Butuan. Cham merchants then immigrated to what is the
now the Sultanate of Sulu which was still Hindu at that time and known as Lupah Sug, which
is also in the Philippines. The Cham migrants were called Orang Dampuan. The Champa
civilization and the port-kingdom of Sulu engaged in commerce with each other which
resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu from the 10th-13th centuries. The Orang
Dampuan were slaughtered by envious native Sulu Buranuns due to the wealth of the Orang
Dampuan. The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory slaughter by the Orang Dampuan.
Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored. The
Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from
Champa.
Relations with Arab peninsula and Persia
Part of the SHYJG also notes that in Champa 'their customs and clothing are similar to those
of the country of Dashi (a medieval Chinese collective name for the Arab peninsula and
Persia).' Among Champa's trade goods to China, textiles from Dashi are recorded, and Dashi
is mentioned as one of the transit points for the lion which was brought to the Song court by
Champa as tribute. Two Kufic gravestones dating from 1039 in Phan Rang marked a tomb of
a Muslim trader named Abu Kamil, which indicates a small Muslim community in 11th
century Champa.
Khmer invasions of Kauthara (944–950)
In 944 and 945, Khmer troops from Cambodia invaded the region of Kauthara. [104] Around
950, the Khmer under Rajendravarman II pillaged the temple of Po Nagar and carried off the
statue of the goddess. In 960, the Cham King Jaya Indravaman I sent a delegation with tribute
to the first king of the Chinese Song dynasty, which had been established in Kaifeng around
960. In 965, the king restored the temple at Po Nagar and reconstructed the statue of the
goddess to replace the one stolen by the Khmer.
War with Đại Cồ Việt in 982
In the latter half of the 10th century, the kings of Indrapura waged war against the
Vietnamese. The Viet had spent the better part of the century securing and consolidating their
independence from the Chinese. Following the defeat of the Chinese fleet by king Ngô
Quyền in the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 938, the country had gone through a period of internal
turmoil until its final reunification by king Dinh Bo Linh in 968 under the name Đại Cồ Việt
kingdom, and the establishment of a capital at Hoa Lư near modern Ninh Bình.

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Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965 CE. The stele describes feats by king Jaya
Indravarman I (r. 960–972).

In 979, the Cham King Parameshvaravarman I (Phê Mi Thuê to the Viet) sent a fleet to
attack Hoa Lư in support of dissatisfied prince Ngô Nhật Khánh following the Vietnamese
civil war of twelve warlords. However, the ill-fated expedition was scuttled by a typhoon. In
982, King Lê Hoàn of Đại Cồ Việt sent an ambassador to Indrapura. When the ambassador
was detained, Lê Hoàn decided to attack the Cham capital. Viet troops sacked the citadel of
Dia Ly and killed Parameshvararman I. They carried off women from the king's entourage,
gold, silver, and other precious objects. As a result of these setbacks, the Cham abandoned
Indrapura around 1000. From 986 to 989, a Vietnamese man named Lưu Kế Tông (or Liu
Ke-Tsong in Chinese record), alleged took the throne of the Cham king in Indrapura and
reigned the country for 3 years. The center of Champa was relocated south to Vijaya in
modern Bình Định. It is possible alternaely that the new king Harivarman II (r. 989–997) was
crowned in the city of Foshi, or Indrapura, rather than Vijaya, as textual evidence from
inscriptions and Chinese texts had provided. When the Vietnamese sent Cham prisoners to
China, the Chinese sent them back to Champa in 992.
Several Chinese accounts record Cham arriving on Hainan. When the Cham capital fell in
982 to Dai Viet, several Cham fled to Hainan during the Song dynasty. After the fall of the
capital Indrapura, some Cham fled to Guangzhou as well. They became ancestors of the
modern day Utsuls on Hainan, who are Muslims and still speak a Cham language.
Champa rice was introduced from Champa to China during the reign of Emperor Zhenzong
of Song.
Sack of Vijaya by the Việt (11th century)
Conflict between Champa and Đại Việt did not end, however, with the abandonment of
Indrapura. Champa suffered further Viet attacks in 1021 and 1026. In 1044, a catastrophic
battle resulted in the death of the Cham King Sa Dau and the sack of Vijaya by Đại Việt
under Lý Thái Tông. The invaders captured elephants and musicians and even the Cham
queen Mi E, who preserved her honor by throwing herself into the waves as her captors
attempted to transport her to their country. Thirty thousand Cham were killed. Champa began
to pay tribute to the Viet kings, including a white rhinoceros in 1065 and a white elephant in
1068 sent to Lý Thánh Tông. In 1068, however, the King of Vijaya Rudravarman III (Che
Cu) allegedly attacked Đại Việt in order to reverse the setbacks of 1044. Again the Cham
were defeated, and again Đại Việt captured and burned Vijaya. These events were repeated in
1069 when Lý Thánh Tông took a fleet to Champa, torched Vijaya, and captured
Rudravarman III. The Champa king eventually purchased his freedom in exchange for three
northern districts of his realm. Taking advantage of the debacle, a leader in southern Champa
rebelled and established an independent kingdom. The northern kings were not able to reunite
the country until 1084.
Khmer invasions of northern Champa (1074, 1144–1149)
In 1074, King Harivarman IV took the throne, restoring the temples at Mỹ Sơn and ushering
in a period of relative prosperity. Harivarman made peace with Đại Việt but provoked war
with the Khmer of Angkor. In 1080, a Khmer army attacked Vijaya and other centers in
northern Champa. Temples and monasteries were sacked and cultural treasures were carried
off. After much misery, Cham troops under King Harivarman were able to defeat the invaders
and restored the capital and temples.

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Around 1080, a new dynasty from the Korat Plateau in modern Thailand occupied the throne
of Angkor in Cambodia. Soon enough, the kings of the new dynasty embarked on a program
of empire-building. Rebuffed in their attempts to conquer Đại Việt in the 1128, 1132, and
1138, they turned their attention to Champa. In 1145, a Khmer army under
King Suryavarman II, the founder of Angkor Wat, occupied Vijaya, ending the reign of Jaya
Indravarman III, and destroying the temples at Mỹ Sơn. The Khmer king then attempted the
conquest of all of northern Champa. In 1149, however, the ruler of the southern principality
of Panduranga, King Jaya Harivarman I, defeated the invaders and had himself consecrated
king of kings in Vijaya. He spent the rest of his reign putting down rebellions in Amaravati
and Panduranga.

This bas relief at the late 12th-century Angkorian temple called the Bayon depicts Cham mariners in
action against the Khmer./13th century sculpture in the Thap Mam style, depicting Garuda devouring a
serpent
In 1167, King Jaya Indravarman IV ascended to the throne in Champa. An inscription
characterized him as brave, well-versed in weapons, and knowledgeable of
philosophy, Mahayana theories, and the Dharmasutra. After securing peace with Đại Việt in
1170, Jaya Indravarman invaded Cambodia with inconclusive results. In 1177, however, his
troops launched a surprise attack against the Khmer capital of Yasodharapura from warships
piloted up the Mekong River to the great lake Tonlé Sap in Cambodia. The invaders sacked
the capital in 1177, killed the Khmer king Tribhuvanaditya, and made off with much booty.
China transferred crossbow technology to Champa. When the Chams sacked Angkor they
used the Chinese siege crossbow. Crossbows were given to the Chams by China. Crossbows
and archery while mounted were instructed to the Cham by a Chinese in 1171.
Conquest of Champa by the Khmer and Cambodian rule (1190–1220)
The Khmer were rallied by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who drove the Cham from
Cambodia in 1181. When Jaya Indravarman IV launched another attack against Cambodia in
1190, Jayavarman VII appointed a Cham prince named Vidyanandana to lead the Khmer
army. Vidyanandana defeated the invaders and proceeded to occupy Vijaya and to capture
Jaya Indravarman IV, whom he sent back to Angkor as a prisoner.
Adopting the title of Shri Suryavarmadeva (or Suryavarman), Vidyanandana made himself
king of Panduranga. He made Prince In, a brother-in-law of Jayavarman VII, "King
Suryajayavarmadeva in the Nagara of Vijaya" (or Suryajayavarman). In 1191 a revolt at
Viajaya drove Suryajayavarman back to Cambodia and enthroned Jaya Indravarman V.

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Vidyanandana occupied Viajaya, killed both Jaya Indravarman IV and Jaya Indravarman V,
then "reigned without opposition over the Kingdom of Champa," but he declared his
independence from Cambodia. Khmer troops attempted unsuccessfully to regain control over
Champa throughout the 1190s. In 1203, finally, Jayavarman VII's general Yuvaraja
Mnagahna On Dhanapati Grama defeated Suryavarman, sending him into exile. Champa
effectively became a province of Angkor, not to regain its independence until 1220.Jaya
Paramesvaravarman II was crowned in 1226 and built his palace in Shri Vijaya, restoring the
Champas to power. Trần Thái Tông sent a punitive expedition against Champa for its
continued piracy of the Đại Việt coast, bringing back the Champa Queen Bo-da-la and the
king's concubines as prisoners in 1252. Indravarman V was crowned in 1266, in time to
become subject to the Mongols as "Imperial Prince of the second rank”.
Invasion of the Mongols (1282–1287)

The temple complex of Thap Banh It near Vijaya

When the Chinese Song dynasty fell to the Mongols, its loyalists fled to Champa where they
plotted the reconquest of China.[128] In the 1270s, Kublai Khan had established his capital and
dynasty at Beijing and had toppled the southern Chinese Song dynasty. By 1280, he would
turn his attention to the Cham and Viet kingdoms located in the territory of modern Vietnam.
In 1283, Mongol troops of the Yuan dynasty under General Sogetu (Sagatou, So Tou, So To,
or Sodu) invaded Champa and occupied Vijaya after capturing the citadel of Mou-cheng.
However, Indravarman V fled into the mountains. Despite dispersion the Champa troops on a
number of occasions, the Mongols were not "progressing one step into a country where they
suffered from the heat, illness, and a lack of supplies." Trần Thánh Tông and then Trần Nhân
Tông, just like Indravarman V, "obstinately refused" to present themselves to the court of the
Khan or make any "act of vassalage", and refused the Mongols passage through Đại Việt.
Thus the invasion of Champa had little lasting effect. Then, in June 1285, the Yuan
commander, Prince Toghon was defeated and Sogetu was killed in a botched invasion of Đại
Việt. By then, the Yuan "had lost a great number of men and officers...without having
obtained any sizeable advantage." However, Indravarman V did send an ambassador to
Kublai on 6 Oct. 1285.
Chế Mân
In 1307, the Cham King Jaya Simhavarman III (Chế Mân), the founder of the still extant
temple of Po Klong Garai in Panduranga, ceded two northern districts to Đại Việt in
exchange for the hand in marriage of a Viet princess, Huyền Trân. Not long after the nuptials,
the king died, and the princess returned to her northern home in order to avoid a Cham
custom that would have required her to join her husband in death. However, the lands that

99
Chế Mân had rashly ceded were not returned. In order to regain these lands, and encouraged
by the decline of Đại Việt in the course of the 14th century, the troops of Champa began to
make regular incursions into the territory of their neighbor to the north.
Decline of Champa in the 14th century
The fourteenth century saw a great void of indigenous information within Champa, with no
inscription was erected after 1307, until 1401, although the Cham annals still has a list of
14th century kings of Panduranga. Religious construction and art came to a standstill, and
sometimes degraded. These could be hints of decline of Indic culture in Champa, or
consequence of Champa's devastating war with the Dai Viet and the Sukhothai.
For the reasons of the complete blackout of 14th-century Cham historiography, Pierre Lafont
argues, were perhaps due to Champa's previous long conflicts with their neighbors, the
Angkor Empire and Dai Viet, and recently Mongols, had caused mass destruction and socio-
cultural breakdown. Unraveled grievances and deteriorating economic conditions continued
to pile up. Engraving Sanskrit inscriptions in Champa, the language mainly used for religious
purposes, ceased to exist by 1253. Some cities and farmland were left abandoned, such as Tra
Kieu (Simhapura). The gradual religious shift to Islam in Champa from 11th to 15th centuries
undermined the established Hindu-Buddhist kingship and the king's spiritual divinity,
resulting in growing royal frustrations and strife between the Cham aristocracy. These led to
constant instability and the ultimate decline of Champa during the 14th century.
Because none inscription within Champa during this period have been found, it's insecure to
establish a lineage of Champa rulers without knowing what their native names and which
years they reigned. Historians have to recite various Vietnamese chronicles and Chinese
annals to reconstruct Champa during the 14th century cautiously. Etienne Aymonier proposes
a reconstructed list of 14th-century Campa ruler, which is widely accepted:
Chế Mân → Chế Chí → Chế Năng → Chế A Nan → Trà Hòa Bố Để → Chế Bồng
Nga → La Khai (Jaya Simhavarman VI)
Chế Chi and Chế Anan
Chế Mân's son, Chế Chi, was captured in 1312 by Trần Anh Tông and died a prisoner in Gia-
lam Palace. Champa thus became a Vietnamese province. Chế Anan was able to win back its
independence in 1326
The Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone visited Champa in the 1320s.
Chế Bồng Nga — the Red King
The last strong king of the Cham was Chế Bồng Nga, or Che Bunga, who ruled from 1360
until 1390. In Vietnamese stories he is called The Red King. Chế Bồng Nga apparently
managed to unite the Cham lands under his rule, and by 1372 he was strong enough to attack
and almost conquer Đại Việt from the sea.
Cham forces sacked Thăng Long, the capital city of Đại Việt (located at the site of
modern Hanoi), in 1371 and then again in 1377. This second attack was soon after Trần Duệ
Tông died attacking Vijaya. Champa attacks in 1380, 1382, and 1383 were checked by the
Vietnamese General Hồ Quý Ly, future founder of the Hồ dynasty. Chế Bồng Nga was
finally stopped in 1390 during another assault on the Vietnamese capital, when his royal
barge received a musketry salvo.This was the last serious offensive by the Cham against Đại
Việt, but it helped spell the end of the Trần dynasty, which had forged its reputation in the
wars against the Mongols a century earlier, but which now revealed itself as weak and
ineffective in the face of the Cham invasions.

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Defeat and destruction of Vijaya by Đại Việt

The 11th century Dương Long Towers at Vijaya, the ancient Cham capital.
During the reign of the Hongwu Emperor in Ming China, Champa sent tribute to China to
garner Chinese help in the wars with the Dai Viet. The Hongwu Emperor was dead set
against military actions in the region of Southeast Asia, merely rebuking the Vietnamese for
their offensive. In 1401 and 1402, Hồ Quý Ly sent expeditions against Champa,
forcing Indravarman VI to relinquish half of his territory. Indravarman VI was able to regain
his territory when the Yongle Emperor captured Hồ Quý Ly and Hồ Hán Thương during
the Ming conquest of Dai Viet in 1407. Indravarman VI then engaged in raiding the Khmer's
under Ponhea Yat. Ming China was asked to deal with Dai Viet by Champa. Hostilities
against Champa were initiated by the new Vietnamese dynasty.
Champa's economy and commerce still flourished during early half of the 15th century. A
Cham record in Drang Lai (present-day in Gia Lai)
mentions lauvv (Lao), yvan (Viet), kur (Khmer), syaṁ (Siamese), [ja]vā (Javanese), vaṅgalā
(Bengali) merchants of various kingdoms arrived in the highlands of Champa to trade and
offered to the service of a temple of Śiva.Following raids by Maha Vijaya into Hoa-chau in
1444 and 1445, Đại Việt Emperor Lê Nhân Tông, under the leadership of Trịnh Khả,
launched an invasion of Champa in 1446. The attack was successful, Vijaya fell to the
invaders, and "Maha Vijaya" was taken prisoner. Maha Qui-lai was then made Emperor of
Champa.
After the Champa king Maha Sajan or Tra-Toan, attacked Hoa-chau in 1469, Đại Việt
emperor Lê Thánh Tông led a retaliatory invasion the following year with a vanguard fleet of
100,000 men, followed by 150,000 support civilians and settlers more ten days later. Vijaya
was captured in 1471, along with Tra-Toan and 30,000 other Cham, while 60,000 Cham were
killed. Tra-Toan "fell ill and died near Nghe An aboard the junk that was taking him away."
According to linguistic study Acehnese people of northern Sumatra and Cham are related
through the Aceh–Chamic languages. At least 60,000 Cham people were killed and 30,000
were taken as slaves by the Vietnamese army. The capital of Vijaya was obliterated. As a
result of the victory, Lê Thánh Tông annexed the principalities of Amaravati and Vijaya. This
defeat caused the first major Cham emigration, particularly to Cambodia and Malacca.The

101
trade in Vietnamese ceramics was damaged due to the plummet in trade by Cham merchants
after the invasion. After the war, the Vietnamese navy took patrol over the South China sea
trade routes, established Hoi An as the trade city, freely exporting Vietnamese products to
Southeast Asia.

Map published in 1583 depicting Champa (Campaa)/The temple of King Po Rome (?–1651)
of Panduranga
What remained of historical Champa was the rump state of Hoa Anh (Kauthara) and the
southern principality of Panduranga, where the Cham general Bo Tri-tri proclaimed himself
king, and offered vassalage to Lê Thánh Tông. Hoa Anh was invaded in 1578 by the forces of
the Nguyễn Lords while Panduranga preserved some of its independence. This was the
starting point of the modern Cham Lords in the principality of Panduranga (Phan Rang, Phan
Ri and Phan Thiết).
The Portuguese's fort on Malacca was counterattacked by the Johor Sultanate along with an
expeditionary force from Champa in 1594. Cambodia was the refuge of Chams who fled
along with Po Chien after Champa lost more lands in 1720 to the Vietnamese.

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1836 French map of Southeast Asia showing no trace of Champa after the Vietnamese
annexation of 1832.
When the Ming dynasty in China fell, Chinese refugees fled south and extensively settled on
Cham lands and in Cambodia. Most of these Chinese were young men, and they took Cham
women as wives. Their children identified more with Chinese culture. This migration
occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries.The Vietnamese subjugated Phú Yên in 1578, Cam
Ranh in 1653, and established the Princip lity of Thuận Thành in 1695. Cham provinces were
seized by the Nguyễn domain. An anti-Vietnamese rebellion by the Cham occurred in 1728
after the passing away of their ruler Po Saktiraydaputih. Panduranga, the last remnant of the
Cham Kingdom, fell in 1832 to the Emperor Minh Mạng.

V
The many Gods of Champa
Vaishnavism (Vaishava dharma)

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Ādivarāha is short for Ādivarāhakṣetra (or Tiruppati-Tirumala) refers to Vēṅkaṭam, one of
the 108 Vaishnava Divya Desam (divyadeśas or divyasthalas), located in the topographical
division of Vaṭanāṭu (“North India”), according to the 9th century
Nālāyirativviyappirapantam (shortly Nālāyiram).—Tradition would record the
Vaiṣṇava divyadeśas or divyasthalas are 108. The divyadeśa is a base of the cult of Viṣṇu in
Viṣṇuism [Vaiṣṇavism] tradition.
The list of 108 [viz., Ādivarāha-kṣetra] seems to have reached maturation by about the early
9th century CE as all the deśas are extolled in the hymns of the twelve Āḻvārs.

Throughout the history of Champa, Shiva in his various forms remained the most popular
theme of the artistic endeavors of Cham people. This elaborate ~1200-1300 years old Murtis
from Tra-Kieu (ancient Simhapura) first capital of Champa bears ample testimony to it.

Fu-nan would eventually disappear around 6th-7th century but its legacy of Kaundinya would
survive and would be taken to the new heights by the Khmer kingdom which will rose into
Cambodia ultimately culminating into largest Hindu temple of ancient world!

CHAMPA - located in southern Vietnam its name is reminiscent of Champa - famed capital
of Anga desh & one of the largest city of ancient India. The original inhabitants of Champa
were & are known as Cham people.But is it named after the flower CHAMPA as called in
Sanskrit. Sweet smelling and regale white in colour?

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 As Chinese sources are only available sources for early history of Champa, not much is
known about Indianized cultural penetration into early history of Champa. But Indian
influence is already apparent in early art of Champa such as this Murti of Buddha from Dong
duong

105
Throughout the history of Champa, Shiva in his various forms remained the most popular
theme of the artistic endeavors of Cham people. This elaborate ~1200-1300 years old Murtis
from Tra-Kieu (ancient Simhapura) first capital of Champa bears ample testimony to it.

Bhadavarman is earliest known king of Champa with Indianized name. C. 4th century he
established the first Shiva temple in My-Son & initiated worship of Shiva as Shiva
Bhadreshwara. From that point onward Shiva remained the most revered deity of Cham
people.

Nearby My-Son itself became a sacred tirtha for the Champa and many temples dedicated to
Shiva were established there. Area came to be known as Amaravati. Unfortunately temples of
My-Son were partially destructed in American bombing during Vietnam war.

106
 Although it wasn't only Shiva that they embraced with Indianization. Other gods of Hindu
pantheon received equal devotion of the people of Champa. Strong Indian influence would
help Champa to withstood Sinicization for a very long period of time.

107
DVARAVATI - Loated in the area comprised by modern day Thailand its name is
reminiscent of the Famed Dwarika of India. Located in the valley of Menam river it was
established by the Mon people

This elaborately carved Dhamrachakras (symbolizing Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath) were
one of the popular motif of the art of Dvaravati. . And Indeed wheel of dharma set in motion
by mon people of Dvarvati is still moving in modern day Thailand!

108
This elaborately carved Dhamrachakras (symbolizing Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath) were
one of the popular motif of the art of Dvaravati. . And Indeed wheel of dharma set in motion
by mon people of Dvarvati is still moving in modern day Thailand!

Vaishnava (वैष्णव, vaiṣṇava) or vaishnavism (vaiṣṇavism) represents a tradition of

Hinduism worshipping Vishnu as the supreme Lord. Similar to the Shaktism and Shaivism
traditions, Vaishnavism also developed as an individual movement, famous for its exposition
of the dashavatara (‘ten avatars of Vishnu’).
Ādivarāha (आदिवराह).—'the first boar', an epithet of Visṇu, alluding to his third or boar-
incarnation.Derivable forms: ādivarāhaḥ (आदिवराहः).Ādivarāha is a Sanskrit compound
consisting of the terms ādi and varāha (वराह).Ādivarāha (आदिवराह (-haḥ) A name of
Vishnu. E. ādi and varāha a boar; the first boar, alluding to Vishnu'S avatara or incarnation in
that form; also similar compounds, as ādiśūkaraḥ, ādyakolaḥ, &c.
Ādivarāha (आदिवराह):—[=ādi-varāha] [from ādi] m. ‘the first boar’, Name of Viṣṇu,
[Kādambarī; Harivaṃśa].Ādivārāha (आदिवाराह):—[=ādi-vārāha] [from ādi] mfn. relating
to the first boarĀdivarāha (आदिवराह):—[ādi-varāha] (haḥ) 1. m. Vishnu.

Search found 9 books and stories containing Adivaraha, Ādivarāha, Adi-varaha, Ādi-varāha,
Ādivārāha, Ādi-vārāha; (plurals include: Adivarahas, Ādivarāhas, varahas, varāhas,
Ādivārāhas, vārāhas). You can also click to the full overview containing English textual
excerpts. Below are direct links for the most relevant articles:
Later Chola Temples (by S. R. Balasubrahmanyam)
Temples in Srimushnam < [Chapter II - Temples of Kulottunga I’s Time]
Temples in Laddigam < [Chapter II - Temples of Kulottunga I’s Time]
Chaitanya Bhagavata (by Bhumipati Dāsa)
Verse 3.2.288 < [Chapter 2 - Description of the Lord’s Travel Through Bhuvaneśvara and
Other Placesto Jagannātha Purī]
Verse 3.2.281 < [Chapter 2 - Description of the Lord’s Travel Through Bhuvaneśvara and
Other Placesto Jagannātha Purī]

109
Verse 3.2.280 < [Chapter 2 - Description of the Lord’s Travel Through Bhuvaneśvara and
Other Placesto Jagannātha Purī]
Early Chola Temples (by S. R. Balasubrahmanyam)
Torana < [Chapter XIII - Prasada: Component Parts]
Part I, Stone < [Chapter XI - Sculpture]
Temples in Tiruvidavendai (Tiruvidavendai) < [Chapter VIII - Temples of Uttama Chola’s
Time]
The Skanda Purana (by G. V. Tagare)
Chapter 132 - The Greatness of Ādivārāha Tīrtha < [Section 3 - Revā-khaṇḍa]
Chapter 189 - The Greatness of Udīrṇa Vārāha Tīrtha < [Section 3 - Revā-khaṇḍa]
Chapter 230 - The Series of Tīrthas Enumerated < [Section 3 - Revā-khaṇḍa]
Triveni Journal
The Devi Bhagavata Purana (by Swami Vijñanananda)
Chapter 10 - On the description of Bhuvanakoṣa < [Book 8]

Varaha Cave Temple (i.e., Varaha Mandapa or the Adivaraha Cave) is a rock-cut cave
temple located at Mamallapuram, on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
in Kancheepuram District in Tamil Nadu, India. It is part of the hill top village, which is 4
kilometres (2.5 mi) to the north of the main Mahabalipurm sites of rathas and the Shore
Temple. It is an example of Indian rock-cut architecture dating from the late 7th century. The
temple is one of the finest testimonial to the ancient Hindu rock-cut cave architecture, out of
many such caves also called mandapas. Part of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram,
the temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site as inscribed in 1984 under criteria i, ii, iii and
iv.The most prominent sculpture in the cave is that of the Hindu god Vishnu in the incarnated
form of a Varaha or boar lifting Bhudevi, the mother earth goddess from the sea. Also carved
are many mythical figures.

The relief of Vishnu as Varaha lifting Bhudevi, the earth

Varaha Cave Temple is located on the hills of Mahabalipuram town, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to
the north of the main Mahabalipurm sites of rathas and Shore Temple, on the Coromandel
Coast of the Bay of Bengal of the Indian Ocean. Now in the Kanchipuram district, it is
approximately 58 kilometres (36 mi) from Chennai city (previously Madras) and about 20
miles (32 km) from Chingelpet

110
History
The cave reflects a transitional style of architecture in its columns mounted on seated lions
and frescoes carved on the walls inside the cave which evolved during the rule
of Pallava kings Mahendra Varman I and Rajasimha or Narasimhavarman I known as
Mamalla. This style was continued by Mamalla's son Parameshvaravarman I. Historical
research has also confirmed that Mahabalipuram town came to be established only after it
was named after Mamalla and the caves and rathas are all attributed to his reign during the
year 650 AD. It is the earliest known monument in Mahabalipuram though not the most
visited due its hidden location The distinctive feature of the Pallava style is that the frontage
of the cave has, without exception, finely carved columns mounted on lions in a sitting
posture. The structure is part of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO
World Heritage Site inscribed in 1984.

Architecture

Vishnu as Trivikrama taking the three strides/Gajalakshmi panel.=Durga Panel.

Layout
The temple is a small monolithic rock-cut temple with a mandapa carved into the rock face of
pink granite formations, dating from the 7th century. The cave is of smaller dimension and
has a simple plan. The fluted columns separating the openings have cushion-shaped capitals
and seated lions at the base. Certain Greco-Roman architectural styles could also be discerned
and the sitting statues are said to have likeness to the sitting styles seen in European
architecture, as against the Indian cross legged style. The style thus created at Mahabalipuram
became a forerunner for South Indian style of architecture.[1] The walls inside the cave have
several striking mythological scenes carved in relief. Vishnu rescuing the earth, Vishnu
taking three strides, Gaja Laksmi and Durga are all impressive panels carved in the
Adivaraha Cave.

Features
At the centre of the rear wall of the mandapa, opposite to the entrance, guardian figures are
carved on either side of a shrine. Inside the mandapa, the walls have four large sculptured
panels, good examples of naturalistic Pallava art. The side walls have carved sculpture panels
of Vishnu as Trivikrama (Vamana) and northern panel, which is very large, depicts Vishnu in
the form of Varaha, the boar, lifting Bhudevi, the earth goddess symbolically representing
removal of ignorance of human beings. In this panel, Varaha has four hands, two arms
carrying shankha and chakra, which are shown towards the back and in one of the arms in the

111
front he is carrying Bhudevi. There are no attendants fawning on him. However, the original
panel has been plastered and painted.

The Gajalakshmi panel is on the rear wall which represents Gajalakshmi, an aspect
of Lakshmi - the goddess of prosperity. The religious significance of Gajalakshmi is well
brought out in the panel. She is shown with her hand holding lotus flowers, fawned by four
attendants, and carved in "perfect beauty and gracious countenance". Two royal elephants are
filling the water vessels held by the attendants and one elephant is pouring water from the
vessel on Lakshmi and the other is about to take the vessel from the maiden's hand to pour
water over Lakshmi. The Durga panel, also on the rear wall, is indicative of victory over
ignorance. The Trivikrama panel depicts Vishnu as the Lord of the three worlds. Another
strikingly impressive panel is of Durga slaying the demon Mahishasura who is in
an anthropomorphic form of a human with a buffalo head; the scene is reminiscent of a battle
between good and evil forces, with the side of Durga represented by the confident
looking ganas advancing and the other side of Mahishasura with his army of asuras (demons)
retreating. This scene is a new architectural depiction which is appreciated as to "enhance the
drama and realism of the subject." The Brahma panel is carved with Brahma having three
heads in sambhaga or standing posture.
00000000000000000000000000

VI
Shaivism in Champa
112
The Po Nagar complex is situated on Cù Lao Mountain. It consists of three levels, the highest of which encompasses two
rows of towers. The main tower is about 25 m high. /Durga, the slayer of the buffalo-demon, is represented on the pediment
above the entrance to the temple.

At Po Nagar Temple, the temple's central image is a 1.2m tall stone statue of the goddess
DURGA as Mahishasuramardini or Yan Po Nagar as she is called there sitting cross-legged,
dressed only in a skirt, with ten hands holding various symbolic items. According to
Vietnamese scholar Ngô Vǎn Doanh, these attributes show that Yan Po Nagar was identified
also with the Hindu goddess the slayer of the buffalo-demon. Another sculpture of the
goddess Mahishasuramardini may be found in the pediment above the entrance to the temple:
it depicts the four-armed goddess holding a hatchet, a lotus and a club, and standing on a
buffalo. This sculpture belongs to the Tra Kieu style of Cham art from the end of the 10th
century or the beginning of the 11th century.

113
Where there is Durga can SHIVA be far? No Shiva is everywhere in Champa!

Champa were a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of
what is comtemporary central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century AD
until 1832, when it was annexed by the Vietnamese Empire under its emperor Minh
Mạng. The kingdom was known variously as Nagaracampa (Sanskrit: नगरचम्प),in
Sanskrit. In the 4 th Century AD Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of
territory from neighboring Funan shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for
centuries, as testified by the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the
landscape in Cham lands. The name Champa derived from
the Sanskrit word campaka (pronounced /tʃampaka/), which refers to Magnolia champaca, a
species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers. Recent academics however dispute
the Indic origin explanation and the debate continues.
Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are
now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which
began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th
century; they are called the Bani (Ni tục, from Arabic: Bani). There are, however,

114
the Bacam (Bacham, Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and
festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the
world, with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese
Hinduism of the Balinese of Indonesia.[The Kingdoms of Champa and the Chams contribute
profound and direct impacts to the history of Vietnam, Southeast Asia, as well as their
present day. Early Champa, evolved from local seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh
culture off the coast of modern-day Vietnam. The emergence of Champa at the late 2nd
century AD shows testimony of early Southeast Asian statecrafting and crucial stage of
the making of Southeast Asia. The peoples of Champa had been established and maintained a
vast system of lucrative trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian
Ocean and Eastern Asia, until the 17th century. In Champa, historians also witness the first
and oldest native Southeast Asian language literature being written down around c. 350 AD,
predating first Khmer, Mon, Malay texts by centuries.
Around the 4th century AD, Cham polities began to absorb much of Indic influences,
probably through its neighbor, Funan. Hinduism was established as Champa began to create
Sanskrit stone inscriptions and erect red brick Hindu temples. The first king acknowledged in
the inscriptions is Bhadravarman, who reigned from 380 to 413 AD. At Mỹ Sơn, King
Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara, whose name was a combination of the
king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva. The worship of the original god-
king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries that
followed.
Being famously known as skillful sailors and navigators, as early as the 5th century AD, the
Cham might have reached India by themselves. King Gangaraja (r. 413–?) of Champa was
perhaps the only known Southeast Asian ruler who traveled all the way to India shortly after
his abdication. He personally went on pilgrimage in the Ganges River, Northeast India. His
itinerary was confirmed by both indigenous Cham sources and Chinese chronicles. George
Coedès notes that during the 2nd and 3rd century, an influx of Indian traders, priests, and
scholars travelled along the early East Asia–South Asian subcontinent maritime route, could
have visited and made communications with local Chamic communities along the coast of
Central Vietnam. They played some roles in disseminating Indian culture and Buddhism. But
that was not sustained and decisive as active "Indianized native societies," he argues, or
Southeast Asian kingdoms that had already been "Indianized" like Funan, were the key
factors of the process. On the other hand, Paul Mus suggests the reason for the peacefully
acceptance of Hinduism by the Cham elite were likely relating to the
tropical monsoon climate background shared by areas like the Bay of Bengal,
coastal mainland Southeast Asia all the way from Myanmar to Vietnam. Monsoon societies
tended to practice animism, most importantly, the creed of earth spirit. To the early Southeast
Asian peoples, Hinduism was somewhat similar to their original beliefs. This resulted in
conversions to Hinduism and Buddhism peacefully in Champa with little sort of resistance.
Rudravarman I of Champa (r. 529–572), a descendant of Gangaraja through maternal line,
became king of Champa in 529 AD. During his reign, the temple complex of Bhadresvara
was destroyed by a great fire in 535/536. He was succeeded by his son Sambhuvarman (r.
572–629). He reconstructed the temple of Bhadravarman and renamed it Shambhu-
bhadreshvara. In 605, the Sui Empire launched an invasion of Lam Ap in 605, overrunning
Sambhuvarman's resistance, and sacked the Cham capital at Tra Kieu. He died in 629 and
was succeeded by his son, Kandarpadharma, who died in 630–31. Kandarpadharma was
succeeded by his son, Prabhasadharma, who died in 645.[

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Several granite tablets and inscriptions from My Son, Tra Kieu, Hue, Khanh Hoa dated 653–
687 report a Cham king named Jaya Prakāśadharma who ascended the throne of Champa as
Vikrantavarman I (r. 653–686). Prakāśadharma had thoroughly knowledge of Sanskrit
learning, Sanskrit literature, and Indian cosmology. He authorized many constructions of
religious sanctuaries at My Son and several building projects throughout the kingdom, laying
down foundations of Champa art and architectural styles.[ He also sent many embassies
regularly to the Tang Empire and neighboring Khmer. The Chinese reckoned Champa during
the 7th century as the chief tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms
of Koguryŏ in the Northeast and Baekje in the East — "though the latter was rivaled by
Japan."
Between the 7th to 10th centuries AD, the Cham polities rose to become a naval power; as
Cham ports attracted local and foreign traders, Cham fleets also controlled the trade in spices
and silk in the South China Sea, between China, the Indonesian archipelago and India. They
supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but
also by engaging in piracy and raiding. However, the rising influence of Champa caught the
attention of a neighbouring thalassocracy that considered Champa as a rival, the Javanese
(Javaka, probably refers to Srivijaya ruler of Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java). In 767, the
Tonkin coast was raided by a Javanese fleet (Daba) and Kunlun pirates, Champa was
subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787. In 774 an assault was
launched on Po-Nagar in Nha Trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an
assault was launched on Virapura, near Phan Rang. The Javanese invaders continued to
occupy southern Champa coastline until being driven off by Indravarman I (r. 787–801) in
799.
Between the 2nd and the 15th centuries AD, Champa's territorial extent at times included the
modern provinces of Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, Thừa Thiên Huế, Da Nang, Quảng
Nam, Quảng Ngãi, Bình Định, Phú Yên, Khánh Hòa, Ninh Thuận, and Bình Thuận, and most
of the Central Highlands might have been lightly governed or influenced by coastal
Cham. Through Cham territory included the mountainous zones west of the coastal plain and
(at times) extended into present-day Laos, for the most part, the Cham remained a seafaring
people dedicated to trading and maintained few settlements of any size away from the coast.
Scholarships also hold consensus that Champa, like Dai Viet, was always polyethnic and
ethnic flexible, not just the Cham people alone, but also encompassed several different ethnic
groups such as Jarai, Rhadé, and Bahnar/Bahnaric-speaking and Katuic-speaking peoples.

116
It is clear that the Katuic-speaking and Bahnaric-speaking peoples of the Central Highlands
in Vietnam and Central Laos had been engaged a long direct and complex contact with
Chamic-speaking peoples, resulting in Chamic mutual lexical similarities of the two
Austroasiatic ethnolinguistic groups, although it highly likely that most of these borrowings
came to Katuics and Bahnarics via the Highland Chamics. Others argue that Cham rule once
might have stretched as far west as the Mekong River in the present-day Lao province
of Campassak. However, boundaries between premodern Southeast Asian states in most of
the cases were remote hinterlands, extreme mountains and limestones covered by thick
jungles with few inland trade routes, and can not be accurately determined.
Historical Champa consisted of up to five principalities:

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of
Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern
village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da
Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which
has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the
valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The
associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality
included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.
 Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.

 Vijaya was located in present-day Bình Định Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention
is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. The capital has been identified with
the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn.
Important excavations have also been conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have
been a religious and cultural centre. Vijaya became the political and cultural center of
Champa around 1150s. It remained the center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked
by the Việt and the center of Champa was again displaced toward the south. [138] In its

117
 time, the principality of Vijaya controlled much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai,
Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru) Provinces.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural center was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784
AD inscription at Po Nagar.
 Panduranga was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang)
in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with capital Parik, was the last of
the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was the most autonomous,
sometimes independent, princedom/principality of Champa. Panduranga is first
mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.
Within the four principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in
Vietnamese) and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in
Amravati and Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans
differed in their customs and habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even
war. But they usually managed to settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Champa was a religiously tolerant kingdom, with many different faiths coexisted peacefully
or have merged with indigenous Cham beliefs. Religiously and culturally, the Chams were
grouped into two major religio-cultural groups; the Balamon Chams (also called Cham Ahiér)
that adhere to an indigenized form of Islam and Hinduism. Another northern group inhabiting
around Bình Định and Phú Yên provinces is the Cham Hroi (Haroi), who practice
Chamic animism. Under the previous Republic of Vietnam, they were considered a distinct
ethnic group. Since 1979, they have been reclassified by the Socialist Republic of
Vietnam government as a subgroup of the Cham.
Hinduism and Buddhism

Po Nagar/’ Ninh Thuận

118
Apsara with Saraswati (right)/Dancing Sivas, both from c. 10th century AD

The forgotten Hindus of Vietnam’s Champa Kingdom

The Cham Hindus of Vietnam are an almost forgotten people, remnants of the Cham dynasty
which endured in the region now known as central Vietnam from the 7th century well into the
19th. Yet they are 60,000 strong, and they have kept their traditions alive for centuries, far
from India’s shores. Builders of cities named Indrapura, Simhapura, Amaravati, Vijaya and
Panduranga, these Hindu people and their culture continue to flourish to this day. When we
speak of the Champa people, it is not a trek through history; we are speaking of a living
culture with roots going back thousands of years.While today the Cham are Vietnam’s only
surviving Hindus, the nation once harbored some of the world’s most exquisite and vibrant
Hindu cultures. The entire region of Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to numerous Hindu
kingdoms. The many magnificient temples and artifacts, from Angkor Wat to Prambana,
remain as potent testimonials to their splendor and accomplishments. These grand edifices
still stand, though the societies around them no longer worship there or practice the lost
traditions.
Champa was a formidible Hindu kingdom, renowned for its immense wealth and
sophisticated culture. Its major port was Kattigara. Nearly 2,000 years ago, Claudius Ptolemy
wrote of Cattigara and outlined it on his map of the world. Modern scholarship has
confirmed Cattigara as the forerunner of Saigon (modern day Ho Chi Minh
City).Cattigara was, in fact, the main port at the mouth of the Mekong River, a name derived
from Mae Nam Khong, the Mother Water Ganga.

Another early Champa king was Bhadravarman, who ruled from 349-361CE. His capital was
the citadel of Simhapura or ‘Lion City,’ now called Tra Kieu. Badravarman built a number of
temples, conquered his rivals, ruled well and in his final years abdicated his throne and spent
his last days in India on the banks of the Ganges River.

Historic Champa was divided into five regions. Indrapura (present-day Dong Duong) served
as the religious center of the kingdom; Amaravati is the present day Quong Nam province;
Vijya is now Cha Ban; Kauthara is the modern Nha Trang; and Panduranga is known today
simply as Phan. Panduranga was the last Cham territory to be conquered by the Sino-
Vietnamese.

Few know that Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage, had attempted to reach
the Champa Kingdom and actually believed he had reached Vietnam. In ancient days well-
worn trade routes had linked Europe with India and the entire region of South and Southeast
Asia, and for countless centuries the wealth and wisdom of India had flowed to the markets
and institutions of the world. By the 1400s, however, political instability had disrupted direct
trade links with India and the West. Columbus was convinced that by sailing west from Spain
he could circle the globe—a concept ridiculed by most Europeans, who still believed the
Earth was flat—and thus find a new trade route and reestablish the long-lost link to the
wealth of the East. His planned route would take him south along the Vietnamese coast, past
the Cape of Kattigara and on to Malacca; he believed this to be the route Marco Polo had
followed from China to India in 1292. Reaching Cariay on the coast of Costa Rica, he
thought he had found Vietnam and was very close to one of his coveted destinations, the
famous gold mines of the Champa Kingdom. Fortunately for Vietnam, he was mistaken.

119
Another Vietnamese Hindu kingdom was Funan, which flourished between the 1st and 6th
centuries ce. Its capital was the Oc Eo Citadel. While exploring sea passages to India in the
year 250 ce, two Chinese envoys, Kang Dai and Zhu Ying, described Funan as “having its
own taxation system, ruled by a king in a walled palace.” Professor Louis Malleret has
unearthed much evidence of significant seaborne trade between Oc Eo, Persia and Rome.
Vast Temple Complexes

In ancient times the Champa built vast temple complexes that remain standing to this day.
Primarily dedicated to Lord Siva, these structures honor Lord Siva as the founder and
protector of the Champa Dynasty. The most important of these is known as My Son, a Hindu
religious and literary center. Originally, this temple complex featured 70 structures, of which
25 survive. Sadly, the main tower was severely damaged by American bombers in 1969
during the Vietnam War.

The Sivalinga was the primary form worshiped at My Son, its aniconic form also
representing the divine authority of the Siva-empowered king. Today the Cham people
continue to worship this form of Lord Siva.

Champa art, Hindu temples and statues have been found in many parts of Vietnam.The term
"Balamon" derived from "Brahman" or "Brahmin", one of Hindu caste of religious elite.
Balamon Chams adhere to the old religion of their ancestor, an indigenized form of Hinduism
that thrived since the ancient era of Kingdom of Champa in 5th century AD. While today the
Bacam (Bacham) are the only surviving Hindus in Vietnam, the region once hosted some of
the most exquisite and vibrant Hindu cultures in the world. The entire region of Southeast
Asia, in fact, was home to numerous sophisticated Hindu kingdoms. From Angkor in
neighbouring Cambodia, to Java and Bali in Indonesia. The Cham Sunni in the Mekong Delta
often refer the Balamon as Kafir (Derived from Arabic Kāfir for infidels)

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9th-century Dong Duong (Indrapura) lintel describing the early life of
Prince Siddhārtha Gautama (who is sitting on a mule)./10th-century Cham Saivite relief
of Śiva
Before the conquest of Champa by the Đại Việt ruler Le Thánh Tông in 1471, the dominant
religion of the Cham upper class (Thar patao bamao maâh) was Hinduism, and the culture
was heavily influenced by that of India. The commoners generally accepted Hindu influence,
but they embedded it with much as possible indigenous Cham beliefs to become parts of the
Ahier religion today. The Hinduism of Champa was overwhelmingly Shaiva and it was
liberally combined with elements of local religious cults such as the worship of the Earth
goddess Lady Po Nagar. The main symbols of Cham Shaivism were the lingam,
the mukhalinga, the jaṭāliṅgam, the segmented liṅgam, and the kośa.

 A liṅga (or liṅgam) is black stone pillar that serves as a representation of Shiva. Cham
kings frequently erected and dedicated stone lingas as the central religious images in
royal temples. The name a Cham king would give to such a linga would be a composite
of the king's own name and suffix "-iśvara", which stands for Shiva.
 A mukhaliṅga is a linga upon which has been painted or carved an image of Shiva as a
human being or a human face.
 A jaṭāliṅga is a linga upon which has been engraved a stylised representation of Shiva's
chignon hairstyle.
 A segmented liṅga is a linga post divided into three sections to represent the three
aspects of the Hindu godhead or trimurti: the lowest section, square in shape,
represents Brahma; the middle section, octagonal in shape, represents Vishnu, and the top
section, circular in shape, represents Shiva.
 A kośa is a cylindrical basket of precious metal used to cover a linga. The donation of a
kośa to the decoration of a liṅga was a distinguishing characteristic of Cham Shaivism.
Cham kings gave names to special kośas in much the way that they gave names to the
liṅgas themselves.
The predominance of Hinduism in Cham religion was interrupted for a time in the 9th and
10th centuries AD, when a dynasty at Indrapura (modern Đồng Dương, Quảng Nam
Province, Vietnam) adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith. King Indravarman II (r. 854–
893) built a giant Buddhist monastery, meditation halls, and temples for Champa's monks
(Sangha), and celebrated the veneration of the Buddhist deity Lokeśvara under the name
Laksmindra Lokeśvara Svabhayada in 875. Mahayana in Champa was blended with
observable elements of Tantric Buddhism, manifesting in many traces. For example,
Indravarman's successor Jaya Simhavarman I (r. 897–904) according to his verbatim in
902, Vajrapāṇi is the Bodhisattva capable of leading humans into the "path of the Vajra."
The Buddhist art of Đồng Dương has received special acclaim for its originality.

Buddhist art of Champa also shared the same unique aesthetics, paralleling
with Dvāravatī (Mon) art, highlighting in the similarities of both cultures in their
iconographic form of the Buddha-Stūpa-Triad, where the Buddha seats in padmāsana (lotus)
flanked by on either side by a depiction of a stūpa. Other shared features are makara lintel,
fishtail-shaped sampot illustrating, Gaja-Lakṣmī, pendant-legged Buddhas. The sources of
Mon–Cham cultural interaction may be the inland routes between the Muang Fa Daed site
on Khorat region, near a lost kingdom called Wèndān by the Chinese (probably the site of
Kantarawichai in Kantharawichai, Maha Sarakham) Southern Laos, via Savannakhet, then to
Central Vietnam coast through Lao Bảo and Mụ Giạ Passes.

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Beginning in the 10th century AD, Hinduism again became the predominant religion of
Champa. Some of the sites that have yielded important works of religious art and architecture
from this period are, aside from Mỹ Sơn, Khương Mỹ, Trà Kiệu, Chanh Lo, and Tháp Mắm.
From the 13th to 15th centuries, Mahayana among the Cham was practiced in form of
syncretic Saivite–Buddhism or the fusion of the worship of Śiva (seen as the protector)
and Buddha (seen as the savior). Buddhism prevailed secondary. With the decline of royal
power of the ruling Simhavarmanid dynasty in the 15th century and the fall of their
capital Vijaya in 1471, all Mahayana or Vajrayana traces of Champa disappeared, enabling
space for the rising Islamic faith.

Cham port-cities
During the medieval age, the Champa Kingdom benefited greatly from the luxurious
maritime trade routes through the South China Sea and overland trade networks
connecting Angkor and Bagan to Champa. Urbanization in Champa took place progressively
from the first to eighth centuries AD, from the late Sahuynhian to the early Champa period.
Champa concentrated its wealth in highly urbanized port-cities, some of them located in self-
governing regions. The earliest of those was Simhapura, emerged as a riverine port-city and
Cham political center around 400 AD. Prominent examples include Amarendrapura (the
modern city of Huế); Visnupura (Nhan Bieu, Quảng Trị) and Vrddha Ratnapura (Ðại
Hữu, Quảng Bình) in the north; Indrapura and Amavarati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Qui Nhon)
in the central region; and Nha Trang, Virapura (near Phan Rang), and Panduranga in the
southThese cosmopolitan cities were loaded with surplus amount of trading goods and exotic
products, overcrowded by merchants not just from other Cham states, but also Chinese,
Khmer, Malay, Viet, Arab, and Indian traders and travelers.

The Zhu Fan Zhi describes the port cities of Champa, 'on the arrival of a trading ship in this
country, officials are sent on board with a book made of folded slips of black leather.' After
an inventory has been taken, the cargo may be landed. 20% of the goods carried on is claimed
as tax, and the rest may be traded privately. If they discovered that 'any items were hidden
away during the customs check, the whole cargo will be confiscated.

When French scholars arrived in the mid-19th century, they were impressed with Cham ruins,
Cham urbanism, and medieval networks throughout the former kingdom. The middle-age
densely populated areas of Tra Kieu and My Son were well connected by paved stone roads,
bridges, urban ruins that were 16 feet high, rampart and stone citadel in a rectangle shape of
984 feet by 1640 feet, which hosted temples, fortified palaces, and resident structures, and
were supplied by canals, irrigation projects, underground aqueducts and wells.

From the 4th to 15th century, these cities were relatively wealthy. Foreign traders and
travelers from across medieval Eurasia were well-aware of Champa's richness and
eyewitnessed the crowded, prosperous Cham port-cities. Abu'l-Faradj described the city
of Indrapura "this temple is ancient that all the Buddhas found there enter into conversation
with the faithful and reply to all the requests made to them." Columbus during his fourth
voyage in 1502 along the coast of Central America, in accordance with contemporary
knowledge that confused Central America with eastern Asia, thought that he had reached the
kingdom of "Ciampa" visited by Marco Polo in 1290. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera recorded
in De Orbe Novo Decades that on his fourth voyage in 1502, Columbus: "found a vast
territory called Quiriquetana [ Quiriguá] in the language of the inhabitants, but he called it
Ciamba (Champa)". Portuguese travelers in early 16th century, such as Fernão Mendes Pinto,
reported vestiges of these cities "a town of above ten thousand households" which "encircled

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by a strong wall of brick, towers, and bulwarks." Because of this, Champa was the target of
multiple warring powers surrounding: the Chinese in 4th century-605 AD; the Javanese in
774 and 787, the Vietnamese in 982, 1044, 1069, 1073, 1446, and 1471; the Khmer in 945–
950, 1074, 1126–1128, 1139–1150, 1190–1220; and the Mongol Yuan in 1283–85, many
cities were ransacked by invaders and rebuilt or repaired overtime. They also had to face
constant threats from hazards per annum such as flood, tropical cyclones, fire. Some Cham
port-cities later ended up captured by Vietnamese in the mid-15th century, which later
resulted in the rise of Nguyen domain depending on these port-cities, whom benefited
international trades, and was well-balanced enough to fend off several northern Trinh
invasions in the 17th century.

Banh It Cham Temple

You won’t see much of Quy Nhon when visiting these towers. You won’t need to. You’ll see
a kind of town though. Or what used to be a town of sorts. This is the Cham Temples of Quy
Nhon. Distinctive in Cham style, though slightly different. Vietnamese and Chinese influence
plays a part. The local materials bring a native feel to it. They stand tall and proud on those
lush green hillsides. Like chess pieces which are brought to life and stand in defence of their
part on the board. It’s powerful, beautiful, peaceful. Feng Shui is playing quite the role here.
Information isn’t in abundance here. Though there’s enough for you to find out the details
about each tower. This is late Cham architecture. The Cham are an Indian subculture who
settled, perhaps even colonised, parts of Central and Southern Vietnam. It is located up high
and could be a possible defence of major prayer point for the people of the old capital,
Vijaya. This place is just north of Quy Nhon and was the major central point for the Champa
Civilisation in the area.
Every piece of construction has a purpose. The sights lead you to the main tower. That tower
points out a vision to the sky. The Kalan, or main tower, shows a distinctiveness of Hinduism
which matches that set of values. A statue of Shiva is the focal point in this tower. There are
four temples in total. Numerous temples were destroyed in various wars with the Khmer.
The temples take a pyramid shape in form and are shaped with bricks wonderfully carved
with cultural variance. The Champa, the Vietnamese and the Chinese have helped to maintain
these unique towers. They have been restored to their former glory. This is the reason to visit
the tranquil and tremendous countryside around Quy Nhon. The four surviving towers in this
group were probably built towards the end of the 11th century. The main tower, or kalan, and
the adjacent repository are at the very summit of a hill overlooking the Highway 1, the town
of Binh Dinh, and a river (identified by Tran Ky Phuong as a major arm of the Con River).
Two smaller towers are situated at lower levels on the hill, to the south and east of the main
tower. These are dubbed, respectively, the stele tower and the gopura (gatehouse).

Several fine bas-reliefs of dancers from Banh It are now displayed in the Cham Museum in
Da Nang. Ngo Van Doanh states that one of the major works of Banh It, a statue of Shiva,
was removed by the French to the Trocadero Museum around 1884-86, and is now part of the
Guimet collection. A replica of the statue was installed in the shrine of the main kalan.
The series of towers is also known by the name Thap Bac, which means "Silver Towers", a
moniker coined by the French.

0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0ol

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 VIII
Romanticised Hindu Kingdoms with Sanskrit names

The (pre-Angkorian and Angkorian) Khmer and Mon cultures extended widely over the
middle Mekong Valley: the river and its major tributaries were the frst channels for the
dissemination of these cultures—including those originating from distant regions. The
religious complex of Wat Phu, which has been uninterruptedly active from the ffth century
ce, is one of the major “continental” sites offering with its vestiges, in particular its
epigraphic corpus, the keys to a better understanding of the “Indianisation” process that
affected the peoples of Southeast Asia. The Mekong, between China and Cambodia, also
represented a corridor alongside which the cultures fostered at a later time by several Tai
communities rapidly developed.
Research on the Inscriptions in Laos: Current Situation and Perspectives Chapter ,Michel
Lorrillard Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, 2019

Dvaravati city state kingdoms

By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create
the Dvaravati kingdoms. In the north, Haripunjaya (Lamphun) emerged as a rival power to
the Dvaravati. By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to create city states, in Fa Daet
(modern Kalasin, northeastern Thailand), Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) near modern Tha
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Khek, Laos, Muang Sua (Luang Prabang), and Chantaburi (Vientiane). In the 8th century CE,
Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade
throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but
were culturally similar and introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries
throughout the region.
Luang Phabang or Louangphabang / Luang Prabang, literally meaning "Royal Buddha
Image", is a city[ in north central Laos, consisting of 58 adjacent villages, of which 33
comprise the UNESCO Town Of Luang Prabang World Heritage Site. It was listed in 1995
for unique and "remarkably" well preserved architectural, religious and cultural heritage, a
blend of the rural and urban developments over several centuries, including the French
colonial influences during the 19th and 20th centuries.
The city was formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name. It had also been known by
the ancient name of Xieng Thong. It was the royal capital and seat of government of
the Kingdom of Laos, until the Pathet Lao takeover in 1975. The city is part of Luang
Prabang District of Luang Prabang Province and is the capital and administrative centre of
the province. It lies approximately 300 km (186 mi) north of the capital Vientiane. Currently,
the population of the city as a whole is roughly 56,000 inhabitants with the UNESCO
protected site being inhabited by around 24,000.

View of Luang Prabang, 1897

Lan Xang period
Xieng Dong Xieng Thong experienced a brief period of Khmer suzerainty under Jayavarman
VII from 1185 to 1191. By 1180 the Sipsong Panna had regained their independence from the
Khmers[however, and in 1238 an internal uprising in the Khmer outpost
of Sukhothai expelled the Khmer overlords. Xieng Dong Xieng Thong in 1353 became the
capital of the Lan Xang kingdom. In 1359 the Khmer king from Angkor gave the Phra
Bang to his son-in-law, the first Lang Xang monarch Fa Ngum (1353-1373); to provide
Buddhist legitimacy both to Fa Ngum's rule and by extension to the sovereignty of Laos and
was used to spread Theravada Buddhism in the new kingdom. The capital name was changed
to Luangphabang, where it was kept, named after the Buddha image. Luang Prabang was
briefly occupied by the Vietnamese forces during Emperor Lê Thánh Tông's 1478–1480
expedition against Lan Xang and Lanna. The capital was moved in 1560 by
King Setthathirath I to Vientiane, which remains the capital today.

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Market in Luang Prabang, pre-1901
In 1707, Lan Xang fell apart because of a dynastic struggle and Luang Prabang became the
capital of the independent Kingdom of Luang Phrabang. When France annexed Laos, the
French recognised Luang Prabang as the royal residence of Laos. Eventually, the ruler of
Luang Prabang became synonymous with the figurehead of Laos. When Laos achieved
independence, the king of Luang Prabang, Sisavang Vong, became the head of state of
the Kingdom of Laos.
Vientiane orViangchan,is the capital and largest city of Laos. Vientiane is divided
administratively into 9 cities with a total area of only approx. 3,920 square kilometres and is
located on the banks of the Mekong, close to the Thai border. Vientiane was the
administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in recent times, is now
the economic center of Laos. The city had a population of 1,001,477 as of the 2023 Census.
Vientiane is noted as the home of the most significant national monuments in Laos – Pha
That Luang – which is a known symbol of Laos and an icon of Buddhism in Laos. Other
significant Buddhist temples in Laos can be found there as well, such as Haw Phra Kaew,
which formerly housed the Emerald Buddha.
The city hosted the 25th Southeast Asian Games in December 2009, celebrating 50 years of
the games.
'Vientiane' is the French spelling derived from the Lao Viangchan /ʋíːəŋ tɕan. In
Lao, viang refers to a 'walled city' whereas chan derives from
Sanskrit candana (चन्दन, /t͡ ɕand̪ana/), 'sandalwood' and can be translated as the 'walled city
of sandalwood'. Some Laotians mistakenly believe it refers to the 'walled city of the moon'
as chan can also represent 'moon', although this was previously distinguished in writing as
'ຈັນທຣ໌'. Other romanisations include 'Viangchan' and 'Wiangchan'

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Ban Tha Lat, Mon inscription (9th CE), was found in 1968, in an area where other pieces of
archaeological evidence testified to an ancient Mon presence. It is now at Ho Phra Kaeo
Museum, Vientiane, Laos

Buddha sculptures at Pha That Luang/Haw Phra Kaew or Temple of the Emerald Buddha
Dvaravati city state kingdoms
By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create
the Dvaravati kingdoms. In the north, Haripunjaya (Lamphun) emerged as a rival power to
the Dvaravati. By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to create city states, in Fa Daet
(modern Kalasin, northeastern Thailand), Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) near modern Tha
Khek, Laos, Muang Sua (Luang Prabang), and Chantaburi (Vientiane). In the 8th century CE,
Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade
throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but
were culturally similar and introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries
throughout the region.
Myth

127
The great Laotian epic, the Phra Lak Phra Lam, claims that Prince Thattaradtha founded the
city when he left the legendary Lao kingdom of Muong Inthapatha Maha Nakhone because
he was denied the throne in favor of his younger brother. Thattaradtha founded a city
called Maha Thani Si Phan Phao on the western banks of the Mekong River; this city was
said to have later become today's Udon Thani, Thailand. One day, a seven-headed Naga told
Thattaradtha to start a new city on the east bank of the river opposite Maha Thani Si Phan
Phao. The prince called this city Chanthabuly Si Sattanakhanahud; which was said to be the
predecessor of modern Vientiane.
Contrary to the Phra Lak Phra Lam, most historians believe Vientiane was an early Mon
settlement, which later came under the domination of the Khmer Empire. In the 11th and 12th
centuries, the time when the Lao and Thai people are believed to have entered Southeast
Asia from Southern China, the few remaining Mon and Khmer in the area moved or
assimilated into the Lao civilization, which would soon overtake the area.[
Khmer domination
The earliest reference of the name Vientiane can be seen on a Vietnamese inscription of
Duke Đỗ Anh Vũ, dated 1159 during the Khmer-Viet conflict. The inscription says that in
1135, Văn Đan (Vientiane), a vassal of Zhenla (Khmer Empire), invaded Nghe An, but was
repelled by the Duke; the Duke led an army chased the invaders as far as Vũ Ôn?
(unattested), and then returned with captives. This name may have traced it origin to Wèndān,
a supposedly kingdom located in the Khorat Plateau, mentioned by a ninth-century Chinese
writer described a trade route which started at Hanoi and crossed the western mountains to
Wèndān.
Lan Xang and French colonial rule
In 1354, when Fa Ngum founded the kingdom of Lan Xang. Vientiane became an important
administrative city, even though it was not made the capital. King Setthathirath officially
established it as the capital of Lan Xang in 1563, to avoid Burmese invasion. When Lan Xang
fell apart in 1707, it became an independent Kingdom of Vientiane. In 1779, it was
conquered by the Siamese general Phraya Chakri and made a vassal of Siam.

Lingapura
Koh Ker- Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple from the ancient city of Lingapura

128
 Dr.
Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Vaastu,Astrology ^Management and Efficacy Consultant, India
INDO NORDIC AUTHOR’S COLLECTIVE

CONTENTS
I N T R O D U C T I O N-Lingapura page 4

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Chapter 1-All About Koh Ker page 11
CHAPTER 2-Trajectory of Kulen Mountain and ancient Capital city of
Mahendraparvata page 25
CHAPTER 3-Mahendraparvata -The Lost Mountain City of God Indra page 53
Chapter 4-The mountains MAHENDRAGIRI IN ORISSA &MAHENDRAPARVATA
IN KAMBUJ PART II OF A SERIE ON MOUNTAINS OF KHMER page 71
Chapter 5 Complex Architecture of Koh Ker and History page 78
About the author page 105

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 www.udaydokras.com
INTRODUCTION
Lingapura
Koh Ker- Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple from the ancient city of Lingapura

Koh Ker was thesource of several iconic Khmer sculptures that were looted in the 1970s and
sold to prominent museums and collectors. We’ve previously written about ties between the
looters and the murderous Khmer Rouge regime. The most famous of these
stolen masterpieces is the Bhima’s companion, Duryodhana, which Sotheby’s attempted to
auction in March 2012 on behalf of a Belgian collector. After a lengthy legal fight,
Sotheby’s agreed to return the sculpture to Cambodia last December. Months earlier, the
Metropolitan Museum agreed to return two Kneeling Attendants looted from the same
site. The three statues – Hindu figures Duryodhana, Balarama and Bhima – were looted
during Cambodia’s civil war, and officials in Phnom Penh said they were hacked off their
foundations and taken from the Koh Ker temples in Siem Reap, not far from the famed 12th
century ruins of Angkor Wat.
The Norton Simon Museum and Christie’s auction house have agreed to return two
additionalsculptures looted from the Praset Chen temple at Koh Ker, Cambodia, the New
York Times reports. The Norton Simon’s Bhima has been on display since the 1970s.
Christies sold a looted sculpture of Pandava twice, most recently in 2009, and bought the
sculpture back from the anonymous buyer when information emerged about its looted
origins. They are the fourth and fifth objects from the looted temple to be returned. Two
additional sculptures from the site remain on display at the Denver Art Museum and the
Cleveland Museum of Art.

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MANHATTAN U.S. ATTORNEY ANNOUNCES CIVIL ACTION SEEKING
FORFEITURE OF 10TH CENTURY SANDSTONE STATUE LOOTED FROM
CAMBODIAN TEMPLE Preet Bharara, the United States Attorney for the Southern District
of New York, and James T. Hayes, Jr., the Special Agent-in-Charge of the New York Office
of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s (“ICE”) Homeland Security Investigations
(“HSI”), announced today the filing of a civil complaint seeking forfeiture of a 10th Century
sandstone statue – the Duryodhana – for the purpose of returning it to Cambodia.
The statue had been stolen from the Prasat Chen temple at Koh Ker in Cambodia. The Koh
Ker site is very significant from a religious, historical, and artistic perspective, and the
Duryodhana is considered to be a piece of extraordinary value to the Cambodian people and
part of their cultural heritage. Manhattan U.S. Attorney Preet Bharara said: “The Duryodhana
statue is imbued with great meaning for the people of Cambodia and, as we allege, it was
looted from the country during a period of upheaval and unrest, and found its way to the
United States. With today’s action, we are taking an important step toward reuniting this
ancient artifact with its rightful owners.” ICE-HSI Special Agent-in-Charge James T. Hayes,
Jr.

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Duryodhan statute from Koh Ker

Rising above 30 meters in height, Koh Ker’s central temple-mountain of Prasat Thom was built 100 years
before Angkor Wat. Photo: Khmersearch, Panoramio.

One thousand years ago, the Khmer Empire ruled most of what is now Southeast Asia from
its capital in Angkor. During their heyday, the architecturally and artistically sophisticated
Khmer people created some of humanity’s most extraordinary stone temples and statues.
Apart from a few stone inscriptions, however, no written records of the civilization survived.
Out of necessity, archaeologists have had no alternative but to piece the story of the Khmer
people together, clue by clue and stone by stone.

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 Doorman DWARPAL statute
10th century Cambodian sculpture previously scheduled for a multi-million dollar Sotheby’s
sale.
Before Koh Ker became capital of the Khmer empire (928 AD), numerous sanctuaries with
Shiva-lingas existed already. Koh Ker was a cult site where Shiva had been worshipped a
long time. Also Jayavarman IV was an ardent worshipper of this Hindu god. As later kings
(whose residence was not in Koh Ker) changed from Hinduism to Buddhism they gave orders
to make the necessary adjustments at their temples. Because of its remoteness, the sanctuaries
at Koh Ker were spared from these interventions.
Koh Ker Temple Group

…Rohal (Koh Ker) prang Prasat Prang Koh . It is the most iconic sight 30 m high stepped
pyramid with seven levels and is the highlight of a trip to the Koh Ker temple group.

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Also recorded as Rahal. Whilst there is not much to see today, in the heydey of ancient Koh
Ker this large basin (baray) would have been a pivotal feature at…
Prasat Thom (Koh Ker)

Prasat Thom is the principal temple of the Koh Ker group and also encloses the iconic
pyramid, Prasat Prang. Prasat Thom is a labyrinth of temples beginning on its eastern…
Sralau Temple (Koh Ker)

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…in pieces of cornice of the ordinary art of Koh Ker. Under the laterite vault, in the wall
opens a small window with three loopholes. The E. gopura is a…
Damrei Temple (Koh Ker)

…is built upon a tall sandstone base featuring rich decoration with lions flanking the staircase
and elephants at each corner making it one of the must-visit temples of Koh Ker….
Prasat Srot (Koh Ker)

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Signposted as Prasat Srot, it is the two “palaces” that flank either side of what was once the
causeway leading to Prasat Thom, the principal temple of the Koh Ker…

Chapter 1
All About Koh Ker
Koh Ker is a remote archaeological site in northern Cambodia about 120 kilometres (75 mi)
away from Siem Reap and the ancient site of Angkor. It is a jungle filled region that is
sparsely populated. More than 180 sanctuaries were found in a protected area of 81 square
kilometres (31 sq mi). Only about two dozen monuments can be visited by tourists because
most of the sanctuaries are hidden in the forest and the whole area is not fully demined.The
name Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of the Khmer empire. In inscriptions
the town is mentioned as Lingapura (city of lingams) or Chok Gargyar (translated as city
of glance, or as iron tree forest)- a Shaivite stronghold.
Under the reign of the kings Jayavarman IV and Harshavarman II Koh Ker was briefly the
capital of the whole empire (928–944 AD). Jayavarman IV enforced an ambitious building
program. An enormous water-tank and about forty temples were constructed under his rule.
The most significant temple-complex, a double sanctuary (Prasat Thom/Prang), follows a
linear plan and not a concentric one like most of the temples of the Khmer kings.
Unparalleled is the 36-metre (118 ft)-high seven-tiered pyramid, which most probably served
as state temple of Jayavarman IV. Really impressive too are the shrines with the two-meter
6 ft 7 in high lingas.

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Under Jayavarman IV, the style of Koh Ker was developed and the art of sculpture reached a
pinnacle. A great variety of statues were chiseled. Because of its remoteness, the site of Koh
Ker was plundered many times by looters.

Architectural Style of Koh Ker

Under Jayavarman IV, the style of Koh Ker was developed and the art of sculpture reached a
pinnacle. A great variety of statues were chiseled. Because of its remoteness, the site of Koh
Ker was plundered many times by looters. Sculptures of Koh Ker can be found not only in
different museums, but also in private collections. Masterpieces of Koh Ker are offered

Ancient script from the ruins of Koh Ker

Jayavarman IV
Jayavarman IV who ruled from 928 to 941 at Koh Ker was a believed to have been the local
king at this remote site, possibly his homeland, before he became king of the whole empire.
That could explain why he had his residence at Koh Ker and not at Roluos (Hariharalaya) or
at Yashodharapura (Angkor) like the kings before him.
Some historians think that Jayavarman IV was an usurper; but, the majority of them believe
that he was a legitimate ruler who could ascend to the throne because he married a half-sister
of king Yasovarman I (889 – 900). What is certain is that the two sons of Yasovarman I
(Harshavarman I, who ruled from 900 to 922 and Isanavarman II, who ruled from 922 to
925?) had no children. In the short time that Jayavarman IV reigned in Koh Ker, an ambitious
building program was realised. That was only possible because of a restrictive system of
raising taxes as seen on inscriptions found at the site. About 40 temples, the unique seven-
tiered pyramid and a huge baray (water-reservoir) were built. Under Jayavarman IV, the Koh
Ker-style was developed and the art of sculpture reached a pinnacle.
As for the Inscriptions, they look similar from one temple to another, probably because all
inscriptions were engraved over a relatively brief period of time. The linguistiC features of
the inscriptions, however, are more intriguing. The Khmer language of Koh Ker epigraphy is
imbued with a number of Sanskrit loan words the spelling of which is not consistent;
deviations from the phonological rules of classical Sanskrit language are frequent and there
are sometimes several versions of spelling for the same word. Some Sanskrit terms seem
strange or do not make sense; their original meaning might have been lost. The inscriptions of
Prasat Krachap, most numerous among the temples, pose a special problem in not having
opening and closing parts; their content, therefore, remains enigmatic. Inscriptions of Koh
Ker ,Kunthea Chhom,https://www.academia.edu/14872809/Inscriptions_of_Koh_Ker_n_I

138
Harshavarman II
After the death of Jayavarman IV, the designated prince did not take his place. Harshavarman
II (another son of Jayavarman IV) claimed the throne. Like his father, he ruled at Koh Ker
(941 – 944) but after three years he died; likely not due to natural causes. None of the temples
at Koh Ker can be ascribed to him. His follower on the throne, a cousin of his, returned
Roluos (Hariharalaya) to the seat of power.
Koh Ker after 944 AD
Even after 944, as the capital of the Khmer Empire had changed back to the plains north of
the Tonle Sap-lake, more temples were built at the site of Koh Ker. An inscription mentions
the reign of Udayadityavarman I in 1001. At the beginning of the 13th century the last
sanctuary was realised there. Under Jayavarman VII, the Prasat Andong Kuk, a so-called
hospital-chapel, was built, one of more than 100 of hospital-sanctuaries built under this ruler.

History of research

Tower at Koh Ker

19th century
In the second part of the 19th century, French adventurers ranged the forests around the site
of Koh Ker while hunting game. They brought word of the structures in the area back to
France. The French researchers Lunet de Lajonquière and Étienne Aymonier came to Koh
Ker. They saw the main temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang, the Baray and a group of linga-
shrines. They also discovered a few subsections of a chaussée (i.e. highway) with a breadth of
more than 8 m (26 ft). They supposed that a road once connected Koh Ker with Wat Phu
(today in southern Laos). Around 1880, members of a French expedition arrived at Koh Ker
and looted numerous statues and reliefs. These pieces are now in the Musée Guimet in Paris.
20th century
At the beginning of the 20th century, art historians realised that a full-fledged style was
developed at Koh Ker. Georges Coedès concluded from inscriptions that Koh Ker was
capital of the Khmer empire (928 – 944 AD) under the reign of Jayavarman IV and his
follower Harshavarman II. In the 1930s, again French researchers came to Koh Ker. They
discovered numerous monuments and counted fifty sanctuaries in an area of 35 square
kilometres (8,649 acres). Henry Parmentier made a number of drawings. After an interruption

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because of the reign of terror of the Khmer rouge, research at Koh Ker continued by
APSARA, French, Japanese and Australian scientists.
Recent discoveries: the 21st century, scientists concluded that not all of the monuments
could have been built in the short time when Koh Ker was capital of the Khmer empire (928
– 944 AD). A new era started at Koh Ker as photographs made by satellites were analysed. In
2004 the protected area was extended to 81 square kilometres (31 sq mi; 20,016 acres). For
five years, Japanese researchers explored and described 184 monuments, including
documenting their exact locations. The Australian researcher Damian Evans and his team
were able to verify Lajonquière's theory that there once was a Khmer route between Koh Ker
and Wat Phu, probably the most important strategic road of the Khmer empire.
Before Koh Ker became capital of the Khmer empire (928 AD), numerous sanctuaries with
Shiva-lingas existed already. Koh Ker was a cult site where Shiva had been worshipped a
long time. Also Jayavarman IV was an ardent worshipper of this Hindu god. As later kings
(whose residence was not in Koh Ker) changed from Hinduism to Buddhism they gave orders
to make the necessary adjustments at their temples. Because of its remoteness, the sanctuaries
at Koh Ker were spared from these interventions.
Several inscriptions were found which mention Koh Ker as capital of the empire in Siem
Reap, Battambang, Takeo and Kampong Cham (city). From inscriptions discovered at Koh
Ker, it is estimated that more than ten thousand people lived at Koh Ker when it was the
capital (928 – 944 AD). The inscriptions explain how manpower was organised: taxes in
form of rice were raised in the whole country and served to provide for the workers who
came from different provinces. An inscription at Prasat Damrei says that the shrine on the top
of the state temple (Prang) houses a lingam of about 4.5 m (14 ft 9 in) and that the erection of
this Shiva-symbol gave a lot of problems". A Sanskrit inscription at Prasat Thom gives
evidence of the consecration of a Shiva-lingam 921 AD which was worshipped under the
name of Tribhuvaneshvara ("Lord of the Threefold World").

S T Y L E

None of the immense, expressive and beautiful sculptures are left at the site. Numerous of
them were stolen and are standing now in museums and also in private collections. Some
statues were put away by government organizations to protect them from looters. Many
masterpieces of Koh Ker are now in the collection of the National Museum in Phnom Penh.
In late 2011, the remote location drew media attention worldwide when Sotheby's attempted
to sell a statue of a mythical Khmer Empire warrior. In March 2012, the US and Cambodian
governments filed court documents to seize the statue that they purport was illegally removed
from the site. A twin statue, also linked to the Koh Ker site, is on display at the Norton Simon
Museum in Pasadena, California.

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Statue of Brahma, Koh Ker style, 925-950 ca., Musée Guimet, Paris.
The center of the ancient city was in the north-east corner of the baray (water-tank).
Inscriptions say at least ten thousand inhabitants lived there during the rule of Jayavarman
IV. Past researchers believed a square wall with a side length of 1.2 km (1,312 yd) protected
the town. But new research indicates that the linear structures found in this part of Koh Ker
were dykes of ancient canals. Concerning the wooden buildings of the Khmer time no
artefacts are found.
Laterite, sandstone and brick were used as construction materials in Koh Ker. Laterite and
sandstone of excellent quality were quarried in great quantities in the region of Koh Ker, so
the transport of the stones to the site was no problem. The bricks produced were small,
regular and very solid. A thin layer of organic mortar of unknown formula was used, possibly
some form of plant sap. After more than a millennium the brick sanctuaries in Koh Ker are in
a much better condition than the laterite ones. The roofs of some temples in Koh Ker had a
wood construction and were covered with tiles. In these monuments, holes for the wooden
girders are found. The main sanctuary (the temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang) was not
standing in the middle of the ancient city.

Water Tanks
Rahal
The huge Baray (water-tank) called Rahal is the largest object at the site of the ancient capital
Koh Ker. Its length is about 1,200 m (1,312 yd) and its breath about 560 m (612 yd). The
water-tank has three dams covered by steps of laterite. The orientation of the Rahal is not
from east to west like the huge water-reservoirs in Angkor; it follows an orientation of North
15° West. Because the most important monuments at Koh Ker have the same orientation it is
thought that the Baray was constructed first and the rest of the structures were laid out around
it. The Rahal was carved out partly of the stone ground but it is not clear if a natural hollow
was the reason for its orientation. These days most parts of the Baray are dried out and
covered by grass. Some puddles can be seen in the corner next to the double-sanctuary.[8]
Trapeang Andong Preng

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200 m (219 yd) south of the double-sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang is a basin dug into the earth
with a length of 40 m (44 yd). It has steps of laterite on all sides. During the rainy season the
water is standing to a depth of 7 m (23 ft 0 in). The Trapeang Andong Preng does not belong
to a temple, but it could have been a royal bath, because near this place was once the wooden
palace of the king.
Trapeang Khnar-(carvings)

View of the seven tiered pyramid at Koh Ker

Complex of the double sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang

Linear plan
The complex of the main monument in Koh Ker has a linear plan and is about 800 metres
(875 yd) long. Its orientation is E15°N, that is parallel to the Baray. The parking area cuts the
complex in two parts. On the east side of the parking are two structures, called palaces. On
the west side are the other monuments. They are standing behind the restaurants and are from
east to west: an immense entrance pavilion, two towers, a red brick entrance-tower (Prasat
Krahom), a surrounding wall with two courts (in the eastern court is the temple-complex
Prasat Thom with a moat, in the western court stands the seven tiered pyramid,
named Prang). Behind the enclosure is an artificial hill, the so-called Tomb of the White
Elephant. Except the Prasat Krahom and the Prang (pyramid). This temple-complex is in a
bad condition.
Palaces
At the east side of the parking area are two structures the so-called palaces. Each consists of
four rectangular buildings surrounding a court. All eight buildings have three rooms, some
have a patio with pillars. Possibly these palaces served as meditation- or prayer-rooms for the
king or nobles.
Entrance pavilion and laterite towers
Between the palaces and the closest monument is a distance of 185 metres (607 ft). On the
left side of the parking area (behind the restaurants) is the entrance pavilion made of
sandstone. It stands 45 metres (148 ft) away from the double sanctuary and has a cruciform
ground-plan. The crossbar is 60 metres (197 ft) long; the stringer has a length of 30 metres
(98 ft). Parallel to the cross-bar are two halls. Directly behind the entrance-pavilion are the
ruins of two huge laterite towers.
Prasat Krahom

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Behind the ruins of the entrance-pavilion and the laterite towers is a red brick tower, called
Prasat Krahom (krahom = red), which gives entrance to the enclosed monuments. It has a
cruciform plan, is in a good condition and once housed a statue of the Dancing Shiva with
five heads and ten arms. The sculpture had a height of 3.50 metres (11 ft 6 in), but is now
broken completely. A fragment of a hand of 0.5 metres (20 in) can be seen in the National
Museum in Phnom Penh.
Outer enclosure
The outer enclosure has a length of 328 metres (1,076 ft) and a breadth of 151 metres (495 ft)
An additional wall divides the inner area in two. In the eastern court are a moat and the
temple-complex Prasat Thom; in the western court is the pyramid, called Prang. The eastern
court with a length of 153 metres (502 ft) is nearly square, the western court has a length of
171 metres (561 ft).
Moat
The moat in the eastern court is about 47 metres (154 ft) wide. It borders the Prasat Thom.
Lined by trees it looks very picturesque. Two dams, one at the east side, the other at the west
side are leading to the ground within the moat. The dams are flanked by Naga-balustrades.
On the eastern dam between the Nagas was additionally a colonnade with pillars. Behind
each Naga of the east side was standing a huge Garuda.
Prasat Thom
Probably some parts of the Prasat Thom including the moat and the 1. (inner) enclosure were
built before 921 AD. The sanctuary was expanded under the reign of Jayavarman IV and has
now two surrounding walls inside of the moat. The first wall (inner wall) is made of brick;
the second wall (outer wall) with a length of 66 m (217 ft) and a breath of 55 m (180 ft) is
made of laterite. Two doors are in the east and in the west. The doors of the second wall have
a cruciform plan. The doors of the first wall are smaller and not of cruciform layout. The
plane between the first and second wall is completely overbuilt with rectangular structures,
possibly later additions. In the center court is the sanctuary and opposite it are two so-called
libraries. Behind the sanctuary on a rectangular platform stand nine towers in two rows (one
of five, one four towers). Twelve smaller prasats in groups of three surround the platform. All
21 towers once housed lingas.
Prang
The seven-tiered pyramid called Prang was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV.
Construction of the sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square
building measures 62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform
stood a huge lingam probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons.
Inscriptions say that it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am
probably stood in a shrine which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft)
high. On the north side of the pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. The original
stairs are in a very bad condition as is the bamboo-ladder which was constructed in the 20th
century, so it is forbidden to climb to the top of the pyramid via this route. There is however a
new staircase which can be used to ascend to the top tit of the pyramid. Concerning the
seventh tier some scientists say, this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides
beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made. There is just one Khmer temple which resembles the
temple Baksei Chamkrong in Angkor. But the four-tiered monument there is much smaller
and has a staircase on each of the four sides. On the platform on the top of the Baksei
Chamkrong is a prasat in a good condition.

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Tomb of the White Elephant
Behind the court with the seven-tiered pyramid is an artificial hill of exact circle form
covered with trees. It is named Tomb of the White elephant. "The white Elephant" is a very
well-known legend in southeast Asia. There are different theories about the hill. Some say
that this structure could be the foundation of a second pyramid. Others say that it could be the
grave of Jayavarman IV. The steep path leading to the top of the hill is closed now because of
security reasons.
Sanctuaries along the access road
Prasat Pram

Prasat Pram
The most south sanctuary of this group is the Prasat Pram on the west side of the road. A
small (300 metres (328 yd)) long path leads to the monument. It has five towers or prasats
(pram = five). Three brick towers stand in a row on the same platform. They face east. The
central one is a bit taller than the others. In each of these prasats, once stood a lingam. These
and the beautifully carved lintels were looted. Two prasats (faced west) are standing in front
of the platform. One is built of brick and has diamond-shaped holes in the upper part. This
fact indicates that this tower once served as a fire sanctuary (fire cults were very important
during the era of the Khmer kings). The other building is small, made of laterite and (in
comparison with the brick towers) in bad condition. The bricks of small regular size are held
together with an organic mortar of unknown composition (plant sap?). Originally the towers
were covered by white stucco; remains of it can still be seen. Two of the towers are
pictorially covered by roots. The five towers are surrounded by an enclosure. The collapsed
entrance door (gopuram) is at the east side. Two artefacts of the Prasat Pram can be seen in
the National Museum in Phnom Penh: A damaged lion statue and fragments of a standing
four-armed Vishnu
Prasat Neang Khmau

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Prasat Neang Khmau showing fire-scarred walls
Located 12.5 km (7.8 mi) to the south of the main Koh Ker pyramid and built of sandstone
and brick. An early 10th century temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva. The temple's fire
damaged (black) outer surface probably gave it its name (Neang Khmau means the "Black
Lady" in Khmer).
The name of the temple is also said mean "Black Virgin" and legend says it might once have
been heaven to Kali, the Dark Goddess of Destruction.
Another legend about the temple says that many years ago a powerful king Preah Bat Sorya
Teyong lived at the Chiso mountain. One day his daughter Neang Khmao, went to Tonle
Protron and met a handsome man, Bandit Srey, who instantly fell in love with her and who
used magic to make her fall in love with him. When the king heard about this he ordered his
daughter be exiled and he built two temples for her to live in. Whilst in exile she fell in love
with a monk who subsequently fell in love with her and gave up being a monk to live with
the princess in the temple since which it has been known as Neang Khmao Temple.
Prasat Bak
More north than the Prasat Neang Khmau and on the west side of the road is the Prasat Bak, a
small square sanctuary built of laterite; one side measures only 5 m (16 ft). The temple which
is in a very bad condition today housed till 1960 a colossal statue of Ganesha (Ganesha is a
Hindu god, son of Shiva and Uma. He is depicted with a human body and an elephant's
head). It is known, that the sculpture with the sitting Ganesha now is in a collection outside of
Cambodia.[11]
Prasat Chen
This sanctuary is the most north of this group and lies too on the west side of the street. It has
two enclosures. The main entrance door (now collapsed) was itself a sanctuary with a square
central room (one side measured 4 m (13 ft)). Three laterite towers (partially collapsed) stand
on the same platform. In front of them are the remains of two brick libraries. The statue of the
two fighting monkey kings Sugriva and Valin (figures of the Hindu epic Ramayana) was
found at this site and is now in the National Museum in Phnom Penh. A fragment of a multi-
armed statue of Vishnu was found in front of the tower in the middle. In this temple are five
inscriptions. They mention the names of all the numerous peoples connected to the temple
site and their function.
Monuments along the ring-road

Ruins of Prasat Krachap

Prasat Balang (Prasat Leung Moi)
The Prasat Balang is the first of three Linga-Shrines standing along the ring-road. It is a
square laterite building standing on a platform and has one doorway and an open roof. In the

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sanctuary is an impressive lingam standing on yoni. The phallus-symbol is about 2 m (7 ft)
high, has a diameter of nearly 1 m (39 in) and a weight of several tons. Together with the
yoni it was carved out of the bedrock at this place. The lingam is in a good condition. The
yoni is about 1 m (39 in) high and looks like an altar. On all four sides once were carved
reliefs. In each of the four corners stood a beautiful chiselled Garudu with raised arms giving
the impression these mythical figures would bear the yoni. Unfortunately the reliefs and the
Garudas were looted. Around the Yoni there is just a small space giving room for some
priests to perform the prescribed rituals. The water they put on the lingam became holy by
touching the symbol of Shiva, run down and was collected in a ditch of the yoni. Then via a
spout (with is still intact) it flowed to the outside of the shrine where believers could touch
the blessed water.
Prasat Thneng (Prasat Leung Pee)
The Prasat Thneng is very similar to the Prasat Balang. Unfortunately looters tried to hack
away the impressive lingam but were not successful. A notch of about a depth of half a meter
(20 in) is left but the Shicva-symbol is still standing unshakeable at its place on the damaged
yoni.
Leung Bye and Prasat Andong Kuk (Prasat Sralau)
A Buddhist temple built late 12th century/early 13th century in the reign of Jayavarman VII,
it was one of more than 100 of hospital-sanctuaries he built. The modern name Sralau refers
to a species of tree.
Prasat Krachap
Sometimes written Prasat Kra Chap, today the site has well preserved entrance gate and the
ruins of 5 towers arranged in a quincunx. From inscriptions around the doors it has been
established that the temple was dedicated in 928 to Tribhuvanadeva, a linga representation of
Shiva.
Prasat Bantaey Pee Chean

Banteay Peechean
Prasat Chrap
A temple comprising 3 towers built of laterite. Today all towers are badly damaged; the
interiors with fire damage and the west facades destroyed suggesting damage was deliberate
or due to a common design flaw. There are no surviving inscriptions to date the temple nor to
identify which gods it was dedicated to.

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Prasat Damrei
A small path leads from the ring-road to the Prasat Damrei (damrei = elephant). This
sanctuary has an enclosure and stands on a high platform. On each of its four sides is a
staircase with about ten steps. Eight stone lions once flanked the stairs but only one remains
in its original place. A beautiful elephant sculpture once stood at each of the four corners of
the platform but only two remain. The sanctuary is built of brick and is in good condition. A
Sanskrit inscription found at the temple offers evidence that an erstwhile lingam was once
erected on the top of the pyramid (Prang).

UNESCO on Koh Ker: Ancient Lingapura Or Chok Gargyar

Koh Ker or Chok Gargyar, as it is known in Old Khmer inscriptions, is a 10th-century temple
complex and former capital of the Khmer Empire, situated in northern Cambodia. The name
of the site, Chok Gargyar, is in itself unique, as it is the only site we know of to be named in
the Old Khmer language (Khmer ancient capital are usually named in Sanskrit) and referring
to a natural feature, namely the tree now known as Koki or iron wood tree (Hopea odorata)
which can reach up to 45 m and is valued for its dense wood quality that is water and termite-
resistant. The densely forested site containing a total of 169 archaeological remains, including
76 temples, as well as civil structures, ponds, dykes, and ancient roads, is located centrally
between three other Cambodian World Heritage Sites - Preah Vihear, Angkor, and Sambor
Prei Kuk. It stands at a distance of 102 km to the north-east of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap,
126 km to the south of Preah Vihear Temple Site, and north-west to Sambor Prei Kuk Site at
a distance of 171 km. Situated between the slopes of the Dangrek and Kulen mountains, Koh
Ker has a landscape characterized by rolling hills of variable heights ranging from 70 m to
110 m, forming a gentle slope from South to North, and coinciding with the watershed of the
Steung Sen River.

Koh Ker was the capital of the Khmer Empire for a brief period, between 928-941 C.E. under
its founder King Jayavarman IV. As yet, the only authentic, contemporary information about
the political ideology of Angkor comes from the Koh Ker inscription which establishes a
clear shift of Khmer political ideology from ‘rāja’ or king, to ‘rājya’ or the kingdom and its
people. In support of this new ideology, no war was waged by Jayavarman IV; his reign was
the most peaceful phase of the Khmer Empire, which enabled a cultural resurgence. This time
of peace allowed Jayavarman IV to carry out projects of regional, social, economic and
architectural development, town planning and rural infrastructure, of which the ensemble of
monuments at Koh Ker bear testimony. The art and architecture of Koh Ker was also
developed to reflect and affirm the dominance and uniqueness of Jayavarman IV’s political
identity, particularly with the use of a monumentality of scale in architecture, and dynamism
in sculpture, both of which is unmatched in other Khmer legacies.

Justification of Outstanding Universal Value

147
Koh Ker represents a unique vision in the arts, architecture and introduces new technologies,
which changed urban planning for the coming centuries. The most important monuments of
the capital are situated close to and in the immediate vicinity of the Prasat Thom complex,
where the seven-tiered pyramid, also known as Prasat Prang, the only one in Southeast Asia,
forms the apotheosis of an eccentric building style known only in Koh Ker. Prasat Thom
complex is also the central axis around which the capital is geometrically formed.

Another exceptional characteristic of Koh Ker is the development of water management

techniques. The water management system at Koh Ker was a hybrid one, combining elements
of a highland system of damming river valleys with elements of the classical lowland system
of huge reservoirs, canals and bunded fields. An earlier form of this system may be observed
at the World Heritage Site of Sambor Prei Kuk (6 th-7th centuries C.E.), while a far more
elaborated system was later in use in Angkor. Koh Ker thus served as a huge laboratory for
what was to come, situating itself perfectly between early drainage (Oc-Eo) and catchment
trials (Sambor Prei Kuk) and the far more sophisticated hydrological system can be observed
in the later Angkor period. Along with management of water, the structures of Koh Ker,
particularly the Lingas and the Rahal were planned using the natural terrain in such a way
that the flow of water through the site becomes an act of sacralising.

The Hindu character of the site is best revealed through its monumental art of which the
sculptures are the most prominent, executed in the ronde-bosse technique. Drawing on earlier
styles, its creators soon developed a distinct art, advancing sculpting techniques while
inventing the hybrid figure. The best examples are the Dancing Shiva with a presumed height
of 6 m at Prasat Kraham and the recently discovered ensembles at Prasat Chen depicting
scenes of the Mahabharata (the last fight in the battle of Kurukshetra between Bhima and
Duryodhana) and the Ramayana (the fight between Valin and Sugriva). Scenes like these may
well be found at other temple sites but is the first time and also last that they have been
brought alive through monumental sculpture formations, whether in and outside the Khmer
Empire. Its iconography is unique and is currently referred to as the Koh Ker style.
Koh Ker’s sphere of influence too was secured through a well developed network of cultural
routes that connected it not only to every corner of the Khmer Empire but beyond, to
subcontinental Asia. Cultural sharing enabled by Royal Roads ensured that the buildings,
artwork, inscriptions and landscape design of Koh Ker and surrounding temples constitute the
most significant and comprehensive early expression of a distinct Khmer culture that drew
upon and adapted Indian religious concepts and iconography and their accompanying artistic
and architectural styles. The site is thus an outstanding example of how influences from
Indian architecture and artworks were assimilated and refined in the distinctive Koh Ker
style. The Indian concepts were modified to meet the specific needs of this emergent empire
and its social, religious and agrarian order, which ultimately evolved into a distinct Khmer
culture that constitutes a milestone in urban planning and the plastic arts in Southeast Asia. It
is an outstanding example of ideas and values expressed through the monumental arts in the
early 10th century C.E. in Cambodia. As evidenced by the site, the political structure,
religious practices and material culture marked important advances that had a lasting impact
in the country and region. The buildings, artwork, inscriptions and landscape design of Koh
Ker and other surrounding temples constitute the most significant and complete early
expression of a distinct Khmer culture that drew upon and adapted Indian religious concepts
and iconography and their accompanying artistic and architectural styles. The site is an
outstanding example of how influences from India in terms of architecture and artwork were
assimilated and refined in the distinctive Koh Ker style. The Indian concepts were modified

148
to meet the specific needs of this emergent empire and its social, religious and agrarian order,
which ultimately evolved into a distinct Khmer culture that constitutes a milestone in urban
planning and the plastic arts in the Southeast Asia region.

Its outstanding architecture, a distinct and original adaptation of Indian influence, introduces
to the Southeast Asia region colossal-sized statues and construction in new aesthetic forms.
This shows a creative idea and concept that originated at Koh Ker, giving rise to the so-called
Koh Ker style. The scenes of Mahabharata and Ramayana were narrated in the form of
individual characters carved in stone rather than carvings in the form of bas-relief. The
extraordinary architecture of the religious shrines is apparent in the stepped-pyramid temple
of Prasat Thom and other temples dedicated to Shiva.

Koh Ker embodies the remains of a very well-organized urban complex, the capital of a
unique past civilization. The ancient capital city is an exceptional testimony of a cultural
tradition with centralized political power, bearing Hindu religious features. Its civilization
was deeply influenced by the Indian subcontinent in terms of social institutions, religion and
art which were assimilated into indigenous customs, ideology and artistic expressions. Koh
Ker marks the time when a distinctive Khmer culture/identity emerged from this cross‐
cultural exchange. It is at Koh Ker that we find the first evidence of the giant-size
infrastructure symbolizing powerful elements in Cambodian and Southeast Asian history.
The infrastructure was the biggest not only in Cambodia, but in Southeast Asia. Jayavarman
IV introduced the first artificial giant structure in his capital, where he established the stepped
pyramid of Prasat Thom, as well as its giant sculptures. The uniqueness of the architecture
and sculpture in Koh Ker represents the technological prowess exhibited in Khmer art.

Statements of authenticity and/or integrity

The extent of the Koh Ker nominated property under the Royal Decree of May 5, 2004
conforms to integrity of all the attributes (natural, historical, monumental and archaeological
features and artifacts of the ancient complex, manifestations of its city planning, hydraulic
features, road network and number of monumental remains, ritual and spiritual expression)
identified for its nomination as a World Heritage Site. All components and elements that
contribute to the potential Outstanding Universal Value of the property are within this
nominated area and intact in all respects. These characteristics demonstrate the potential
Outstanding Universal Value of Koh Ker, represented by as many as 76 temples, a road
network and the structure of an ancient city, extensive and largely intact archaeological
deposits, a large water reservoir, moats and other water management features. An important
array of statues, sculptures, inscriptions and rare traces of mural paintings and frescoes are
integral to the abiding value of Koh Ker. The site represents many generations of Khmer
people attesting to the resilience of a powerful civilization in terms of the range and number
of surviving monuments. The boundary also includes its pristine environment and forested
area.
The site has suffered from the ravages of time, looting during the Cambodian war (1970s-
1990s), a difficult climate and recent historic events. The weathering process and
encroachment of vegetation caused degradation of the monuments and in some cases their
entire collapse. Over time, parts of the monuments and objects belonging to the site were
relocated and/or looted. The gravest harm to the site, however, came with the international
conflict, turning Cambodia into a war zone between the late 1960s and early 1990s. The area

149
became isolated and was vulnerable to looting and destruction by humans as well as war. A
number of statues were relocated to Phnom Penh or other areas for safety, while other were
looted and went into private hands or other museums overseas. Although some have recently
been returned, some remain unaccounted for.

Despite those tragic events, the site has been remarkably conserved in all its integrity. The
property retains a large number of monuments and features which demonstrate the
exceptional technological, architectural, artistic, historical, cultural and hydraulic values of
the site. The major temples of the site retain their original form and fabric. Modifications and
repairs were carried out on some of the buildings in the 10th century.

A number of the decorative elements, statuary and inscriptions from these monuments have
remained in situ. Many of the masterpieces have been stored or are on exhibit in museums in
Cambodia and abroad. The system of hydraulic features is intact, many of which are still in
use today. Excavation surveys have also indicated that many of the buried structures remain
in good condition. Protection of the site is secured by the Cambodian government, and
regular clearing and restoration efforts in recent years have contributed to the preservation the
site. A living site, continued human habitation, agricultural production, commerce and
religious worship have kept the area from turning into a deserted site. These archaeological
properties, continuing religious practices and local communities dwelling on the site
epitomize the potential Outstanding Universal Value of Koh Ker.

Most of the ancient temple shrines continue to be used as places of worship by the local
people as well as visitors. Local communities furthermore consider Koh Ker as a “sacred
place” in which deities are worshipped in everyday ritual performances. Some shrines for
Neak Ta (powerful spirits) share the space of the monuments and many more are scattered
throughout the site.

Low-population density villages (Koh Ker and Romchek) with their traditional gardens and
tree cover largely retain the pattern of settlement that would have been exhibited by the
historic urban complex.

The local village inhabitants of Koh Ker today depend on agriculture, mostly rice cultivation
and livestock raising (water buffaloes, cattle, pigs and chickens) and forest gleaning. Carbon
dating has indicated that water features and earthworks still in use today are contemporary
with the historic buildings.The site has retained its authenticity in terms of use and function
as a place of worship and continuous religious practices.

Comparison with mountains

Strategic Location: Koh Ker is situated between the southern slopes of

the Dangrek mountains, the Kulen mountains (Phnom Kulen) in the south-west, and the
Tbeng mountain (Phnom Tbeng, near Tbeng Meanchey) in the east. Most parts of the hilly
ground are covered by jungle, but most of the trees shed their leaves seasonally. The city of
Koh Ker was on the most important strategic route of the Khmer empire. Coming
from Angkor and Beng Mealea to Koh Ker this road led to Prasat Preah Vihear and from
there to Phimai in Thailand and Wat Phu in Laos . The region of Koh Ker is relatively dry.
Numerous water-tanks and canals were built during the 9th and the 10th century to ensure the
water supply. These days water is pumped up from a depth of 30 to 40 metres (98 to 131 ft)
meters.

150
The site lies between the Dângrêk Mountains - Thio Khao Phanom Dongrak, a mountain
range forming a natural border between Cambodia and Thailand which despite the length of
the range is a low mountain system with average elevation of 500 m and Phnom Kulen both
having major symbolic importance for Cambodias as the birthplace of the ancient Khmer
Empire, for it was at Phnom Kulen that King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence from
Java in 802 CE. Jayavarman II initiated the Devaraja cult of the king, a linga cult, in what is
dated as 804 CE and declaring his independence from Java of whom the Khmer had been a
vassalage state (whether this is actually "Java", the Khmer chvea used to describe Champa, or
"Lava" (a Lao kingdom) is debated, as well as the legend that he was earlier held as a ransom
of the kingdom in Java. See Higham's The Civilization of Angkor for more information about
the debate). During the Angkorian era the relief was known as Mahendraparvata (the
mountain of Great Indra).
Phnom Kulen was further developed under the rule of Udayadityavarman II, who made it the
capital of his empire and constructed many temples and residences as well as the 1000 Lingas
at Kbal Spean. At its peak, the Kulen development was larger than modern-day Phnom
Penh and one of the largest cities in the 11th-century world. It would later be eclipsed by
Angkor, but still served a vital role, as its water irrigated the entire region. The Dângrêk
Mountains on the other hand, were part of the ancient Khmer Empire, which spread
northwards across them, culminating with the almost complete control of the Isan area in
1220 under Jayavarman VII. Among the archaeological remains in the mountain area there
are stone carvings on the Pha Mo I-Daeng cliff, ancient stone-cutting quarries, as well as
the Sa Trao reservoir. There are also remains of sanctuaries that were built as homes to spirits
called phi ton nam ('watershed spirits') in different spots along the border area of the Dângrêk
mountain chain. However, the largest and most important archaeological site in these
mountains is the Prasat Preah Vihear compound, a Shaivite temple of the Khmer imperial
times dated from the reign of Suryavarman Iin a dramatic location on top of a high hill. That
these ranges inspired the 7 storeyed design of the temples is quite evident.

CHAPTER 2
Trajectory of Kulen Mountain and ancient Capital city of Mahendraparvata
Phnom Kulen has major symbolic importance for Cambodia as the birthplace of the
ancient Khmer Empire, for it was at Phnom Kulen that King Jayavarman II proclaimed
independence from Java in 802 CE. Jayavarman II initiated the Devaraja cult of the king, a
linga cult, in what is dated as 804 CE and declaring his independence from Java of whom the
Khmer had been a vassalage state (whether this is actually "Java", the Khmer chvea used to
describe Champa, or "Lava" (a Lao kingdom) is debated, as well as the legend that he was
earlier held as a ransom of the kingdom in Java. See Higham's The Civilization of Angkor for
more information about the debate). During the Angkorian era the relief was known
as Mahendraparvata (the mountain of Great Indra).
Phnom Kulen was further developed under the rule of Udayadityavarman II, who made it the
capital of his empire and constructed many temples and residences as well as the 1000 Lingas
at Kbal Spean. At its peak, the Kulen development was larger than modern-day Phnom
Penh and one of the largest cities in the 11th-century world. [10] It would later be eclipsed by
Angkor, but still served a vital role, as its water irrigated the entire region.

151
The Khmer Rouge used the location as a final stronghold as their regime came to an end in
1979 in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War.
Mahendraparvata, believed to have been the first capital of the Khmer Empire, a powerful
Southeast Asian state that existed during the Angkor period from the 9th to 15th centuries,
had long-eluded archeologists, who knew of its existence but were unable to map it out
because of the difficult terrain. Studies of the city were further hampered by landmines
leftover fron Khemer Rouge.

The name Mahendraparvata means "Mountain of the Great Indra". It is derived from
the Sanskrit words महेन्द्र (Great Indra, a title of the Hindu god Indra) and पर्वत
(mountain) and is a reference to the sacred hill top site commonly known as "Phnom Kulen"
today where Jayavarman II was consecrated as the first king of the Khmer Empire in 802.
The name is attested in inscriptions on the Angkor-area Ak Yum temple.
Mahendraparvata is located 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the Angkor Wat complex, 45
kilometres (28 mi) north of Siem Reap, on the slopes of Phnom Kulen mountain in Siem
Reap Province.

Despite its importance as the location of one of the Angkor period's earliest capitals, the
mountainous region of Phnom Kulen has, to date, received strikingly little attention. It is
almost entirely missing from archaeological maps, except as a scatter of points denoting the
remains of some brick temples. The history and geography of the area has amplified many of
the problems of conducting archaeological survey and mapping in Cambodia: until recently,
the site was remote, difficult to access and covered with dense vegetation. Furthermore, it
was among the last bastions of the Khmer Rouge, who occupied the area from the early
1970s until the late 1990s. Dangerous remnants of war, such as land mines, remain a serious
problem. For these reasons—as well as the absence of monumental remains on the scale of
Angkor—Phnom Kulen has mostly escaped the attention of researchers.

Nonetheless, the area is crucial for understanding the historical trajectory of Angkor and the
Khmer Empire, which dominated much of mainland Southeast Asia between the ninth and
fifteenth centuries AD. It is the source of much of the water that flows into the vast hydraulic
network of Angkor on the plain below, and Angkorian inscriptions suggest that the mountain
plateau was the site of one of the capitals of Jayavarman II, whose eighth- to early ninth-
century AD reign marks the beginning of the Angkor period. This would place the site among
the first engineered landscapes of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the
pre-Angkorian period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and
sociopolitical organisation that would shape the course of the region's history for the next 500
years.

152
The Range is registered since 1992 on the Government of Cambodia’s tentative list as a
World Heritage potential cultural site, with the criteria V and VI. Phnom Kulen means the
Mountain of Leeches in Khmer. According to the old Khmer inscriptions (and particularly
Sdok Kak Thom inscription), the mountain is known as Mahendraparvata, the mountain of
the Great Indra, an ancient city established at the late 8 th-early 9th-centuries, comprising
several temples, the religious remains of this former capital of the Khmer Empire. The
capital was settled on the plateau, located 70 Km to the south of the Dangrek Mountains,
and 30 Km away from the great Tonle Sap Lake. Today, the Phnom Kulen national Park is
a 37,375-hectares protected area, located in Banteay Srey, Svay Leu and Varin districts, in
Siem Reap province.

Layout and Infrastructure of Phnom Kulen

According to a report submitted to UNESCO: “Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is a
unique example of town-planning for an ancient city, with related infrastructure, temples,

centrally planned urban area, spanning ∼40-50 Km2” of the plateau. This comprises a
monumental artistic remains, and other archaeological sites. Mahendraparvata presents “a

network of major thoroughfares that divide a central zone into a city grid; a system of
smaller-scale land parceling that subdivides city blocks within that grid; a distribution of
small shrines, mounds and ponds; a large-scale water-management system, consisting of
dams and a major, unfinished reservoir; and finally, a distinctive spatial arrangement of a
royal palace, state pyramid temple and other infrastructural elements that are consistent
with and unique to all other known Khmer Empire capitals” (Chevance et al, 2019:1318).
[Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom of Cambodia to UNESCO]
The LiDAR technology has revealed a very large and formally planned network of
oriented earthen dikes forming axis. This urban grid connects previously known, temples,
and the water infrastructures, such as the dams blocking the valleys of the plateau and
creating large reservoirs. Organizing the landscape on a large scale (more than 40 km2), it
also organizes settlement plots.
153
Archaeological survey found hundreds of ponds within the central area and recovered
some run along the ancient axis and dykes. Major dams were raised to block valleys and
create reservoirs. The data also suggest that settlement on Mahendraparvata was not only
spatially extensive but also temporally enduring. For example, Mahendraparvata on
Phnom Kulen plateau comprised 366 individual mounds attributed to the 10th century. It
is believed that “the grid of major axes provides the overall framework upon which other
patterns of habitation are based and elaborated” (Chevance et al, 2019:1316). According
to Lidar and following field verification researchers “found hundreds of ponds within the
central area, only two of them interrupt the course of the major axes, the other ponds are
scattered within the city blocks” (Chevance et al, ibid). Several evidences “suggest that
the central grid was laid out before, or during, the elaboration of the habitation network,
and that the two systems functioned contemporaneously” (Chevance et al, ibid).
Recently, the LiDAR mission identified an additional main piece of hydrological
infrastructure in this area. The East-West orientated Thnal Srae Thbong dike and the 1
Km long Thnal Mrech dike (Pepper Dyke), with several 10th to 11th centuries ceramic
kiln sites, are part of a very large unfinished reservoir of baray. This last feature
completes, together with the mountain-temple and the Royal Palace, the main markers of
an Angkorian capital. They are integrated in the urban network and the whole indicates a
significant evidence for the early Angkorian period to setup infrastructure and city.
Moreover, sandstone quarries on the southeast foothill of Phnom Kulen indicate a very
large industry, illustrating another human interaction with its natural environment from
the 9th to 12th centuries. The quarries provided most of the sandstone blocks used to build
the Angkor temples and most of the statues to represent the Khmer gods. Phnom Kulen is
known to have hosted the ancient quarries, where the sandstone blocks were extracted.
From Phnom Kulen site, a complex and long network of channels and parallel raised
earthen road allowed their transportation to Angkor, to build the prestigious religious
monument, from the 10th century. Phnom Kulen ancient quarrying industry, known from
the late 19th century, was developed on a very large scale, recently revealed by the Lidar
(Evans, 2017). It has left numerous localized pits with high stepped surfaces forming a
complex network of stone exploitation.

Temples, Pyramid and Royal Palace at Phnom Kulen

According to the report submitted to UNESCO: Most of the temples are single brick
towers, attributed to Jayavarman II reign. One of them stands out, Prasat Rong Chen, the
five-tiered pyramid temple built on the highest point of the southern part of the plateau.
Partially constructed from leveling or soils embankments (first two levels) and laterite
blocks (last three levels), the temple’s top level is accessible by ramps, unique remains of
a construction left unfinished. An unfinished large reservoir, or baray, was also evidenced
thanks to the Lidar technology. Additionally, the Royal Palace of the ancient capital
(Banteay) was identified in 2009 (Chevance, 2014) and confirms the presence of the king
and his court on the plateau, at the early 9th century. Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen) is,
therefore, very significant as it is one of the earliest capitals of the Angkor period, which
extended from the 9th to 15th centuries. [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom
of Cambodia to UNESCO]
Systematic archaeological survey and excavations have identified an array of cultural
features. There are more extensive of a large settlement than the historical record
indication. For instance, later Angkorian inscriptions often refer to Jayavarman’s capital

154
on the plateau, but no inscriptions dating from that period have been found so far in
Phnom Kulen. However, the significant infrastructures in Phnom Kulen demonstrated the
“first engineered landscapes of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the
pre-Angkorian to Angkorian period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic
engineering and sociopolitical organization that would shape the course of the region’s
history for the next 500 years” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1305). Mahendraparvata on Phnom
Kulen, “therefore, represents a significant milestone in the development of urban from/in
the region” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1317).
The existence of a royal palace, numerous temples and neighbourhoods, indicate that a
royal court was located on the Kulen plateau. A substantial population living in “an
extensive, well-defined, built-up area” supports it (Chevance et al, 2019:1318). “This area
was clearly of parceled neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant
ceremonial centre (Chevance et al, 2019:1318).

Impact of Phnom Kulen on Angkor Settlement Patterns and Urbanization

According to the report submitted to UNESCO: Prior to the Mahendraparvata
construction, “the evidence shows that settlement patterns in the Angkor region comprised
small, loosely structured urban areas that lacked any formal grid, had no clear boundaries
and appear to have developed organically without a coherent plan. Beyond the Angkor
region, a handful of centres show evidence of enclosing walls, for instead, at the sixth to
eight centuries AD site of Sambor Prei Kuk. On the other hand, these much smaller in
scale than at Mahendraparvata and contain no internal grids. Thus, Mahendraparvata
marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent the first large-scale ‘grid
city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. It would be some time before such a design would be
fully realized again in the Angkor region. [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom
of Cambodia to UNESCO]
The ninth-century AD city of Hariharalaya, the capital immediately following
Mahendraparvata, contains a monumental core but, overall, evinces an organic layout
typical of the early Angkorian ‘open cities’ (Evans 2010; Pottier 2012). It is only in the
tenth and eleventh centuries AD that the massive linear axes and internal frameworks of
cities appear again in the Angkor region (Gaucher 2017), and not until the twelfth century
that we have unambiguous evidence for gridded cities achieved on the same scale as
Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016). Hence, the urban network revealed by lidar and described
here seems to form an enormous and remarkably early experiment in formal urban
planning. The urban model that first developed on this mountain plateau, although
sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely adopted straight away, would eventually be
adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor, and become a prototype for high-density
urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1317, 1318).
“Mahendraparvata map bring new insights regarding the history of the Angkorian
urbanism. It combines the two previously identified forms (Evans et al, 2013; Evans,
2016), while missing many other elements. It has an extended city grid, but without any
attempt to define a central area with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to
have been densely inhabited; and there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity
or a broader network of low-density occupation revolving around fields and ponds.
Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately recognizable as Angkorian, and
identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in its development of urban

155
 form (Chevance et al, 2019:1319). [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom of
Cambodia to UNESCO]
The complex demonstrates a significant interchange of human values during the early
Khmer Empire, in 9th century. The site also indicated a masterpiece of human creative
genius in terms of architectural framework, iconography, and an early and unique city
planning from the Angkor period. The iconic architecture at Mahendraparvata on Kulen is
seen in O Paong, Neak Ta, Thma Dap or Damrei Krap temples, and Rong Chen is the first
pyramid temple in the Angkorian world, built on a natural mountain.
Furthermore, Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen presents various elements characteristic
of an urban form from an Angkorian capital. The important Rong Chen mountain temple,
with its distinctive pyramidal shape, is typical of other state temples located at the heart of
pre-Angkorian and Angkorian urban areas. The Royal Palace with it “rectangular shape,
size, orientation and architectural remains indicate that it was the center of power of a
royal capital” (Chevance et al, 2019:1307), during the reign of Jayavarman II in AD 770-
835. The royal capital presents a grid of major axes, which provides the overall
framework upon in other patterns of habitation are based and elaborated. Therefore, “the
network of Phnom Kulen mostly developed according to an overall plan, and the major
axes, including the largest earthen dams, were the earliest and most fundamental elements
of that design” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1316).

Art and Architecture at Phnom Kulen

According to a report submitted to UNESCO: “The architecture and art of Phnom Kulen,
indicate the development of a unique style during the reign of Jayavarman II, at the end of
the 8th century. The sandstones decorative architectural elements (columns and lintels)
and the sculptures progressed to a unique and a new “Kulen style”. This style illustrates a
transition from the previous pre-Angkorian styles to the future Angkorian and post-
Angkorian styles. [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom of Cambodia to
UNESCO]
Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is an outstanding example of a type of a unique,
religious architecture, combined with a modified landscape to form one of the first grid
city in ancient Cambodia. The religious monuments (about 40 brick temples) have been
discovered on the plateau itself, in addition rock shelters, carved riverbed, and prehistoric
site with rock painting.
At Preah Ang Thom is an eight meters long statue of the reclining Buddha, estimated to
be carved between the late Angkorian period and the post-Angkorian period (12th to 16th
centuries). Preah Ang Thom is the most sacred and worshiped site for the Kulen Mountain
after the Angkorian period. Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen continued to be a
significant worship settlement during the Angkorian period, notably with the hermits in
the rock shelters of Phnom Kulen. Therefore, Phnom Kulen has a significant cultural,
which is necessary to preserve as an ancient city site and a cultural landscape.
The ancient Mahendraparvata (late 8th-early 9th centuries) on Phnom Kulen is today a partially
forested site containing about 40 brick temples, including one pyramid mountain-temple, as
well as ancient reservoirs, dykes with spillway, channels, ponds, plots, platforms, and earthen
mounds, all part of an ancient urban system.
Other later archaeological remains are also located on Phnom Kulen such as dozen
prehistoric sites with rock paintings, more than 40 rock shelters occupied by hermits from the

156
10th century, including 2 sculpted riverbed (Kbal Spean and the One Thousand Linga),
ceramic kilns dated from the 10 th to 11th centuries, a late Angkorian temples such as Prasat
Krol Romeas located at the large natural waterfall (end of the 12 th century), and the large and
very much venerated nowadays Preah Ang Thom reclining Buddha.
Phnom Kulen is located in Northwest Cambodia, such as the others Cambodian Cultural
World Heritage sites: Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambor Prei Kuk. The mountain range is
also at the origin of the Siem Reap River, as well as the other main rivers of Angkor region
(Puok and Roluos). It has a major role for the local aquifer and for the surface water, draining
most of the plateau before reaching Angkor, nourishing its entire hydraulic system, the major
reservoir (baray) and the temples or city moats through a network of channels, and ending in
the great Tonle Sap Lake.

In addition, Phnom Kulen holds a major symbolic significance for the ancient Khmer Empire
as, according to ancient inscription, King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence
from Java in 802 CE from the city of Mahendraparvata. There also, this king initiated the
first Devaraja cult of the king, as stated in Sdok Kak Thom inscription (Michael and Evans,
2018: 118). Among local recent legends, one identifies the mountain with the place where
Buddha stepped a foot, when the entire country was flooded.
Recently, the LiDAR technology has revealed a very large and formally planned network of
oriented earthen dikes forming axis. This urban grid connects previously known, temples, and
the water infrastructures, such as the dams blocking the valleys of the plateau and creating
large reservoirs. Organizing the landscape on a large scale (more than 40 km 2), it also
organizes settlement plots. Most of the temples are single brick towers, attributed to
Jayavarman II reign. One of them stands out, Prasat Rong Chen, the five-tiered pyramid
temple built on the highest point of the southern part of the plateau. Partially constructed
from leveling or soils embankments (first two levels) and laterite blocks (last three levels),
the temple’s top level is accessible by ramps, unique remains of a construction left
unfinished. An unfinished large reservoir, or baray, was also evidenced thanks to the Lidar
technology. Additionally, the Royal Palace of the ancient capital (Banteay) was identified in
2009 (Chevance, 2014) and confirms the presence of the king and his court on the plateau, at
the early 9th century. Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen) is, therefore, very significant as it is
one of the earliest capitals of the Angkor period, which extended from the 9 th to
15th centuries.
Systematic archaeological survey and excavations have identified an array of cultural
features. There are more extensive of a large settlement than the historical record indication.
For instance, later Angkorian inscriptions often refer to Jayavarman’s capital on the plateau,
but no inscriptions dating from that period have been found so far in Phnom Kulen. However,
the significant infrastructures in Phnom Kulen demonstrated the first engineered landscapes
of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the pre-Angkorian to Angkorian
period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and sociopolitical
organization that would shape the course of the region’s history for the next 500 years.
Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen, therefore, represents a significant milestone in the
development of urban from/in the region.

It is believed that “the grid of major axes provides the overall framework upon which other
patterns of habitation are based and elaborated” (Chevance et al, 2019:1316). According to
Lidar and following field verification researchers “found hundreds of ponds within the central
area, only two of them interrupt the course of the major axes, the other ponds are scattered
within the city blocks” (Chevance et al, ibid). Several evidences “suggest that the central grid

157
was laid out before, or during, the elaboration of the habitation network, and that the two
systems functioned contemporaneously.”

The existence of a royal palace, numerous temples and neighbourhoods, indicate that a royal
court was located on the Kulen plateau. A substantial population living in “an extensive,
well-defined, built-up area” supports it (Chevance et al, 2019:1318). “This area was clearly of
parceled neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre.
.
Prior to the Mahendraparvata construction, “the evidence shows that settlement patterns in
the Angkor region comprised small, loosely structured urban areas that lacked any formal
grid, had no clear boundaries and appear to have developed organically without a coherent
plan. Beyond the Angkor region, a handful of centres show evidence of enclosing walls, for
instead, at the sixth to eight centuries AD site of Sambor Prei Kuk. On the other hand, these
much smaller in scale than at Mahendraparvata and contain no internal grids. Thus,
Mahendraparvata marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent the first
large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. It would be some time before such a
design would be fully realized again in the Angkor region. The ninth-century AD city of
Hariharalaya, the capital immediately following Mahendraparvata, contains a monumental
core but, overall, evinces an organic layout typical of the early Angkorian ‘open cities’
(Evans 2010; Pottier 2012). It is only in the tenth and eleventh centuries AD that the massive
linear axes and internal frameworks of cities appear again in the Angkor region (Gaucher
2017), and not until the twelfth century that we have unambiguous evidence for gridded
cities achieved on the same scale as Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016). Hence, the urban
network revealed by lidar and described here seems to form an enormous and remarkably
early experiment in formal urban planning. The urban model that first developed on this
mountain plateau, although sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely adopted straight
away, would eventually be adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor, and become a
prototype for high-density urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire”

Mahendraparvata map bring new insights regarding the history of the Angkorian urbanism. It
combines the two previously identified forms (Evans et al, 2013; Evans, 2016), while missing
many other elements. It has an extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central
area with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and
there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density
occupation revolving around fields and ponds. Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately
recognizable as Angkorian, and identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in
its development of urban form

Moreover, the architecture and art of Phnom Kulen, moreover, indicate the development of a
unique style during the reign of Jayavarman II, at the end of the 8 th century. The sandstones
decorative architectural elements (columns and lintels) and the sculptures progressed to a
unique and a new “Kulen style”. This style illustrates a transition from the previous pre-
angkorian styles to the future angkorian and post-angkorian styles.

After this early capital of the Khmer Empire was abandoned as the siege of power, the court
moved from Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen to (Hariharalaya in Rolous, 15 Km east of
the future Angkor). Phnom Kulen site continued to be considered as a sacred mountain and
later archaeological sites show, it was never completely abandoned. Epigraphic evidence
indicated that Kings consecrated sculpture riverbed (Kbal Spean) and later temples and
particular infrastructures such as channels, stairways, ceramic kilns or mounds fields

158
evidence an occupation of the Phnom Kulen during the angkorian period. Nowadays, several
Phnom Kulen archaeological sites still hold a sacred value for Cambodians and are the
witnesses of an important worship by Khmer people, coming from the entire country. Monks
and modern hermits often reused hermit’s sites, insuring a sacred continuity, and numerous
legends, folktales, and narratives continue to be associated by the local communities to the
archaeological sites.

Finally, Phnom Kulen is also known to host the ancient quarries, where the sandstone blocks
were extracted. From Phnom Kulen site, a complex and long network of channels and parallel
raised earthen road allowed their transportation to Angkor, to build the prestigious religious
monument, from the 10th century. Phnom Kulen ancient quarrying industry, known from the
late 19th century, was developed on a very large scale, recently revealed by the Lidar (Evans,
2017). It has left numerous localized pits with high stepped surfaces forming a complex
network of stone exploitation.
To address this lacuna in the archaeology of Angkor, first an extensive survey was
undertaken on Phnom Kulen in order to understand the spatial and chronological dimensions
of Angkor-period occupation. The development of archaeological maps has been enhanced
considerably by the application of airborne laser scanning (lidar) techniques in two separate
campaigns: the first in 2012, by the Khmer Archaeology LiDAR Consortium, and another in
2015, by the Cambodian Archaeological Lidar Initiative.
.
Background
The principal massif of the Kulen range, located 30km from major temples such as Angkor
Wat, is an elongated plateau oriented north-west to south-east. Measuring 25km along its
main axis and 15km at its widest point, the plateau rises abruptly to an average of 300–400m
asl above the surrounding flat plain, with margins marked on all sides by steep escarpments
(Figure 2). Its forest and permeable stone play an important role in the area's watershed: it is
the source of all three of Angkor's main watercourses. The marked seasonality of the
monsoon is attenuated somewhat by permanent water flows, forest cover and the relative
altitude of the mountain. Together, these create a consistently humid microclimate. Soils are
shallow, marginal and unsuited to intensive rice agriculture. Traditionally, slash-and-burn
rice agriculture is practised here among the semi-evergreen Dipterocarp forest, an ecosystem
that is rapidly disappearing despite the region's designation as a National Park.

The link between this massif and an Angkorian city referred to in Angkorian inscriptions as
Mahendrâdri or Mahendraparvata (‘mountain of great Indra’) was initially proposed at the
beginning of the twentieth century , but proved difficult to confirm due to confusion about
royal lineages and the construction sequences of the monuments. Eventually, Stern identified
the temples of Phnom Kulen as dating to the ninth-century reign of Jayavarman II, and
proposed that the royal city of Mahendraparvata would also be found on the massif. Although
Stern) surveyed the area, evidence for Mahendraparvata remained elusive. Nonetheless, his
mission generated the first archaeological map of the massif, including the locations of
numerous newly documented temples. Stern's map—comprising, essentially, a scatter of
points in the jungle—would remain the definitive image of the area for decades to come.

The 1960s saw renewed interest in the region. Hansen (1969) and Boulbet (Boulbet &
Dagens 1973; Boulbet 1979) added various elements to Stern's archaeological map, in
particular water-control structures, dykes and other linear features, without necessarily adding
support to the notion of an urban network. Aerial mapping campaigns of the Angkor region
throughout the 1990s extended northward to the mountains, but with limited success. While

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radar imaging provided additional detail around the base of the mountain range, the dense
foliage could not be penetrated, and Phnom Kulen remained a lacuna on archaeological maps
(Evans et al.2007).

More recently, major advances have been made following ground investigations (Chevance
2011, 2013, 2014, 2015), which have identified certain elements characteristic of urban form,
and, specifically, of an Angkorian capital city. Notable among them is the temple of Rong
Chen, the distinctive pyramidal shape of which is typical of other state temples located at the
heart of pre-Angkorian and Angkorian urban areas. Further compelling evidence is the
identification of a royal palace site close to Rong Chen, at the site of Banteay (Chevance
2015). Its distinctive rectangular shape, size, orientation and architectural remains indicate
that it was the centre of power of a royal capital. This was confirmed through excavation,
which also provided radiocarbon dates consistent with the reign of Jayavarman II in AD 770–
835. Simultaneously, however, this work further underscored the limitations of conventional
survey and mapping techniques in areas of tropical forest, and a coherent vision of the city
itself remained elusive. It was in this context that airborne laser scanning was deployed in
order to exploit its unique ability to ‘see through’ vegetation and provide high-resolution
models of the forest floor (Evans et al.2013). Here, we confirm the hypothesis, based on this
accumulated body of evidence, that Mahendraparvata—the eighth- to ninth-century AD
capital of the Khmer Empire—was located on the Phnom Kulen massif.

Archaeologists had to harness laser technology to locate the mysterious city, which is nestled
in the Phnom Kulen mountains of Northern Cambodia, according to a paper published in the
journal Antiquity. Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Phnom Kulen plateau to the north-
east of Angkor in Cambodia was the location of Mahendraparvata—an early Angkorian
capital city and one of the first capitals of the Khmer Empire (ninth to fifteenth centuries
AD). To date, however, archaeological evidence has been limited to a scatter of small and
apparently isolated shrines. Here, the authors combine airborne laser scanning with ground-
based survey to define an extended urban network dating from the ninth century AD, which
they identify as Mahendraparvata. This research yields new and important insights into the
emergence of Angkorian urban areas.

But now, an ancient settlement, known has the ‘lost city’ of Cambodia, has been rediscovered
by scientists using aerial mapping after remaining hidden in dense jungle for centuries.
“Despite knowing that the Phnom Kulen mountains likely hid traces of a Khmer capital city,
archaeologists have had difficulty accessing the region,” the researchers explain in a
statement accompanying the paper. “The mountains are covered in dense vegetation and they
were one of the last strongholds of Khmer Rouge guerillas until the 1990s – land mines and
unexploded ordnance continue to pose a threat to communities living and working in the
mountains, and complicate archaeological research.”

Combining airborne laser scans and ground surveys: By combining airborne laser scans
and ground surveys, researchers were able to locate the city. Previously, the only evidence of
Mahendraparvata was a small number of isolated shrines. Experts harnessed LiDAR (Light
Detection and Ranging) technology, which uses a laser to measure distances to the Earth’s
surface and can prove extremely valuable to study what is hidden in areas with thick
vegetation. LiDAR is also used extensively in other applications, including autonomous cars
where it allows vehicles to have a continuous 360 degrees view.

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Laid out on a grid basis, the researchers believe that they have found a number of the city’s
blocks. LiDAR also indicates that an “ambitious” hydraulic engineering project was started at
Mahendraparvata, but never finished. “This meant that the water management system was not
sufficient to support irrigated rice agriculture, which may suggest the city did not last long as
a Khmer power center,” the researchers said, in the statement. “Even though the reservoir at
Mahendraparvata was not functional, it predated and may have inspired the vast artificial
lakes that would become a defining feature of Angkor.” In a collaboration between the
EFEO, the Archeology and Development Foundation in the U.K., and the APSARA National
Authority (a government agency responsible for protecting the Angkor region in Cambodia),
researchers combined airborne laser scanning with ground surveys and excavations to weave
a narrative of the development and demise of this ancient city. The technology, known as
light detection and ranging, or lidar, creates maps of an area by having a plane shoot lasers at
the ground and measure how much light is reflected back. From that information, researchers
can figure out the distance from the lasers on the plane to solid objects between the
vegetation on the ground. (For instance, a temple would measure as a shorter distance to the
airborne laser than a road would.)

Evans' team combined lidar data it had gathered in 2012 and 2015 with digitized survey and
excavation data gathered earlier. The researchers also combined this data with the nearly 600
newly documented features that archeologists found on the ground. Those features included
ceramic material, as well as bricks and sandstone pedestals that typically indicate temple
sites.
The researchers used light detection and ranging, or lidar, to create maps of
Mahendraparvata.

Experts also studied mysterious “mound fields” at the Mahendraparvata site. The fields
consist of 366 individual mounds set out in geometric patterns and 15 groups. Ceramics and
evidence of 10th-century A.D. construction were found at the mounds. “Although the
purpose of the mounds remains unknown, it is likely that, whatever they were, the mounds
were built later than the majority of Mahendraparvata,” they explained, in the statement. The
multi-year archaeological expedition to find Mahendraparvata was co-led by Damian Evans
of University of Sydney and Jean-Baptiste Chevance of London's Archaeology and
Development Foundation. The team announced their initial findings in June 2013. A key
feature of the expedition was its use of helicopter-mounted Lidar technology to scan the
Phnom Kulen area and then map the city layout. The scanning phase involved seven days of
helicopter operations. The Lidar results confirmed ground-based research by previous
archaeologists. But, according to Chevance, before this they "didn't know how all the dots
fitted, exactly how it all came together".

The ground phase of the expedition traversed goat tracks and watery bogs, the team having
got to their starting point by motorbike. Hazards included landmines. They initially
uncovered five new temples. Eventually, using the Lidar data, thirty previously unidentified
temples were discovered. In addition to the temples, their research showed the existence of an
elaborate grid-like network of roads, dykes and ponds forming the city. Dr. Evans also noted
that expedition imagery shows that the area became deforested, and he theorises that the
impact of this, and water management issues, led to the civilisation's decline. ( From
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/mahendraparvata-an-early-angkorperiod-
capital-defined-through-airborne-laser-scanning-at-phnom-kulen/
CAC3E93D6046CC27D862C1E333FD0713/core-reader)
Surrounded by dense jungle, the vast city was once the thriving capital of the ancient Khmer
Empire. At one point, the population of Angkor may have been over 1 million people,
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according to LiveScience.The circumstances surrounding Angkor’s demise have been
debated for years. One theory suggested that aggression from neighboring states forced the
city’s abandonment in 1431.The expedition team have dated Mahendraparvata's origins to
802 AD. Thus the city predates Angkor Wat by about 350 years.

Ak Yum is an ancient temple that dates to the 8th century, and is the oldest known example
of "temple mountain" in Southeast Asia located here. Ancient stone inscriptions tell tales of a
city called Mahendraparvata. The once-mighty metropolis was one of the first capitals of the
Khmer empire, which ruled in Southeast Asia between the ninth and 15th centuries. It was
long believed that the ancient city was hidden beneath thick vegetation on a Cambodian
mountain, not far from the temple of Angkor Wat.

GRID: One of the most remarkable revelations was that this city was nicely aligned in a
massive grid that stretches across tens of square kilometers, Evans told Live Science. The city
is a place "that someone sat down and planned and elaborated on a massive scale on top of
this mountain," he said. It "is not something that we necessarily would expect from this
period."In the 8 th Century Urban development was typically "organic," without much state-
level control or central planning. The city-dwellers used a unique and intricate water-
management system. "Instead of building this reservoir with urban walls, as they did for
famous reservoirs at Angkor, they tried to carve this one out of the natural bedrock," Evans
said. These ancient inhabitants carved an enormous basin out of stone but left it half-
complete for unknown reasons. (See our chapter on Angkor a Hydraulic city in our Book
DEVRAJA Part II,Second volume of our Trilogy. A corresponding research paper is also
loaded on academia.edu and researchgate.net.)

The ambitious project's unseen scale and layout provide a kind of prototype for projects of
infrastructural development and water management that would later become very typical of
the Khmer empire and Angkor in particular. Surprisingly, there's no evidence that this
massive cistern was connected to an irrigation system. That likely means one of two things:
The city was left incomplete before the residents could figure out how to provide water for
agriculture, or the lack of irrigation is one reason the city was never finished.But since
Mahendraparvata was not located at an especially advantageous place for rice agriculture it
wasn't the capital for long. It shows that bthere was erroneous town and Site Planning at those
times.Khmer Kings have had many Capitals built by the poor people undr circumstances
difficult to imagine of the cruelty and exploitation. From 1990s a number of studies have
confirmed that interpretation of microtopographic variations is a practical method for
identifying and mapping remnant traces of the built environment, such as mounds, ponds,
fields, walls, roads and canals. One earlier acquisition of Phnom Kulen lidar data took place
in 2012. The most striking result of the lidar survey is the discovery of a framework of linear
axes, oriented roughly to cardinal directions and spanning much of the southern area of the
plateau which consist of one, two or sometimes three parallel linear topographic anomalies,
which are subtle and difficult to observe on the ground. Most of the elements we mapped in
Phnom Kulen are aligned with the major axes, although it is difficult to read too much into
this, given the general preference for cardinal orientation in the Angkorian world. On the
other hand, Angkorian temples conventionally face towards the east, and the newly
discovered axes help to explain the anomalous westward orientation of several Phnom Kulen
temples. These actually open towards the axes and, in the case of westward-facing Prasat
Chup Crei, the temple is even linked directly to an axis by a causeway.

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The grid on Phnom Kulen does not appear to be directly connected to broader, regional
transportation or communication networks. The well-known stone stairway of Denh Cho (or
Phleu Cèrè) that scales the Phnom Kulen escarpment is considered to be the main access
point between Jayavarman II's capital and the Angkor plains below. The lidar imagery,
however, reveals that this stairway is located to the north-west of the Mahendraparvata urban
framework. Instead, Phleu Cèrè leads to the tenth- to twelfth-century AD Preah Ang Thom
group on Phnom Kulen which is substantially later than the main Mahendraparvata complex.
The lidar data therefore offer new insights into the spatio-temporal complexity of Phnom
Kulen, to which we return below.

Hydraulic infrastructure
Exploration and mapping by Stern in the 1930s revealed the existence of Tamnup Srae
Thbong and Thnal Mrech—two massive earthen dykes on Phnom Kulen (Figure 6), which
join to form an L-shape. Additionally, surveys in the 1960s identified and mapped a system
of smaller earthen dams built across river valleys. These hydraulic features are clearly
recognisable in the lidar imagery, and we were able to revise existing maps to increase clarity
and precision.

The main natural feature in the southern part of the plateau is a broad, flat, north–south
valley. Here, we see evidence of an ambitious project formalising the natural valley into a
rectangular water-storage feature. The lidar data show that the L-shaped configuration of
Tamnup Srae Thbong and Thnal Mrech form part of a huge, unfinished north–south
reservoir, that would have covered an area of 1050 × 330m . The two earthen dykes form its
southern and eastern walls, and there is evidence for the removal of bedrock to deepen the
reservoir and straighten its western and northern walls. The lidar data reveal a very distinctive
pattern of striations in the valley, where soil was dug out of the ground systematically, and
then piled up to form the dykes of the reservoir. Had it been finished, the reservoir would
have retained water flowing through the valley, forming a rectangular body of water
inundating over 35ha. This reservoir would have been precisely integrated into the
engineered landscape of Phnom Kulen. Its eastern wall is built into one of the major north–
south axes; the temple of Rong Chen sits exactly on its east–west centre line; and to the east
of the reservoir, a series of westward-facing temples also sit on that centre line (Stern 1936).
This arrangement recalls the pyramid-reservoir-temple configuration at the tenth-century
Angkorian capital at Koh Ker .

The lidar elevation data have also clarified the structure and function of a channel located at
the southernmost point of the valley. Here, the natural direction of flow is to the north, but
this 1km-long structure instead channels water to the south. We also found evidence here for
water-control mechanisms, such as sluice gates, carved into the stone. These structures divert
water over the escarpment and down into the area between Phnom Kulen and Beng Mealea,
from where sandstone blocks were quarried and transported down canals to build the temples
of Angkor (Figure 1). Lidar imaging has revealed the full extent of quarries in this area, along
with dykes for controlling the water required for moving the stones (Evans 2016). We can
now see evidence that engineering works on top of the plateau also played a role in this
sophisticated hydraulic system.

Habitation
Although they found little evidence for the type of mound-and-pond-based habitation patterns
typical of Angkorian urbanism, nonetheless identified a distinctive topographic spatial
patterning associated with the main axes—and in particular with the central grid—that we

163
interpret as evidence for habitation. Of particular significance are the presence of numerous
earthen enclosures that align roughly with, and often abut, the main axes. These small
embankments, of decimetre scale in height and in cross-section, subdivide what we interpret
as square ‘city blocks’ with sides of 1.5km in length into an intricate and extensive network
of smaller plots with areas normally in the range of 1–4ha .These plots are somewhat
haphazard in their layout, with inconsistent sizes and orientations. This may represent more
organic developments that emerged alongside, and out of, the more formal axes of the central
grid, without reaching very far into the interior of the ‘city blocks’. A few ponds, mounds and
temple sites are scattered throughout. Archaeological excavations undertaken in 2014 and
2016 by the Archaeology and Development Foundation (ADF) confirmed habitation,
including organic layers containing eighth- to ninth-century AD ceramics.
Mound fields

mound fields’: On Phnom Kulen we found a remarkable collection of ‘mound fields’:

cardinally oriented arrays of earthen mounds that have been previously reported at two
locations down in the Angkor plain). 15 distinct groups on the Phnom Kulen plateau, were
identified comprising of 366 individual mounds and representing one of the most significant
concentration of these features so far identified in the Angkorian world. Excavations in
Phnom Kulen, yielded ceramics and evidence for construction radiocarbon-dated to the tenth
century AD pointing towards Mahendraparvata's original spatial structure, and may,
therefore, substantially post-date the initial period of major development.

The network of Phnom Kulen therefore mostly developed according to an overall plan, and
the major axes, including the largest earthen dams, were the earliest and most fundamental
elements of that design. As noted, the monumental architecture of Phnom Kulen also
conforms neatly to that spatial framework; as those temples are known to date to the late
eighth- to early ninth-century AD reign of Jayavarman II, we interpret this as evidence of a
contemporaneously functioning, formally planned urban network. This functional and
chronological interpretation is consistently supported by field observations and, in particular,
ceramic material and radiocarbon dates from securely stratified contexts.

Importantly, two temples in Phnom Kulen that have long been thought to pre-date the reign
of Jayavarman II—Prasat Damrei Krap and Prasat O Top are conspicuously out of alignment
with the urban grid (Figure 6). Notable among the other misaligned features are the ‘mound
fields’ or gridded arrays of mounds, which we believe probably date from the tenth century
AD. This suggests a long and complex history for Mahendraparvata following its late eighth-
to early ninth-century tenure as a capital, involving periods of renovation and transformation.
These, in turn, accord with inscriptions that attest to the continued use of Phnom Kulen as a
site of worship and pilgrimage throughout the Angkor period, and also with local
palaeobotanical records suggesting extensive and intensive human land use from the eighth to
twelfth centuries AD .

Grid City: Mahendraparvata marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent
the first large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. For a number of reasons,
Mahendraparvata therefore represents an important milestone in the development of urban
form in the region. Prior to the site's construction in the eighth century AD, the evidence
shows that settlement patterns in the Angkor region comprised small, loosely structured
urban areas that lacked any formal grid, had no clear boundaries and appear to have
developed organically without a coherent plan. Beyond the Angkor region, a handful of
centres show evidence of enclosing walls; for example, at the sixth- to eighth-century AD site

164
of Sambor Prei Kuk. But these are much smaller in scale than at Mahendraparvata, and
contain no internal grids.

Hence, the urban network revealed by lidar and described here seems to form an enormous
and remarkably early experiment in formal urban planning. The urban model that first
developed on this mountain plateau, although sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely
adopted straight away, would eventually be adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor,
and become a prototype for high-density urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire.

Conclusions
The eighth- to ninth-century AD capital of the Khmer Empire was located on the Phnom
Kulen massif, the lidar data, supported by additional evidence from archaeological survey
and excavation, are consistent with this interpretation. There is evidence of a centrally
planned urban area, spanning ~40–50km2 of the plateau. This comprises a network of major
thoroughfares that divide a central zone into a city grid; a system of smaller-scale land
parcelling that subdivides city blocks within that grid; a distribution of small shrines, mounds
and ponds; a large-scale water-management system, consisting of dams and a major,
unfinished reservoir; and finally, a distinctive spatial arrangement of a royal palace, state
pyramid-temple and other infrastructural elements that are consistent with—and unique to—
all other known Khmer Empire capitals.

Mahendraparvata was the location from which Jayavarman II ruled over the early ninth-
century lands of the Khmer, and is consistent with the definition of a ‘capital’. The existence
of a palace precinct, a network of thoroughfares and local shrines and neighbourhoods
indicate that a royal court was located here and supported by a substantial population of
specialised ritual, administrative and other staff drawn from a broader community inhabiting
an extensive, well-defined, built-up area. This area was clearly not rural in character, as it has
no identifiable agricultural systems; furthermore, its extensive system of parcelled
neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre. There is evidence
of a large urban area with an elaborate system of hydraulic infrastructure, which, ontrary to
the prevailing ‘hydraulic city’ theory concerning the rise of Angkor—seems not to be

165
designed for irrigated rice agriculture. As at Koh Ker, however, the inadequacy of the water-
management system for intensive rice agriculture at Mahendraparvata could either be seen as
an argument against the ‘hydraulic city’ hypothesis, or, alternatively, as an explanation for
the ephemeral nature of Mahendraparvata as the seat of power. The new map of
Mahendraparvata is also relevant to debates about the development of urban form in the
Khmer context. Previous work on urbanism at Angkor has noted two distinct forms: formally
planned, densely inhabited urban centres, characterised by city grids with spaces constrained
by walls and enclosures; and beyond that, low-density, mixed urban-agrarian landscapes with
occasional nodes of high-density occupation..

Mahendraparvata has an extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central area
with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and
there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density
occupation revolving around fields and ponds. It is clear that Mahendraparvata is the last
component of that vast settlement complex to emerge from beneath the canopy. The work
described here effectively draws to a close 150 years of archaeological mapping work in the
Greater Angkor region and sets the stage for more sophisticated spatio-temporal modelling of
urban form. By incorporating new data from Angkorian household archaeology a finer-
grained demographic models could be constructed by the researchers and finally resolve basic
questions concerning the extent and population of Angkor, and how that changed over the
centuries.

The West Baray/ Baray Teuk Thla "clear water reservoir" is a baray, or reservoir,
at Angkor, Cambodia, oriented east-west and located just west of the walled city Angkor
Thom. Rectangular in shape and measuring approximately 7.8 by 2.1 kilometers, the West
Baray is the largest baray at Angkor and one of the largest handcut water reservoirs on Earth,
[1]
possessing a current maximum capacity of 12 to 14 billion gallons of water (53 million
m3). Its waters are contained by tall earthen dikes measuring 39 feet in height. In the center of
the baray is the West Mebon, a Hindu temple built on an artificial island.
Construction of the baray probably began in the 11th Century during the reign of
King Suryavarman I and was finished later under King Udayadityavarman II.
The Angkorian engineers who created the West Baray appear to have in places incorporated
earlier construction. The east dike, for instance, appears to be largely a section of a dike that
enclosed the capital city of King Yasovarman, which had the Phnom Bakheng temple at its
center. In other places, the baray obliterated or submerged earlier human-made sites. The
south dike, for instance, partially buried a brick pyramid temple, Ak Yum. And the western
floor of the baray appears to have once been inhabited—archeological work has found wall
bases, steps, and pottery shards there. An inscription stele discovered in the area, dating from
713 A.D., offers further evidence of earlier settlement, defining rice fields that were offered
to a queen Jayadevi.
Early French experts believed the West Baray to have functioned as a vast holding tank for
water that fed irrigation canals in dry times, allowing multiple crops of rice each year. Many
later studies, however, theorize that the baray had mainly symbolic functions, serving as a
vast earthly depiction of the Hindu Sea of Creation, with the West Mebon temple at its center.
In modern times, an irrigation lock was built in the baray's southern dike, raising the water
level and allowing provision of water to fields to the south. Today the baray retains water in
its western end year-round. In the rainy season, water advances to the eastern dike.

166
With clear, still waters, the baray today is a popular place for swimming and boat rides by
local residents. It has occasionally served as a landing site for seaplanes.

The West Baray (8 × 2 km) is the largest of the four baray constructed at Angkor, and the
only one that holds water today. The barays were constructed by building embankments
around the intended perimeter using earth acquired by digging trenches inside the perimeter
of the baray. The primary (65%) source of water and sediment to the West Baray is the Siem
Reap River; the remaining 35% of the hydrologic input derives from direct precipitation.
The Siem Reap River, one of three river catchments in the greater Angkor area today, drains
an area that includes the Kulen Hills. This, however, was not always the case. In pre-
Angkorian times, only the Puok River and Roluos River catchments existed .
The Puok River originally emerged from the Kulen Hills but was cut off when the third
catchment was formed with the construction of the Siem Reap Channel in the 10th century
(prior to the creation of the West Baray). The West Baray received water from rainfall and
feeder channels that diverted water from the rivers into central Angkor. A series of canals
channelled water to the northeast corner of the baray, where a 25-m wide channel carried
water and sediment into the reservoir. A grid of channels off the southwest corner of the West
Baray, along with two other channels, directed water toward Tonle Sap Lake. One canal
flowed southwest on a direct route to the lake and the other flowed southeast. The various
channels were likely used to disperse water from the reservoir to the paddy fields south of the
West Baray and the main temple area. Sediments that accumulated in the West Baray since
its construction record variations in natural hydrologic conditions and Khmer water
management practices. Research shows that changes in water and sediment input to the West
Baray varied through time and illustrates how the ecology of the system responded to these
shifts.
Sedimentation in the West Baray.

There is evidence for rapid infill of channels at several locations throughout Angkor,
indicating widespread siltation of the water management system during the 13th and 14th
centuries just prior to the Angkor Droughts. Channel infill is concurrent with a considerable
increase in linear sedimentation and mass accumulation rates in the West Baray, which may
suggest enhanced sediment delivery to the barays at that time as well. Overall, sediment

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delivery to the West Baray was greatest during Angkorian times, particularly in the 13th
century, and declined during the post-Angkorian period.

‘Ecological Evolution of the Baray.

Higher C/N values after approximately 1300 AD may reflect proliferation of aquatic
macrophytes after the collapse of Angkor. Elevated water levels during early, wetter times
may have precluded the spread of higher plants into deep-water areas of the baray, where
submersed and rooted species would have been light limited, and where depths may have
been too great for floating-leaved taxa. The drier climate of the LIA may have lowered water
levels in the baray and expanded the habitat available to aquatic macrophytes. Additionally,
macrophytes may have been manually removed from the baray during the Angkorian period.
Evidence for cessation of vegetation clearance is observed in the West Mebon, The Khmer
water management system is a vivid example of a sophisticated human technology that failed
in the face of extreme (threshold) environmental
conditions.----------------------------------------------
Paleoenvironmental history of the West Baray, Angkor (Cambodia)
Mary Beth Day 2012 | 109 (4) 1046-1051 | https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1111282109
The East Baray or Yashodharatataka, is a now-dry baray, or artificial body of water,
at Angkor, Cambodia, oriented east-west and located just east of the walled city Angkor
Thom. It was built around the year 900 AD during the reign of King Yasovarman. Fed by
the Siem Reap River flowing down from the Kulen Hills, it was the second-largest baray in
the Angkor region (after the West Baray) and one of the largest handcut water reservoirs on
Earth,[2] measuring roughly 7.5 by 1.8 kilometers and holding over 50 million cubic meters of
water. Stones bearing inscriptions that mark the construction of the baray have been found at
all four of its corners. The labour and organization necessary for its construction were
staggering: Its dikes contain roughly 8 million cubic meters of fill.
Scholars are divided on the purpose of this and other barays. By some theories, they held
water for irrigation, but no inscription has been found mentioning such a function. Other
theories say that barays served primarily a symbolic purpose in Khmer religious life,
representing the seas of creation that surround Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods.
The East Baray today contains no water; farmers till crops on its bed. But its outlines remain
clearly visible in satellite photographs. In the middle of the baray is the East Mebon temple,
located on elevated ground that was an island in the days when the baray contained water.
Tonlé Sap "Great Lake"; is a seasonally inundated freshwater lake and an attached river, the
120 km (75 mi) long Tonlé Sap River, that connects the lake to the Mekong River. They form
the central part of a complex hydrological system, in the
2
12,876 km (4,971 sq mi) Cambodian floodplain covered with a mosaic of natural and
agricultural habitats that the Mekong replenishes with water and sediments annually. The
central plain formation is the result of millions of years of Mekong alluvial deposition . It has
been of central importance for Cambodia's food supply. It proved capable of largely
maintaining the Angkorian civilization, the largest pre-industrial settlement complex in world
history. Directly and indirectly it affects the livelihood of large numbers of a predominantly
rural population.

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 Battle of Tonlé Sap was a battle
between Panduranga (Champa) and Khmer Empire in
1177The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal
power struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–
1150) the Khmer kingdom united internally and the
largest temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37
years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu. In the
east, his campaigns against Champa, and Annam, were
unsuccessful, though he did sack Vijaya in 1145 and
depose Jaya Indravarman III. The Khmers occupied
Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out by Jaya
Harivarman I. Suryavarman II sent a mission to the Chola
dynasty of south India and presented a precious stone to
the Chola Emperor Kulothunga Chola I in 1114.Another
period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were
violently overthrown by their successors. Finally in 1177
the Angkor capital was raided and looted in a naval battle
on the Tonlé Sap lake by a Panduranga fleet under Po
Klong Garai king of Panduranga.
Then Tribhuvanadityavarman king of Angkor was killed.

Connection of Mekong River with the Tonel Sap

Greater Mekong
Subregion

Mekong River
Basin

Upper
Lower
Mekong
Mekong
Basin
Basin (LMB)
(UMB)

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 Cambodian
Northern Southern Khorat Floodplain –
Annamite Range
Highlands Uplands Plateau Great Lake
Ecosystem

Tonle
Cultivated Deciduous Tonle
Wetlands Sap
Lands Forests Sap Lake
River

Swamps
Aquatic
and
Habitats
Marshes

Connection
of Tonel
DSap with
Mekong
River

Back in the days of the glittering Angkor era, the Tonlé Sap lake and river, which branches
off the Mekong river in today’s Cambodia, was to the Khmer empire what the Nile river was
to the Egyptians.

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Enriched by the freshwater flowing down from the Tibetan plateau, the Tonle Sap lake
assured the Khmer people that they never had to worry about running out of food and water,
even though their numbers had amounted to 0.1 percent of the world population at the time!

With their sustenance fulfilled, the people of the ancient Khmer metropolis were free — in
both mind and body — to pursue and develop artistic pursuits that included silk weaving and
silversmithing, finessing a flavorsome local cuisine, as well as planning and building grand
monuments like the Angkor Wat. The Angkor Wat in Cambodia
Today, many from far and wide flock to present-day Siem Reap to witness the astonishing
level of culture forged by the Khmer people, but only a few realise there is more to the Tonle
Sap itself than first meets the eye. In fact, locals often claim that a Cambodia trip would be
incomplete without being on the Tonlé Sap, for Cambodia and her cultural treasures would
never have existed without it.

THE LAKE THAT BREATHES

An endless giver of life, the Tonle Sap Lake is also a spectacle of nature. To better
understand it geologically, it’s easier to liken the lake to a giant bathtub. For the majority of
the year, the Mekong River flows 2,700-mile (4,350 km) southwards from the Tibetan
highlands to the South China Sea, and the Tonle Sap’s water empties into the Mekong.

Tonle Sap in the Low Water Season

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But as monsoon winds from the southwest bring higher rainfall to other parts of Southeast
Asia between May and October, the Mekong River begins to swell. By around June, the
Mekong would have risen to a level that forces the Tonle Sap river to flow backwards into its
own lake.

In fact, the Tonle Sap is the only river in the world that flows both ways seasonally, reversing
direction twice a year. As the river flow flips from a downstream to an upstream direction,
the Tonle Sap lake starts to fill up at an instant, bringing along millions of fish from the
Mekong and allowing river ships to enter. Suddenly, the thousands of amazingly tall stilted
houses that perch on what resembles a swamp make perfect sense. By September, the water
level of the Tonle Sap lake would have increased to more than 4 times its original depth.
Since the Tonle Sap lake has no other outlet, the inflow from the river also expands the lake
to more than four times its normal area, from approximately 1,050 square miles to 4,500
square miles at its peak! For about five months every year, the Tonle Sap Lake can lay claim
to the title of the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia.

HYDRAULIC ZONES The Greater Angkor area can be divided hydrologically into
watersheds and sub-watersheds. However, in the case of there are three main hydraulic zones:
upper, middle and lower. Two of the zones can be divided into two sub-zones: the upper
comprising of upper plain and mountain areas and the lower comprising of floodplain and
upper drainage zone.

Each zone has its typical natural hydrological and cultural hydraulic characters which are
irrespective of the watershed borders. The characteristics for each zone will be described
briefly later on in this chapter. In the upper zone (also known as Collector zone), the water
was taken from natural rivers which ran from the Kulen Mountains and then spread to the
North-South aligned channels. In the middle zone (also known as Temple zone), the water
was collected mainly in large barays, water reservoirs, which were most probably built for
multifunctional purposes.

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The lower zone (also known as Drainage zone) operated as a drainage system for the temple
area and dispersed the water down into the Tonle Sap Lake The ancient Siem Reap Channel
(present river) and Angkor Wat Channel are the main structures for transporting the water to
the lake from the Temple Area The Natural Environment and Historical Water
Management of Angkor, Cambodia Matti Kummu Department of Water Resources,
Helsinki University of Technology,Espoo Finland
Lessons from the Climate-Change Induced Collapse of Angkor Wat
Angkor Wat was one temple within the civic-ceremonial center (kind of like the downtown)
of the urban Angkorian complex that we call Greater Angkor. Angkor Wat was built in the
early 12th century during the reign of King Suryavarman II. It would have been a bustling
place. Constructing this temple itself was a massive undertaking – the temple complex
covered nearly 2 square kilometers. However, our Lidar survey* data indicate that a much
larger area around the temple was modified, including an area to the east of the moat that
includes a mound and pond grid system that seems to be an occupation area and a series of
square spirals to the south of the temple. The lotus spires could have been covered in gold
leaf. A visitor to Angkor in the late 13th century, Zhou Daguan, describes temples being
covered in gold leaf. As suggested by Ground Penetrating Radar survey by Till Sonnemann
and colleagues suggest that the landscape beneath Angkor Wat was not empty, although it
doesn’t seem to have been heavily occupied either. Burials dating to about 3,000 years
ago were found in the area of the West Baray (a large water storage tank), so people have
been living in the area that would become Angkor for a long time!

173
174
Overview from Sonneman and colleagues of the location of the very ancient buried towers (yellow, at left)
of Angkor Wat relative to the slightly less ancient temple (tan/golden, at right) of Angkor Wat (built in
the mid-twelfth century CE).

While Angkorian Khmers built Angkor Wat, people were clearing ground, planning out the
grid for the temple complex and surrounding mounds, bringing in stone, dirt, and sand for the
temple construction, and carving the decorations throughout the area. Angkor Wat’s size and
construction requirements were a radical new experiment in state power. We’re not quite
sure what was there before and to get an accurate idea would need more excavation. Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey shows that there might have been a smaller temple near what
would become Angkor Wat and our excavations suggest some kind of activity (i.e. we don’t
find sterile soil) prior to Angkor Wat’s construction. The people living here do seem to have
been massively re-working the landscape. Once Angkor Wat was completed, we believe that
occupation mounds, with homes, surrounded the temple itself. We’re not sure who these

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people were, but suspect that they likely worked at the temple. Inscriptions describe many
different types of people who worked at a temple to keep it running, from ritual specialists
and temple dancers, to people who did more mundane jobs. Hindu temples were busy places,
with near-continuous ritual activities within the Angkor Wat temple; some days each month
and year had even larger and more elaborate public celebrations.

“Death of Angkor”
by Maurice Fievet (1960).
Thai chronicles describe Angkor having been sacked in 1431 and these events were
colorfully illustrated by Maurice Fievet in National Geographic in 1960, but we lack clear
archaeological evidence for widespread violence or destruction at Angkor. We think, instead,
that population decline and socio-political and cultural transformations took place slowly,
beginning in the 14th century CE.We see a convergence of several factor to underline the
decline of that area. Firstly, environmental studies illustrate region-wide monsoon
variability, and 14th and 15th century Angkor experienced some periods of severe drought;
heavy monsoons (and possibly flooding) followed each drought event. This did really seem
to stress the water management network at Angkor and might have caused a breakdown of
parts of this infrastructure. A closer look at the moat (essentially a walled neighborhood
within the urban core of Angkor) by researchers found evidence that Khmer no longer
maintained their city moat by the 14th century, which might be evidence that people had
begun to move out of Angkor already by the early 14th century. Essentially people were
leaving this part of the city before the water management infrastructure failed and this slow
demographic decline may have contributed to the collapse of the water network because
people weren’t there to make the repairs. It’s an interesting hypothesis that needs to be tested
elsewhere around Angkor.As if people in that particular part of the city decided not to keep
investing in this particular infrastructure.

Socio-political and ideological Changes: There were also some socio-political and
ideological changes taking place in the 14th century that disrupted pre-existing power-
structures: primarily the rising influence of a type of Buddhism called Theravada Buddhism.
This seems to have changed ideas about how power was organized and expressed; we no

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longer see stone temples and inscriptions in stone for example. Elites who were previously
affiliated with the Hindu and Mahayana Buddhist temples and their economies would have
been left behind or have had to adapt to this new system. There is no surety that these
changes were affecting non-elite people yet. It’s possible, some were able to carry on with
life with minimal changes. Other people might have had to move or transform their
livelihoods. Surveys by researchers with the Greater Angkor Project and other colleagues
have demonstrated that people were still living in parts of the metropolitan area surrounding
Angkor’s urban core (where all the temples were) in the 15-17th centuries (In Europe, this
roughly corresponds with the time stretching from the renaissance to the enlightenment). So
while some temples in the urban core might have been abandoned, other parts of the
landscape were not. I think the response was diverse and we’ll need a wider dataset from
across the Angkorian landscape to know more. Certainly elite people had the resources and
flexibility to make decisions about their lives that poorer people did not, which is true today
too.Like Angkor Thom, the intensity of occupation began to decrease quite early, from the
turn of the 14th century, but that the tail of that decline was very long – at Angkor Thom it
may have dragged on for three or four hundred years. The landscape was clearly peopled,
and Angkor’s urban epicenter revert to an Edenic wilderness. There was also changing use of
the temple over time.

The monsoon climate in Southeast Asia is seasonally variable, and people across mainland
and island southeast Asia were adapting to this seasonality from an early date. In mainland
Southeast Asia there are parts of the year where there is too much water (rainy season) and
other parts of the year where there is not enough water (dry season). People are used to this
annual cycle and have always planned around this seasonal variability. In Cambodia, the
settlement pattern of mounds or clusters of mounds in association with water storage features
like ponds goes back quite far – to the first millennium CE and possibly earlier. Mounds
would be elevated areas where people are living and the ponds would be places to collect and
store water for all manner of use in daily life activities. So yes, it seems that people have had
long-standing adaptations to this kind seasonality and the mound-pond habitation pattern is
one kind of adaptation.

Changes to the water management network through time that reflect changing landscape use
and later seem to be related to the climatic changes. Southeast Asian agrarian systems are
built with this in mind. Khmer farmers in the mid 20th century who used more than a dozen
varieties of rice regularly to maximize yield. Not only did they practice rainfed and floating
and recession techniques, but they used rice varieties with different maturation times on
micro-topographically distinct levels of rice fields whose inundation period (from annual
flooding) varied by a few weeks. The water management stuff is great but primarily focused
on protecting urban Angkor. I think agrarian strategies are equally important in the long run. .
The Angkorian people certainly couldn’t have predicted the decades-long monsoon/drought
cycle that took place. They didn’t cause these monsoon events and could only react to them.
We can see this in the adaptations they made to the water management system like the
construction of the Siem Reap canal described.

As for the ecology of Angkor (this might be more detail than you want): an interest in an
archaeological study of the environment grew out of what was called “the processual
movement” in archaeology (largely in the US) in the mid-20th century and expanded with the
development of specific field and lab methods aimed at addressing questions regarding the
environment and ecology. This kind of thinking hadn’t reached French-influenced
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Cambodian archaeology before the extensive US bombing and Khmer Rouge period, which
stopped all archaeological research (and intellectual pursuits) in Cambodia from the early
1970s-1990s. It took a few years for the archaeology program in Cambodia to get re-started
in the 1990s and early 2000s. Much of the environmental work has been undertaken since
then and we’ve learned a lot about what is happening at Angkor in a relatively short period of
time! I think it’s a great success story actually; the knowledge about Angkor has grown
exponentially in the last 20 years and more recently a lot of this has been driven by or in
collaboration with Cambodian scholars.September 15, 2020 ,Michelle Jewell-Prof. Rob Dunn and
friends.© 2022 NC State University.

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 CHAPTER 3
Mahendraparvata
The Lost Mountain City of God Indra

ABSTRACT
This article is a combination and scopic review of existing material on the efforts made to
identify the existence of the city by locating its remains.Various efforts made some successful
and some not are recapitulated here for the benefit of the lay reader.

Mahendraparvata, believed to have been the first capital of the Khmer Empire, a powerful
Southeast Asian state that existed during the Angkor period from the 9th to 15th centuries,
had long-eluded archeologists, who knew of its existence but were unable to map it out
because of the difficult terrain. Studies of the city were further hampered by landmines
leftover fron Khemer Rouge.

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The name Mahendraparvata means "Mountain of the Great Indra". It is derived from
the Sanskrit words महेन्द्र (Great Indra, a title of the Hindu god Indra) and
पर्वत (mountain) and is a reference to the sacred hill top site commonly known as
"Phnom Kulen" today where Jayavarman II was consecrated as the first king of the Khmer
Empire in 802. The name is attested in inscriptions on the Angkor-area Ak Yum temple.
Mahendraparvata is located 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the Angkor Wat complex, 45
kilometres (28 mi) north of Siem Reap, on the slopes of Phnom Kulen mountain in Siem
Reap Province.

Introduction
The Angkor region of Cambodia in Southeast Asia (Figure 1) is best known for its
monumental temples of brick and stone, such as Angkor Wat, most of which were built
between the ninth and thirteenth centuries AD. Recently, interest in the social and
environmental context of these temples has grown , with researchers using a range of

180
techniques to illuminate the everyday lives of the people who built them and inhabited the
surrounding areas.

Although Angkorian cities were built of perishable materials that have largely disappeared,
they have left, nonetheless, a durable legacy on the surface of the Earth, allowing
archaeologists to trace their forms in the contours of the terrain. Our view of the Greater
Angkor area has changed considerably in recent years, moving from simple schematic
overviews to detailed archaeological maps. The latter reveal a formally planned, densely
inhabited urban core surrounded by an extensive network of low-density neighbourhoods,
water-management systems, agricultural networks and transportation links to settlements
around other major temple sites

Despite its importance as the location of one of the Angkor period's earliest capitals, the
mountainous region of Phnom Kulen has, to date, received strikingly little attention. It is
almost entirely missing from archaeological maps, except as a scatter of points denoting the
remains of some brick temples. The history and geography of the area has amplified many of
the problems of conducting archaeological survey and mapping in Cambodia: until recently,
the site was remote, difficult to access and covered with dense vegetation. Furthermore, it
was among the last bastions of the Khmer Rouge, who occupied the area from the early
1970s until the late 1990s. Dangerous remnants of war, such as land mines, remain a serious
problem. For these reasons—as well as the absence of monumental remains on the scale of
Angkor—Phnom Kulen has mostly escaped the attention of researchers.

Nonetheless, the area is crucial for understanding the historical trajectory of Angkor and the
Khmer Empire, which dominated much of mainland Southeast Asia between the ninth and
fifteenth centuries AD. It is the source of much of the water that flows into the vast hydraulic
network of Angkor on the plain below, and Angkorian inscriptions suggest that the mountain
plateau was the site of one of the capitals of Jayavarman II, whose eighth- to early ninth-
century AD reign marks the beginning of the Angkor period. This would place the site among
the first engineered landscapes of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the
pre-Angkorian period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and
sociopolitical organisation that would shape the course of the region's history for the next 500
years.

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 To address this lacuna in the archaeology of Angkor, first an extensive survey was
undertaken on Phnom Kulen in order to understand the spatial and chronological dimensions
of Angkor-period occupation. The development of archaeological maps has been enhanced
considerably by the application of airborne laser scanning (lidar) techniques in two separate
campaigns: the first in 2012, by the Khmer Archaeology LiDAR Consortium, and another in
2015, by the Cambodian Archaeological Lidar Initiative.
.
Background
The principal massif of the Kulen range, located 30km from major temples such as Angkor
Wat, is an elongated plateau oriented north-west to south-east. Measuring 25km along its
main axis and 15km at its widest point, the plateau rises abruptly to an average of 300–400m
asl above the surrounding flat plain, with margins marked on all sides by steep escarpments
(Figure 2). Its forest and permeable stone play an important role in the area's watershed: it is
the source of all three of Angkor's main watercourses . The marked seasonality of the
monsoon is attenuated somewhat by permanent water flows, forest cover and the relative
altitude of the mountain. Together, these create a consistently humid microclimate. Soils are
shallow, marginal and unsuited to intensive rice agriculture. Traditionally, slash-and-burn
rice agriculture is practised here among the semi-evergreen Dipterocarp forest, an ecosystem
that is rapidly disappearing despite the region's designation as a National Park.

The link between this massif and an Angkorian city referred to in Angkorian inscriptions as
Mahendrâdri or Mahendraparvata (‘mountain of great Indra’) was initially proposed at the
beginning of the twentieth century , but proved difficult to confirm due to confusion about
royal lineages and the construction sequences of the monuments. Eventually, Stern identified
the temples of Phnom Kulen as dating to the ninth-century reign of Jayavarman II, and
proposed that the royal city of Mahendraparvata would also be found on the massif. Although
Stern) surveyed the area, evidence for Mahendraparvata remained elusive. Nonetheless, his
mission generated the first archaeological map of the massif, including the locations of
numerous newly documented temples. Stern's map—comprising, essentially, a scatter of
points in the jungle—would remain the definitive image of the area for decades to come.

The 1960s saw renewed interest in the region. Hansen (1969) and Boulbet (Boulbet &
Dagens 1973; Boulbet 1979) added various elements to Stern's archaeological map, in
particular water-control structures, dykes and other linear features, without necessarily adding

182
support to the notion of an urban network. Aerial mapping campaigns of the Angkor region
throughout the 1990s extended northward to the mountains, but with limited success. While
radar imaging provided additional detail around the base of the mountain range, the dense
foliage could not be penetrated, and Phnom Kulen remained a lacuna on archaeological maps
(Evans et al.2007).

More recently, major advances have been made following ground investigations (Chevance
2011, 2013, 2014, 2015), which have identified certain elements characteristic of urban form,
and, specifically, of an Angkorian capital city. Notable among them is the temple of Rong
Chen, the distinctive pyramidal shape of which is typical of other state temples located at the
heart of pre-Angkorian and Angkorian urban areas. Further compelling evidence is the
identification of a royal palace site close to Rong Chen, at the site of Banteay (Chevance
2015). Its distinctive rectangular shape, size, orientation and architectural remains indicate
that it was the centre of power of a royal capital. This was confirmed through excavation,
which also provided radiocarbon dates consistent with the reign of Jayavarman II in AD 770–
835. Simultaneously, however, this work further underscored the limitations of conventional
survey and mapping techniques in areas of tropical forest, and a coherent vision of the city
itself remained elusive. It was in this context that airborne laser scanning was deployed in
order to exploit its unique ability to ‘see through’ vegetation and provide high-resolution
models of the forest floor (Evans et al.2013). Here, we confirm the hypothesis, based on this
accumulated body of evidence, that Mahendraparvata—the eighth- to ninth-century AD
capital of the Khmer Empire—was located on the Phnom Kulen massif.

Archaeologists had to harness laser technology to locate the mysterious city, which is nestled
in the Phnom Kulen mountains of Northern Cambodia, according to a paper published in the
journal Antiquity. Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Phnom Kulen plateau to the north-
east of Angkor in Cambodia was the location of Mahendraparvata—an early Angkorian
capital city and one of the first capitals of the Khmer Empire (ninth to fifteenth centuries
AD). To date, however, archaeological evidence has been limited to a scatter of small and
apparently isolated shrines. Here, the authors combine airborne laser scanning with ground-
based survey to define an extended urban network dating from the ninth century AD, which
they identify as Mahendraparvata. This research yields new and important insights into the
emergence of Angkorian urban areas.

183
But now, an ancient settlement, known has the ‘lost city’ of Cambodia, has been rediscovered
by scientists using aerial mapping after remaining hidden in dense jungle for centuries.
“Despite knowing that the Phnom Kulen mountains likely hid traces of a Khmer capital city,
archaeologists have had difficulty accessing the region,” the researchers explain in a
statement accompanying the paper. “The mountains are covered in dense vegetation and they
were one of the last strongholds of Khmer Rouge guerillas until the 1990s – land mines and
unexploded ordnance continue to pose a threat to communities living and working in the
mountains, and complicate archaeological research.”

Combining airborne laser scans and ground surveys: By combining airborne laser scans
and ground surveys, researchers were able to locate the city. Previously, the only evidence of
Mahendraparvata was a small number of isolated shrines. Experts harnessed LiDAR (Light
Detection and Ranging) technology, which uses a laser to measure distances to the Earth’s
surface and can prove extremely valuable to study what is hidden in areas with thick
vegetation. LiDAR is also used extensively in other applications, including autonomous cars
where it allows vehicles to have a continuous 360 degrees view.

Laid out on a grid basis, the researchers believe that they have found a number of the city’s
blocks. LiDAR also indicates that an “ambitious” hydraulic engineering project was started at
Mahendraparvata, but never finished. “This meant that the water management system was not
sufficient to support irrigated rice agriculture, which may suggest the city did not last long as
a Khmer power center,” the researchers said, in the statement. “Even though the reservoir at
Mahendraparvata was not functional, it predated and may have inspired the vast artificial
lakes that would become a defining feature of Angkor.” In a collaboration between the
EFEO, the Archeology and Development Foundation in the U.K., and the APSARA National
Authority (a government agency responsible for protecting the Angkor region in Cambodia),
researchers combined airborne laser scanning with ground surveys and excavations to weave
a narrative of the development and demise of this ancient city. The technology, known as
light detection and ranging, or lidar, creates maps of an area by having a plane shoot lasers at
the ground and measure how much light is reflected back. From that information, researchers
can figure out the distance from the lasers on the plane to solid objects between the
vegetation on the ground. (For instance, a temple would measure as a shorter distance to the
airborne laser than a road would.)

184
Evans' team combined lidar data it had gathered in 2012 and 2015 with digitized survey and
excavation data gathered earlier. The researchers also combined this data with the nearly 600
newly documented features that archeologists found on the ground. Those features included
ceramic material, as well as bricks and sandstone pedestals that typically indicate temple
sites.
The researchers used light detection and ranging, or lidar, to create maps of
Mahendraparvata.

Experts also studied mysterious “mound fields” at the Mahendraparvata site. The fields
consist of 366 individual mounds set out in geometric patterns and 15 groups. Ceramics and
evidence of 10th-century A.D. construction were found at the mounds. “Although the
purpose of the mounds remains unknown, it is likely that, whatever they were, the mounds
were built later than the majority of Mahendraparvata,” they explained, in the statement. The
multi-year archaeological expedition to find Mahendraparvata was co-led by Damian Evans
of University of Sydney and Jean-Baptiste Chevance of London's Archaeology and
Development Foundation. The team announced their initial findings in June 2013. A key
feature of the expedition was its use of helicopter-mounted Lidar technology to scan the
Phnom Kulen area and then map the city layout. The scanning phase involved seven days of
helicopter operations. The Lidar results confirmed ground-based research by previous
archaeologists. But, according to Chevance, before this they "didn't know how all the dots
fitted, exactly how it all came together".

The ground phase of the expedition traversed goat tracks and watery bogs, the team having
got to their starting point by motorbike. Hazards included landmines. They initially
uncovered five new temples. Eventually, using the Lidar data, thirty previously unidentified
temples were discovered. In addition to the temples, their research showed the existence of an
elaborate grid-like network of roads, dykes and ponds forming the city. Dr. Evans also noted
that expedition imagery shows that the area became deforested, and he theorises that the
impact of this, and water management issues, led to the civilisation's decline. ( From
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/mahendraparvata-an-early-angkorperiod-
capital-defined-through-airborne-laser-scanning-at-phnom-kulen/
CAC3E93D6046CC27D862C1E333FD0713/core-reader)
Surrounded by dense jungle, the vast city was once the thriving capital of the ancient Khmer
Empire. At one point, the population of Angkor may have been over 1 million people,

185
according to LiveScience.The circumstances surrounding Angkor’s demise have been
debated for years. One theory suggested that aggression from neighboring states forced the
city’s abandonment in 1431.The expedition team have dated Mahendraparvata's origins to
802 AD. Thus the city predates Angkor Wat by about 350 years.

Ak Yum is an ancient temple in the Angkor region of Cambodia. Helen Jessup dates the
temple to the 8th century, and states it is the oldest known example of "temple mountain" in
Southeast Asia. It points way to Mahendraparvata. The origins and repair history of the
temple are unclear. Stone carrying inscriptions, including one with a date corresponding to
Saturday 10 June 674 AD during the reign of king Jayavarman I. The first structure on the
site was a single-chamber brick sanctuary, probably constructed in the latter part of the 8th
century. Later it was remade into a larger stepped pyramid structure, with a base
approximately 100 meters square. The expansion probably took place in the early 9th Century
during the reign of King Jayavarman II, who is widely recognized as the founder of the
Khmer Empire. When the West Baray reservoir was built in the 11th Century, Ak Yum was
partially buried by the southern dike. The site was excavated in the 1932 under the direction
of archaeologist George

Ancient City of 'Mahendraparvata' Hidden Beneath Cambodian Jungle

Ancient stone inscriptions tell tales of a city called Mahendraparvata. The once-mighty
metropolis was one of the first capitals of the Khmer empire, which ruled in Southeast Asia

186
between the ninth and 15th centuries. It was long believed that the ancient city was hidden
beneath thick vegetation on a Cambodian mountain, not far from the temple of Angkor Wat.
Now, thanks to an incredibly detailed map, researchers can "definitively" say that the ruins,
overgrown by thick vegetation on the mountain of Phnom Kulen, are in fact from that 1,000-
year-old city. The ancient city was never really lost, as Cambodians have been making
religious pilgrimages to the site for hundreds of years.
"It's always been suspected that the city of Mahendraparvata that's talked about in the
inscriptions was indeed somewhere up here in the mountains," said study co-author Damian
Evans, a research fellow with the French School of the Far East (EFEO) in Paris. Now, "we
can say for sure: Definitely, this is the place."

A well-planned city
One of the most remarkable revelations was that this city was nicely aligned in a massive grid
that stretches across tens of square kilometers, Evans told Live Science. The city is a place
"that someone sat down and planned and elaborated on a massive scale on top of this
mountain," he said. It "is not something that we necessarily would expect from this period."
Mahendraparvata dates back to around the late eighth to early ninth century, which is
centuries before archeologists thought such organized cities emerged in the Angkor area. At
that time, urban development was typically "organic," without much state-level control or
central planning, he said.

The city-dwellers used a unique and intricate water-management system. "Instead of building
this reservoir with urban walls, as they did for famous reservoirs at Angkor, they tried to
carve this one out of the natural bedrock," Evans said. These ancient inhabitants carved an
enormous basin out of stone but left it half-complete for unknown reasons. (See our chapter
on Angkor a Hydraulic city in our Book DEVRAJA Part II,Second volume of our Trilogy. A
corresponding research paper is also loaded on academia.edu and researchgate.net.)

The ambitious project's unseen scale and layout provide "a kind of prototype for projects of
infrastructural development and water management that would later become very typical of
the Khmer empire and Angkor in particular," Evans said.
Surprisingly, there's no evidence that this massive cistern was connected to an irrigation
system. That likely means one of two things: The city was left incomplete before the

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residents could figure out how to provide water for agriculture, or the lack of irrigation is one
reason the city was never finished.

Mahendraparvata is "not located at an especially advantageous place for rice agriculture,"

which could explain why the city wasn't the capital for long, Evans said. Rice was the
dominant agricultural crop of the greater Angkor region at the time. The city, from which
King Jayavarman II supposedly declared himself the king of all the Khmer kings, was a
capital only between the late eighth to early ninth centuries, according to inscriptions found.
Though most archaeologists don't attribute great historical accuracy to these inscriptions, this
particular story matches the dating and lidar data from the study, Evans said.
"Now, having a very complete picture of the whole, greater Angkor area and a finalized map
of the whole thing, we can start to do some pretty sophisticated modeling of things like
population and growth over time," Evans said.
He said he hopes that future research will tease apart what happened to this ancient city
between its birth, when it was bustling with new ideas, and its demise, when it disappeared
among the dense leaves.

The city's origins date to the reign of Jayavarman II, considered the founder of the Khmer
Empire. His reign was consecrated on the sacred mountain of Mahendraparvata, known as
Phnom Kulen in contemporary Cambodian. The city he founded at Mahendraparvata was one
of three capitals, or courts, of Jayavarman II's reign, the others being Amarendrapura and
Hariharalaya.

The 1936 expedition of French archaeologist and art historian Philippe Stern had also
explored the Phnom Kulen highlands. He discovered some previously unknown temples and
Vishnu statues and described the area as the first true temple mountain. But the area, while
being the source of rivers flowing south to the Tonle Sap, was remote. Later in his reign,
Jayavarman II moved to Hariharalaya where he died in 835 AD.

Methods
Aside from temples, urban areas in the Angkorian world were constructed principally of
wood and other perishable materials, which creates obvious challenges for researchers
seeking to identify elements of past urban forms. Since the 1990s, however, a number of

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studies have confirmed that interpretation of microtopographic variations is a practical
method for identifying and mapping remnant traces of the built environment, such as
mounds, ponds, fields, walls, roads and canals. One earlier acquisition of Phnom Kulen lidar
data took place in 2012 using methods detailed by Evanset al. (2013). Our target coverage
area included the principal archaeological features described above, covering 30km 2; by
processing data collected at the ends of flight lines, a total of ~37km 2 was achieved. The
second acquisition took place in 2015 using methods described by Evans (2016), and covered
the entire mountain range (including overlapping coverage of the 2012 area) with a total area
of 975km2 (Figure 1).

Between 2012 and 2017, a total of 598 newly documented features were visited on the
ground. Topographic variation was observed to assess concordance with the lidar elevation
model. We also documented the presence of surface archaeological remains, which
comprised mostly ceramic material and, less frequently, bricks or sandstone pedestals that
typically indicate temple sites. In rare cases, field investigations were required to eliminate
natural geological formations (in particular, rocky outcrops) and bomb craters from our
analysis. Finally, the geodatabase was updated and modified to incorporate our field
investigations and produce archaeological maps of the plateau.

An urban network
The most striking result of the lidar survey is the discovery of a framework of linear axes,
oriented roughly to cardinal directions and spanning much of the southern area of the plateau
which consist of one, two or sometimes three parallel linear topographic anomalies, which
are subtle and difficult to observe on the ground. Most of the elements we mapped in Phnom
Kulen are aligned with the major axes, although it is difficult to read too much into this,
given the general preference for cardinal orientation in the Angkorian world. On the other
hand, Angkorian temples conventionally face towards the east, and the newly discovered axes
help to explain the anomalous westward orientation of several Phnom Kulen temples. These
actually open towards the axes and, in the case of westward-facing Prasat Chup Crei, the
temple is even linked directly to an axis by a causeway.

The grid on Phnom Kulen does not appear to be directly connected to broader, regional
transportation or communication networks. The well-known stone stairway of Denh Cho (or
Phleu Cèrè) that scales the Phnom Kulen escarpment is considered to be the main access

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point between Jayavarman II's capital and the Angkor plains below. The lidar imagery,
however, reveals that this stairway is located to the north-west of the Mahendraparvata urban
framework (Figure 1). Instead, Phleu Cèrè leads to the tenth- to twelfth-century AD Preah
Ang Thom group on Phnom Kulen which is substantially later than the main
Mahendraparvata complex. The lidar data therefore offer new insights into the spatio-
temporal complexity of Phnom Kulen, to which we return below.

Hydraulic infrastructure

Exploration and mapping by Stern in the 1930s revealed the existence of Tamnup Srae
Thbong and Thnal Mrech—two massive earthen dykes on Phnom Kulen (Figure 6), which
join to form an L-shape. Additionally, surveys in the 1960s identified and mapped a system
of smaller earthen dams built across river valleys. These hydraulic features are clearly
recognisable in the lidar imagery, and we were able to revise existing maps to increase clarity
and precision.

The main natural feature in the southern part of the plateau is a broad, flat, north–south
valley. Here, we see evidence of an ambitious project formalising the natural valley into a
rectangular water-storage feature. The lidar data show that the L-shaped configuration of
Tamnup Srae Thbong and Thnal Mrech form part of a huge, unfinished north–south
reservoir, that would have covered an area of 1050 × 330m . The two earthen dykes form its
southern and eastern walls, and there is evidence for the removal of bedrock to deepen the
reservoir and straighten its western and northern walls. The lidar data reveal a very distinctive
pattern of striations in the valley, where soil was dug out of the ground systematically, and
then piled up to form the dykes of the reservoir. Had it been finished, the reservoir would
have retained water flowing through the valley, forming a rectangular body of water
inundating over 35ha. This reservoir would have been precisely integrated into the
engineered landscape of Phnom Kulen. Its eastern wall is built into one of the major north–
south axes; the temple of Rong Chen sits exactly on its east–west centre line; and to the east
of the reservoir, a series of westward-facing temples also sit on that centre line (Stern 1936).
This arrangement recalls the pyramid-reservoir-temple configuration at the tenth-century
Angkorian capital at Koh Ker .

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The lidar elevation data have also clarified the structure and function of a channel located at
the southernmost point of the valley. Here, the natural direction of flow is to the north, but
this 1km-long structure instead channels water to the south. We also found evidence here for
water-control mechanisms, such as sluice gates, carved into the stone. These structures divert
water over the escarpment and down into the area between Phnom Kulen and Beng Mealea,
from where sandstone blocks were quarried and transported down canals to build the temples
of Angkor (Figure 1). Lidar imaging has revealed the full extent of quarries in this area, along
with dykes for controlling the water required for moving the stones (Evans 2016). We can
now see evidence that engineering works on top of the plateau also played a role in this
sophisticated hydraulic system.

Habitation

Although they found little evidence for the type of mound-and-pond-based habitation patterns
typical of Angkorian urbanism, nonetheless identified a distinctive topographic spatial
patterning associated with the main axes—and in particular with the central grid—that we
interpret as evidence for habitation. Of particular significance are the presence of numerous
earthen enclosures that align roughly with, and often abut, the main axes. These small
embankments, of decimetre scale in height and in cross-section, subdivide what we interpret
as square ‘city blocks’ with sides of 1.5km in length into an intricate and extensive network
of smaller plots with areas normally in the range of 1–4ha .These plots are somewhat
haphazard in their layout, with inconsistent sizes and orientations. This may represent more
organic developments that emerged alongside, and out of, the more formal axes of the central
grid, without reaching very far into the interior of the ‘city blocks’. A few ponds, mounds and
temple sites are scattered throughout. Archaeological excavations undertaken in 2014 and
2016 by the Archaeology and Development Foundation (ADF) confirmed habitation,
including organic layers containing eighth- to ninth-century AD ceramics.

Mound fields

mound fields’: On Phnom Kulen we found a remarkable collection of ‘mound fields’:

cardinally oriented arrays of earthen mounds that have been previously reported at two
locations down in the Angkor plain). 15 distinct groups on the Phnom Kulen plateau, were

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identified comprising of 366 individual mounds and representing one of the most significant
concentration of these features so far identified in the Angkorian world. Excavations in
Phnom Kulen, yielded ceramics and evidence for construction radiocarbon-dated to the tenth
century AD pointing towards Mahendraparvata's original spatial structure, and may,
therefore, substantially post-date the initial period of major development.

Discussion
Analysis and interpretation of the lidar data has revealed thousands of features of
archaeological interest, extending across an area of 40–50km2. This immediately raises
questions concerning chronology. The first point to note is that the grid of major axes
provides the overall framework upon which other patterns of habitation are based and
elaborated. Enclosures often have at least one wall aligned with or abutting a major axis, yet
no enclosure intrudes upon or interrupts one of the axes, suggesting a coherent overall design.
Furthermore, although we found hundreds of ponds within the central area, only two of them
interrupt the course of the major axes; the other ponds are scattered within the city blocks.
We see no evidence of earlier constructions beneath or within the major axes, or any other
indication that this vast, formal grid was superimposed upon a pre-existing settlement. All of
this evidence suggests that the central grid was laid out before, or during, the elaboration of
the habitation network, and that the two systems functioned contemporaneously.

The network of Phnom Kulen therefore mostly developed according to an overall plan, and
the major axes, including the largest earthen dams, were the earliest and most fundamental
elements of that design. As noted, the monumental architecture of Phnom Kulen also
conforms neatly to that spatial framework; as those temples are known to date to the late
eighth- to early ninth-century AD reign of Jayavarman II, we interpret this as evidence of a
contemporaneously functioning, formally planned urban network. This functional and
chronological interpretation is consistently supported by field observations and, in particular,
ceramic material and radiocarbon dates from securely stratified contexts.

Importantly, two temples in Phnom Kulen that have long been thought to pre-date the reign
of Jayavarman II—Prasat Damrei Krap and Prasat O Top are conspicuously out of alignment
with the urban grid (Figure 6). Notable among the other misaligned features are the ‘mound
fields’ or gridded arrays of mounds, which we believe probably date from the tenth century
AD. This suggests a long and complex history for Mahendraparvata following its late eighth-

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to early ninth-century tenure as a capital, involving periods of renovation and transformation.
These, in turn, accord with inscriptions that attest to the continued use of Phnom Kulen as a
site of worship and pilgrimage throughout the Angkor period, and also with local
palaeobotanical records suggesting extensive and intensive human land use from the eighth to
twelfth centuries AD .

Rice-field walls and occupation mounds:m Mahendraparvata is also notable for its lack of
rice-field walls and occupation mounds, compared with the lowland areas of Greater Angkor.
As these are both Khmer adaptations to floodplain environments, it is unsurprising that they
are not abundant in the gently rolling upland topography of Phnom Kulen. The tenth-century
AD capital of Koh Ker, 50km to the north-east of Phnom Kulen, has a similar topography,
and occupation mounds are also largely absent from the archaeological record there, while
relict rice-field walls are scarce (Evans 2010). Epigraphia and other evidence also confirms
that Koh Ker was both an urban centre and a capital of empire. While achievements in
hydraulic engineering are relatively modest at Mahendraparvata, lidar imagery clearly shows
that an ambitious programme was initiated, but never completed. Even if it was never
functional, the reservoir at Mahendraparvata was a prototype for the vast artificial lakes that
would become a defining feature of later Angkor.

Mahendraparvata marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent the first
large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. For a number of reasons,
Mahendraparvata therefore represents an important milestone in the development of urban
form in the region. Prior to the site's construction in the eighth century AD, the evidence
shows that settlement patterns in the Angkor region comprised small, loosely structured
urban areas that lacked any formal grid, had no clear boundaries and appear to have
developed organically without a coherent plan. Beyond the Angkor region, a handful of
centres show evidence of enclosing walls; for example, at the sixth- to eighth-century AD site
of Sambor Prei Kuk. But these are much smaller in scale than at Mahendraparvata, and
contain no internal grids.

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Fig 1
Figure :The development of urban form in the Khmer world: a) pre-Angkorian ‘open
settlements’ of the sixth to eighth centuries AD; b) the pre-Angkorian capital of Sambor Prei
Kuk, sixth to eighth centuries AD, with ‘enclosure’ wall; c) the gridded city of
Mahendraparvata, eighth to ninth centuries AD; d) the early Angkorian capital of
Hariharalaya, ninth century AD; e) the capital of Rajendravarman at Angkor, tenth century
AD; f) the gridded city of Angkor Thom, eleventh to thirteenth centuries AD (figure by the
authors). It would be some time before such a design would be fully realised again in the
Angkor region (Figure 1). The ninth-century AD city of Hariharalaya—the capital
immediately following Mahendraparvata—contains a monumental core but, overall, evinces
an organic layout typical of the early Angkorian ‘open cities’ (Evans 2010; Pottier 2012). It is
only in the tenth and eleventh centuries AD that the massive linear axes and internal
frameworks of cities appear again in the Angkor region, and not until the twelfth century that
we have unambiguous evidence for gridded cities achieved on the same scale as
Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016).

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 Hence, the urban network revealed by lidar and described here seems to form an
enormous and remarkably early experiment in formal urban planning. The urban model that
first developed on this mountain plateau, although sparsely inhabited at the time and not
widely adopted straight away, would eventually be adapted to the low-lying floodplains of
Angkor, and become a prototype for high-density urban centres at the height of the Khmer
Empire.

Conclusions
The eighth- to ninth-century AD capital of the Khmer Empire was located on the Phnom
Kulen massif, the lidar data, supported by additional evidence from archaeological survey
and excavation, are consistent with this interpretation. There is evidence of a centrally
planned urban area, spanning ~40–50km2 of the plateau. This comprises a network of major
thoroughfares that divide a central zone into a city grid; a system of smaller-scale land
parcelling that subdivides city blocks within that grid; a distribution of small shrines, mounds
and ponds; a large-scale water-management system, consisting of dams and a major,
unfinished reservoir; and finally, a distinctive spatial arrangement of a royal palace, state
pyramid-temple and other infrastructural elements that are consistent with—and unique to—
all other known Khmer Empire capitals.

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Mahendraparvata was the location from which Jayavarman II ruled over the early ninth-
century lands of the Khmer, and is consistent with the definition of a ‘capital’. The existence
of a palace precinct, a network of thoroughfares and local shrines and neighbourhoods
indicate that a royal court was located here and supported by a substantial population of
specialised ritual, administrative and other staff drawn from a broader community inhabiting
an extensive, well-defined, built-up area. This area was clearly not rural in character, as it has
no identifiable agricultural systems; furthermore, its extensive system of parcelled
neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre. There is evidence
of a large urban area with an elaborate system of hydraulic infrastructure, which, ontrary to
the prevailing ‘hydraulic city’ theory concerning the rise of Angkor—seems not to be
designed for irrigated rice agriculture. As at Koh Ker, however, the inadequacy of the water-
management system for intensive rice agriculture at Mahendraparvata could either be seen as
an argument against the ‘hydraulic city’ hypothesis, or, alternatively, as an explanation for
the ephemeral nature of Mahendraparvata as the seat of power. The new map of
Mahendraparvata is also relevant to debates about the development of urban form in the
Khmer context. Previous work on urbanism at Angkor has noted two distinct forms: formally
planned, densely inhabited urban centres, characterised by city grids with spaces constrained
by walls and enclosures; and beyond that, low-density, mixed urban-agrarian landscapes with
occasional nodes of high-density occupation..

Mahendraparvata combines features of both, while missing many other elements. It has an
extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central area with a wall or moat; the
central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and there is little evidence for
intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density occupation revolving
around fields and ponds. Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately recognisable as
Angkorian, and identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in its
development of urban form. We note also that the urban network of Phnom Kulen is
embedded within the fabric of Greater Angkor (Figure 1), and remained so for centuries. Yet
its unique morphology remained intact, even as other parts of that settlement complex
developed along distinctly different trajectories (Figure 1). Consistent with other recent work
on tropical urbanism in the Khmer and the Maya homelands, the landscape-scale perspective
afforded by lidar compels us to revisit conventional notions of urban environments as neatly
defined, well-delineated and densely inhabited spaces, and to consider them instead as
components of a messy and complex continuum of urban and rural space.

196
It is clear that Mahendraparvata is the last component of that vast settlement complex to
emerge from beneath the canopy. The work described here effectively draws to a close 150
years of archaeological mapping work in the Greater Angkor region and sets the stage for
more sophisticated spatio-temporal modelling of urban form. By incorporating new data from
Angkorian household archaeology a finer-grained demographic models could be constructed
by the researchers and finally resolve basic questions concerning the extent and population of
Angkor, and how that changed over the centuries.

Indra

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 Chapter 4
The mountains MAHENDRAGIRI IN ORISSA & MAHENDRAPARVATA IN
KAMBUJ PART II OF A SERIE ON MOUNTAINS OF KHMER
DR UDAY DOKRAS

Many rivers in Bali are named after the sacred rivers of India, like Ganga, Sindhu and
Yamuna. The Balinese thought that those rivers really were in Kling (Kalinga). Along with
other rivers, the Mahanadi River flowing in Odisha is considered sacred by the Balinese.
They chant “Om Ganga, Sindhu, Saraswati, Vipasa, Kausiki-nadi, Yamuna, Mahanadi,
srestha Sarayu mahati”. Mahendratanaya, another famous river of Odisha, was also held in
high esteem in Bali. This river originating from the foot of the Mahendragiri mountains falls
in the Bay of Bengal and is regarded as a holy river similarly it is regarded as the most sacred
river in Bali. Even in the Balinese stutis (verses), this river Mahendratanaya is mentioned
along with other sacred rivers. This may indicate that in ancient times some of the emigrants
definitely were from the Mahendra Parvata (Mahendra mountain) area of the Ganjam district
of Odisha.
The stuti or shloka runs as follows:

Om Ganga Sindhu Saraswati su Yamuna

Godavari Narmada Kaveri Sarayu Mahendratanaya
Cornavati Renuka Bhadra Netravati Mahasuranadi
Khyata ca Gandaki Punyah Puranjalah Samudrasahitah
Kurvantu te mangalam

The Mountain The magnificent mountain Mahendragiri in India stands as the dosimali
stone of the provinces of Odisha and Andhra boarder in Ganjam and Gajapati districts of
Odisha and Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. Mahendragiri is 51 kms to the south-west
of Brahmapur, 26 kms from the sea. It is approachable at Tumba from Brahmapur side, at
Kainpur from Parlakhemundi side and at Jangalapadu from Srikakulam side. More easiest
way to ride Mahendragiri mountain is from Paralakhemundi Dist. Headquarter which is about
50 kms enroute Narayanpur, Jiranga, Kanipur and then about 20 kms on the undulating hill
terrain to reach at the flat land on the peak where temples of ancient past with archaeological
remains available. Mahendragiri mountain is also very close to Ramagiri and Gudguda
waterfall.

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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.R.C.Majumdar,HinduColonies in the Far East, Calcutta (Firma
KLMPvt.Ltd.),1991,p.183;R.R.Das ,Kambuja: ABlending of Indian
Cultural Heritage, Kolkata(Education Forum), 2008, p.22;
2. K.M.Srivastava,‘The Hindu temples of Cambodia’, in: G.C.Pande(ed.)
India’sInteractionwithSoutheastAsia(History of Science, Philosophy and
Culture inIndian Civilization, Vol.I, Pt.3, New Delhi
(CentreforStudiesinCivilizations),206,p.322.
3.https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lift/women-who-made-cambodia
1. The Ocean of Churn: How the Indian Ocean Shaped Human History-By Sanjeev
Sanyal

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Mahendraparavata in 3 Countries

The Mountain The magnificent mountain Mahendragiri stands as the dosimali stone of the
provinces of Odisha and Andhra boarder in Ganjam and Gajapati districts of Odisha and
Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. Mahendragiri is 51 kms to the south-west of
Brahmapur, 26 kms from the sea. It is approachable at Tumba from Brahmapur side, at
Kainpur from Parlakhemundi side and at Jangalapadu from Srikakulam side. More easiest
way to ride Mahendragiri mountain is from Paralakhemundi Dist. Headquarter which is about
50 kms enroute Narayanpur, Jiranga, Kanipur and then about 20 kms on the undulating hill

200
terrain to reach at the flat land on the peak where temples of ancient past with archaeological
remains available. Mahendragiri mountain is also very close to Ramagiri and Gudguda
waterfall.

The mountain is important from mythological, religious, historical, archaeological, ethnical,

ecological and tourism points of view. It is a famous centre of pilgrimage since time
immemorial. Every-year during Sivaratri (Feb-March) thousands of pilgrims from
neighboring Ganjam and Srikakulam districts usually visit and gather on the peak for
celebration. The local Adivasis or ethnic people also gather here on that day in large number.
In our recent visit in March 2020 to the site, we witnessed that many people from around
Andhra Pradesh and Odisha throng the place, particularly for ritualistic purpose in the age-old
traditional Parasurama kshetra. But historical evidences are there which reveals the cultural
depth of the place when nowhere temples constructed in entire Odishan region, there
constructed the earliest temple in about 6th-7th century CEwhich again proves the historicity
of the place. Let us have a glimpse of the traditions and history associated as known from the
archaeological sources.

The Mahendra mountain had a strategic location due to which many early kingdoms were
established around and there are references in copperplate grants (charters) and inscriptions
as well as reflected in visible archaeological remains, that all speak a loud about the rich
cultural legacy. Almost all erudite scholars, starting from Pragiter, Pliny, H.C. Ray
Choudhury, B.C.Law and historians and archaeologists of Odisha like D.K.Ganguly, R.P.
Mohaptara, B.K. Ratha and some others have focused some aspects of Mahendra Mountain.

The Mahendra mountain has been eulogized by several hymns and religious texts as a sacred
place and is the abode of Lord Shiva. It is a Kula Parvata along with Maninagesvara,
Malaya, Sahayadri, Parijata, Shuktiman,Vindhya and M a l y a v a n t a . T h e Mahabharata
mentions Mahendra mountain while describing Parasurama’s penance. The story goes that
Parasurama, the youngest son of Jamadagni, exterminated the kshatriyas from the earth
twenty-one times. Then he performed a sacrifice at Ramatirtha with Kasyapa the Upadhyaya
(preceptor). After completion of the sacrifice, he offered the earth as his fees to Kasyapa but
Kasyapa became angry and banished him to the southern seas. As a result Parasurama went to
Mahendragiri and practiced penance and lived for a long time here. It is also said that
Parashurama was meditating on Mahendragiri when Lord Rama broke the sacred bow of
Shiva. Ramayana and Mahabharata also refer this mountain in various contexts. The Vamana,
the Vishnu, the Markandeya, the Agni and the Kunti Temple and Skanda Puranas also refer
Mahendra Parvata. It is in fact that no Purana is complete without mention of the Mahendra
Hill. Hence no doubt that the Cambodian name is inspired by Hindu legands

KAUNDINYA IN ANGKOR: Angkor is replete with Indian Gds, Sanskrit

nomenclature and Sanskrit Inscriptions. According to an article by Kausalya
Santhanam quoting an Eminent archaeologist R.

201
Nagaswamy in.the.Newspaper.Hindu.dated.June.07,2018,
(https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/angkor-wat-a-bridge-to-the-past/
article24103506.ece ) )the maximum number of Sanskrit inscriptions is to be seen in
Cambodia rather than here. Siva linga pratishta is seen in almost every village. A 500-
year old inscription shows how the same astronomical calculation practised in India
was also practised in the Khmer empire (Cambodia). In Khmer, they consecrated the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata — and the chapters were recited daily in the temples.

Some of the interesting inscriptions pertain to Kaundinya who went to Cambodia and
married the ruling princess; their progeny became the rulers later. Whether it is history
or legend we do not know. In Tamil Nadu, Kaundinya was known as “Chozhiyan”
(from the Chola Nadu) during the Sangam period. Kaundinya belonged to a family of
Vedic scholars and was a staunch Saivite. Saivism, Buddhism and Vaishnavism
integrated in Cambodia and a composite culture came to be: Saiva-Vaishnavite-
Buddhism. An inscription (unfortunately damaged) in Cambodia, shows how the King
of Kanchi sent a Brahmana to Cambodia .

Jayavarman II began his reign after being consecrated on the sacred mountain of
Mahendraparvata, known as Phnom Kulen in contemporary Cambodian. It has for long
being considered a holy mountain. However the word and name Mahendraparvata
though refers to a mountain is actually the name of a city founded by Jayavarman II.

S ubmitted by:
Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom of Cambodia to UNESCO

Phnom Kulen: Archeological Site/Ancient Site of Mahendraparvata

Phnom Kulen range is located 30 km northeast of Angkor archaeological site, Siem Reap
province, northwest Cambodia. It is registered since 1992 on the Government of Cambodia’s
tentative list as a World Heritage potential cultural site, with the criteria V and VI. Phnom
Kulen means the Mountain of Leeches in Khmer. According to the old Khmer inscriptions
(and particularly Sdok Kak Thom inscription), the mountain is known as Mahendraparvata,
the mountain of the Great Indra, an ancient city established at the late 8 th-early 9th-centuries,
comprising several temples, the religious remains of this former capital of the Khmer Empire.
The capital was settled on the plateau, located 70 Km to the south of the Dangrek Mountains,
and 30 Km away from the great Tonle Sap Lake. Today, the Phnom Kulen national Park is a
37,375-hectares protected area, located in Banteay Srey, Svay Leu and Varin districts, in
Siem Reap province.
The ancient Mahendraparvata (late 8th-early 9th centuries) on Phnom Kulen is today a partially
forested site containing about 40 brick temples, including one pyramid mountain-temple, as
well as ancient reservoirs, dykes with spillway, channels, ponds, plots, platforms, and earthen
mounds, all part of an ancient urban system.

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Other later archaeological remains are also located on Phnom Kulen such as dozen
prehistoric sites with rock paintings, more than 40 rock shelters occupied by hermits from the
10th century, including 2 sculpted riverbed (Kbal Spean and the One Thousand Linga),
ceramic kilns dated from the 10 th to 11th centuries, a late Angkorian temples such as Prasat
Krol Romeas located at the large natural waterfall (end of the 12 th century), and the large and
very much venerated nowadays Preah Ang Thom reclining Buddha.
Phnom Kulen is located in Northwest Cambodia, such as the others Cambodian Cultural
World Heritage sites: Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambor Prei Kuk. The mountain range is
also at the origin of the Siem Reap River, as well as the other main rivers of Angkor region
(Puok and Roluos). It has a major role for the local aquifer and for the surface water, draining
most of the plateau before reaching Angkor, nourishing its entire hydraulic system, the major
reservoir (baray) and the temples or city moats through a network of channels, and ending in
the great Tonle Sap Lake.
In addition, Phnom Kulen holds a major symbolic significance for the ancient Khmer Empire
as, according to ancient inscription, King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence
from Java in 802 CE from the city of Mahendraparvata. There also, this king initiated the
first Devaraja cult of the king, as stated in Sdok Kak Thom inscription (Michael and Evans,
2018: 118). Among local recent legends, one identifies the mountain with the place where
Buddha stepped a foot, when the entire country was flooded.

Recently, the LiDAR technology has revealed a very large and formally planned network of
oriented earthen dikes forming axis. This urban grid connects previously known, temples, and
the water infrastructures, such as the dams blocking the valleys of the plateau and creating
large reservoirs. Organizing the landscape on a large scale (more than 40 km 2), it also
organizes settlement plots. Most of the temples are single brick towers, attributed to
Jayavarman II reign. One of them stands out, Prasat Rong Chen, the five-tiered pyramid
temple built on the highest point of the southern part of the plateau. Partially constructed
from leveling or soils embankments (first two levels) and laterite blocks (last three levels),
the temple’s top level is accessible by ramps, unique remains of a construction left
unfinished. An unfinished large reservoir, or baray, was also evidenced thanks to the Lidar
technology. Additionally, the Royal Palace of the ancient capital (Banteay) was identified in
2009 (Chevance, 2014) and confirms the presence of the king and his court on the plateau, at
the early 9th century. Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen) is, therefore, very significant as it is
one of the earliest capitals of the Angkor period, which extended from the 9 th to
15th centuries.

Systematic archaeological survey and excavations have identified an array of cultural

features. There are more extensive of a large settlement than the historical record indication.
For instance, later Angkorian inscriptions often refer to Jayavarman’s capital on the plateau,
but no inscriptions dating from that period have been found so far in Phnom Kulen. However,
the significant infrastructures in Phnom Kulen demonstrated the “first engineered landscapes
of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the pre-Angkorian to Angkorian
period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and sociopolitical
organization that would shape the course of the region’s history for the next 500 years”
(Chevance et al, 2019: 1305). Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen, “therefore, represents a
significant milestone in the development of urban from/in the region”.

It is believed that “the grid of major axes provides the overall framework upon which other
patterns of habitation are based and elaborated” (Chevance et al, 2019:1316). According to

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Lidar and following field verification researchers “found hundreds of ponds within the central
area, only two of them interrupt the course of the major axes, the other ponds are scattered
within the city blocks.” Several evidences “suggest that the central grid was laid out before,
or during, the elaboration of the habitation network, and that the two systems functioned
contemporaneously.”

The existence of a royal palace, numerous temples and neighbourhoods, indicate that a royal
court was located on the Kulen plateau. A substantial population living in “an extensive,
well-defined, built-up area” supports it (Chevance et al, 2019:1318). “This area was clearly of
parceled neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre . Prior to
the Mahendraparvata construction, “the evidence shows that settlement patterns in the
Angkor region comprised small, loosely structured urban areas that lacked any formal grid,
had no clear boundaries and appear to have developed organically without a coherent plan.
Beyond the Angkor region, a handful of centres show evidence of enclosing walls, for
instead, at the sixth to eight centuries AD site of Sambor Prei Kuk. On the other hand, these
much smaller in scale than at Mahendraparvata and contain no internal grids. Thus,
Mahendraparvata marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent the first
large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. It would be some time before such a
design would be fully realized again in the Angkor region. The ninth-century AD city of
Hariharalaya, the capital immediately following Mahendraparvata, contains a monumental
core but, overall, evinces an organic layout typical of the early Angkorian ‘open cities’
(Evans 2010; Pottier 2012). It is only in the tenth and eleventh centuries AD that the massive
linear axes and internal frameworks of cities appear again in the Angkor region, and not until
the twelfth century that we have unambiguous evidence for gridded cities achieved on the
same scale as Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016). Hence, the urban network revealed by lidar
and described here seems to form an enormous and remarkably early experiment in formal
urban planning. The urban model that first developed on this mountain plateau, although
sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely adopted straight away, would eventually be
adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor, and become a prototype for high-density
urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1317, 1318).
Mahendraparvata map bring new insights regarding the history of the Angkorian urbanism. It
combines the two previously identified forms (Evans et al, 2013; Evans, 2016), while missing
many other elements. It has an extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central
area with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and
there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density
occupation revolving around fields and ponds. Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately
recognizable as Angkorian, and identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in
its development of urban form .

Moreover, the architecture and art of Phnom Kulen, moreover, indicate the development of a
unique style during the reign of Jayavarman II, at the end of the 8 th century. The sandstones
decorative architectural elements (columns and lintels) and the sculptures progressed to a
unique and a new “Kulen style”. This style illustrates a transition from the previous pre-
angkorian styles to the future angkorian and post-angkorian styles.

After this early capital of the Khmer Empire was abandoned as the siege of power, the court
moved from Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen to (Hariharalaya in Rolous, 15 Km east of
the future Angkor). Phnom Kulen site continued to be considered as a sacred mountain and
later archaeological sites show, it was never completely abandoned. Epigraphic evidence
indicated that Kings consecrated sculpture riverbed (Kbal Spean) and later temples and

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particular infrastructures such as channels, stairways, ceramic kilns or mounds fields
evidence an occupation of the Phnom Kulen during the angkorian period. Nowadays, several
Phnom Kulen archaeological sites still hold a sacred value for Cambodians and are the
witnesses of an important worship by Khmer people, coming from the entire country. Monks
and modern hermits often reused hermit’s sites, insuring a sacred continuity, and numerous
legends, folktales, and narratives continue to be associated by the local communities to the
archaeological sites.
Finally, Phnom Kulen is also known to host the ancient quarries, where the sandstone blocks
were extracted. From Phnom Kulen site, a complex and long network of channels and parallel
raised earthen road allowed their transportation to Angkor, to build the prestigious religious
monument, from the 10th century. Phnom Kulen ancient quarrying industry, known from the
late 19th century, was developed on a very large scale, recently revealed by the Lidar (Evans,
2017). It has left numerous localized pits with high stepped surfaces forming a complex
network of stone exploitation.

Justification of Outstanding Universal Value

The Phnom Kulen will be presented as an extension of Angkor site, in accordance with the
guideline for the implementation of the 1972 convention. The proposed tentative list meets
criteria ii, iv, and v for the inclusion of Mahendraparvata on the World Heritage List, as a
cultural site. There are three main outstanding universal value of Mahendraparvata/Phnom
Kulen tentative list, as a first unique urban city, a living cultural heritage, and as the
sandstone source for the construction of the Angkor temples (quarries location).
Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen has recently discovered an immense, formally planned
urban network, comprising axis and linking, temples, and water infrastructure (Chevance et
al, 2019). The majority of temples from site are primarily built of brick, laterite, and also
dates from the Jayavarman II period (Michael and Evans, 2018: 121). Together with the
recently identified Royal Palace Banteay (Chevance, 2014), they confirmed the presence of
this early Angkorian capital.
Recently, the LiDAR mission identified an additional main piece of hydrological
infrastructure in this area. The East-West orientated Thnal Srae Thbong dike and the 1 Km
long Thnal Mrech dike (Pepper Dyke), with several 10 th to 11th centuries ceramic kiln sites,
are part of a very large unfinished reservoir of baray. This last feature completes, together
with the mountain-temple and the Royal Palace, the main markers of an angkorian capital.
They are integrated in the urban network and the whole indicates a significant evidence for
the early Angkorian period to setup infrastructure and city.

CHAPTER 5

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 The Complex Architecture of Koh Ker- and its
history

Really impressive too are the shrines with

the two-meter 6 ft 7 in high lingas. Under
Jayavarman IV, the style of Koh Ker was
developed and the art of sculpture reached
a pinnacle.

Location Preah Vihear, Cambodia

Coordinates 13°46′30″N 104°32′50″E

Type Archaeological site

Builder Jayavarman IV

Founded by Jayavaraman IV , Koh Ker was the Capital of the Khmer Empire for a very brief
period from the year 928 to 944 AD. In this short time; some very spectacular buildings and
immense sculptures were constructed. Left to the the jungle for nearly a millenniumand
mostly un-restored; this great archaeological site has been rarely visited until very recently.
The ancient Khmer city is in a distant jungle location with up to a hundred ruined temples
including a huge stepped pyramid; the largest in the region. More ancient temples are being
found in the jungle; so there is a true sense of discovery here.Note: an updated and revised
page with more images will be added soon; the page on the old site is still here with a
naturally-undulating topography of Koh Ker

Koh Ker Prasat Kaôh Ké [praːsaːt kɑh keː]) is a remote archaeological site in
northern Cambodia about 120 kilometres (75 mi) away from Siem Reap and the ancient site
of Angkor. It is a jungle filled region that is sparsely populated. More than 180 sanctuaries
were found in a protected area of 81 square kilometres (31 sq mi). Only about two dozen
monuments can be visited by tourists because most of the sanctuaries are hidden in the forest
and the whole area is not fully demined.
Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of the Khmer empire. In inscriptions the
town is mentioned as Lingapura (city of lingams) or Chok Gargyar (translated as city
of glance or as iron tree forest).

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Under the reign of the kings Jayavarman IV and Harshavarman II Koh Ker was briefly the
capital of the whole empire (928–944 AD). Jayavarman IV enforced an ambitious building
program. An enormous water-tank and about forty temples were constructed under his rule.
The most significant temple-complex, a double sanctuary (Prasat Thom/Prang), follows a
linear plan and not a concentric one like most of the temples of the Khmer kings.
Unparalleled is the 36-metre (118 ft)-high seven-tiered pyramid, which most probably served
as state temple of Jayavarman IV. Really impressive too are the shrines with the two-meter
6 ft 7 in high lingas.
Under Jayavarman IV, the style of Koh Ker was developed and the art of sculpture reached a
pinnacle. A great variety of statues were chiseled. Because of its remoteness, the site of Koh
Ker was plundered many times by looters. Sculptures of Koh Ker can be found not only in
different museums, but also in private collections. Masterpieces of Koh Ker are offered
occasionally at auctions. These pieces, in present times, are considered stolen art.
The site is about two and half hours away from Siem Reap, and guests can stay in the nearby
village of Seyiong, 10 km from the temples where there is a number of guests houses.
Travellers can also stay in Koh Ker Jungle Lodge Homestay, a sustainable tourism project
built in the village of Koh Ker in 2009, by booking in advance of arrival. The Koh Ker
community in May 2019 open a basic wooden community rest house in the village.
Since 1992 the site of Koh Ker is on the UNESCO tentative world heritage list.
Location: Koh Ker is situated between the southern slopes of the Dangrek mountains, the
Kulen mountains (Phnom Kulen) in the south-west, and the Tbeng mountain (Phnom Tbeng,
near Tbeng Meanchey) in the east. Most parts of the hilly ground are covered by jungle, but
most of the trees shed their leaves seasonally. The city of Koh Ker was on the most important
strategic route of the Khmer empire. Coming from Angkor and Beng Mealea to Koh Ker this
road led to Prasat Preah Vihear and from there to Phimai in Thailand and Wat Phu in Laos .
The region of Koh Ker is relatively dry. Numerous water-tanks and canals were built during
the 9th and the 10th century to ensure the water supply. These days water is pumped up from
a depth of 30 to 40 metres (98 to 131 ft) meters

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SHIVA TEMPLE of Koh Ker/ Ancient script from the ruins of Koh Ker
Jayavarman IV
Jayavarman IV ruled from 928 to 941 at Koh Ker. He was a believed to have been the local
king at this remote site, possibly his homeland, before he became king of the whole empire.
That could explain why he had his residence at Koh Ker and not at Roluos (Hariharalaya) or
at Yashodharapura (Angkor) like the kings before him. Some historians think that
Jayavarman IV was an usurper; but, the majority of them believe that he was a legitimate
ruler who could ascend to the throne because he married a half-sister of king Yasovarman I
(889 – 900). What is certain is that the two sons of Yasovarman I (Harshavarman I, who
ruled from 900 to 922 and Isanavarman II, who ruled from 922 to 925?) had no children. In
the short time that Jayavarman IV reigned in Koh Ker, an ambitious building program was
realised. That was only possible because of a restrictive system of raising taxes as seen on
inscriptions found at the site. About 40 temples, the unique seven-tiered pyramid and a huge
baray (water-reservoir) were built. Under Jayavarman IV, the Koh Ker-style was developed
and the art of sculpture reached a pinnacle.
Harshavarman II
After the death of Jayavarman IV, the designated prince did not take his place. Harshavarman
II (another son of Jayavarman IV) claimed the throne. Like his father, he ruled at Koh Ker
(941 – 944) but after three years he died; likely not due to natural causes. None of the temples
at Koh Ker can be ascribed to him. His follower on the throne, a cousin of his, returned
Roluos (Hariharalaya) to the seat of power.

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Before Koh Ker became capital of the Khmer empire (928 AD), numerous sanctuaries with
Shiva-lingas existed already. Koh Ker was a cult site where Shiva had been worshipped a
long time. Also Jayavarman IV was an ardent worshipper of this Hindu god. As later kings
(whose residence was not in Koh Ker) changed from Hinduism to Buddhism they gave orders
to make the necessary adjustments at their temples. Because of its remoteness, the sanctuaries
at Koh Ker were spared from these interventions.
Several inscriptions were found which mention Koh Ker as capital of the empire in Siem
Reap, Battambang, Takeo and Kampong Cham (city). From inscriptions discovered at Koh
Ker, it is estimated that more than ten thousand people lived at Koh Ker when it was the
capital (928 – 944 AD). The inscriptions explain how manpower was organised: taxes in
form of rice were raised in the whole country and served to provide for the workers who
came from different provinces. An inscription at Prasat Damrei says that the shrine on the top
of the state temple (Prang) houses a lingam of about 4.5 m (14 ft 9 in) and that the erection of
this Shiva-symbol gave a lot of problems". A Sanskrit inscription at Prasat Thom gives
evidence of the consecration of a Shiva-lingam 921 AD which was worshipped under the
name of Tribhuvaneshvara ("Lord of the Threefold World").

Statue of Brahma, Koh Ker style, 925-950 ca., Musée Guimet, Paris.
A R C H I T E C T U R E

PYRAMID: Prasat Prang, Koh Ker's landmark, is a 62 m wide and 35m high sandstone
pyramid with seven levels. It is integrated into the linear layout of Prasat Thom. Prasat Prang
is the Khmer monument that seems to be most similar to mesoamerican step pyramids. Most
probably, it was the place of King Jayavarman IV's state idol, the Lingam
Tribhuvaneshvaram mentioned above, since an inscription at Prasat Damrei
mentions that a Lingam of about 4.5 m was erected on top of a Prang.

Under Jayavarman IV the art of sculpture reached a pinnacle. Statues in the style of Koh Ker
belong to the most celebrated of Asia because of their vividness and expressiveness.

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They fetch record-breaking amounts on auctions. Many of the Koh Ker sculptures were
stolen.
Most of the remaining statues are in museums and private collections now.
None of the immense, expressive and beautiful sculptures are left at the site. Numerous of
them were stolen and are standing now in museums and also in private collections. Some
statues were put away by government organizations to protect them from looters. Many
masterpieces of Koh Ker are now in the collection of the National Museum in Phnom Penh.
In late 2011, the remote location drew media attention worldwide when Sotheby's attempted
to sell a statue of a mythical Khmer Empire warrior. In March 2012, the US and Cambodian
governments filed court documents to seize the statue that they purport was illegally removed
from the site. A twin statue, also linked to the Koh Ker site, is on display at the Norton Simon
Museum in Pasadena, California.
The center of the ancient city was in the north-east corner of the baray (water-tank).
Inscriptions say at least ten thousand inhabitants lived there during the rule of Jayavarman
IV. Past researchers believed a square wall with a side length of 1.2 km (1,312 yd) protected
the town. But new research indicates that the linear structures found in this part of Koh Ker
were dykes of ancient canals. Concerning the wooden buildings of the Khmer time no
artefacts are found.
Laterite, sandstone and brick were used as construction materials in Koh Ker. Laterite and
sandstone of excellent quality were quarried in great quantities in the region of Koh Ker, so
the transport of the stones to the site was no problem. The bricks produced were small,
regular and very solid. A thin layer of organic mortar of unknown formula was used, possibly
some form of plant sap. After more than a millennium the brick sanctuaries in Koh Ker are in
a much better condition than the laterite ones. The roofs of some temples in Koh Ker had a
wood construction and were covered with tiles. In these monuments, holes for the wooden
girders are found. The main sanctuary (the temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang) was not
standing in the middle of the ancient city.
Rahal
The huge Baray (water-tank) called Rahal is the largest object at the site of the ancient
capital Koh Ker. Its length is about 1,200 m (1,312 yd) and its breath about 560 m (612 yd).
The water-tank has three dams covered by steps of laterite. The orientation of the Rahal is not
from east to west like the huge water-reservoirs in Angkor; it follows an orientation of North
15° West. Because the most important monuments at Koh Ker have the same orientation it is
thought that the Baray was constructed first and the rest of the structures were laid out around
it. The Rahal was carved out partly of the stone ground but it is not clear if a natural hollow
was the reason for its orientation. These days most parts of the Baray are dried out and
covered by grass. Some puddles can be seen in the corner next to the double-sanctuary.
Trapeang Andong Preng
200 m (219 yd) south of the double-sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang is a basin dug into the earth
with a length of 40 m (44 yd). It has steps of laterite on all sides. During the rainy season the
water is standing to a depth of 7 m (23 ft 0 in). The Trapeang Andong Preng does not belong
to a temple, but it could have been a royal bath, because near this place was once the wooden
palace of the king.[1]: 32
Trapeang Khnar

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View of the seven tiered pyramid at Koh Ker
Complex of the double sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang
Linear plan
The complex of the main monument in Koh Ker has a linear plan and is about 800 metres
(875 yd) long. Its orientation is E15°N, that is parallel to the Baray. The parking area cuts the
complex in two parts. On the east side of the parking are two structures, called palaces. On
the west side are the other monuments. They are standing behind the restaurants and are from
east to west: an immense entrance pavilion, two towers, a red brick entrance-tower (Prasat
Krahom), a surrounding wall with two courts (in the eastern court is the temple-complex
Prasat Thom with a moat, in the western court stands the seven tiered pyramid,
named Prang). Behind the enclosure is an artificial hill, the so-called Tomb of the White
Elephant. Except the Prasat Krahom and the Prang (pyramid). This temple-complex is in a
bad condition.
Palaces
At the east side of the parking area are two structures the so-called palaces. Each consists of
four rectangular buildings surrounding a court. All eight buildings have three rooms, some
have a patio with pillars. Possibly these palaces served as meditation- or prayer-rooms for the
king or nobles.
Entrance pavilion and laterite towers
Between the palaces and the closest monument is a distance of 185 metres (607 ft). On the
left side of the parking area (behind the restaurants) is the entrance pavilion made of
sandstone. It stands 45 metres (148 ft) away from the double sanctuary and has a cruciform
ground-plan. The crossbar is 60 metres (197 ft) long; the stringer has a length of 30 metres
(98 ft). Parallel to the cross-bar are two halls. Directly behind the entrance-pavilion are the
ruins of two huge laterite towers.
Prasat Krahom
This outer complex in the row of compounds is called Prasat Krahom (or Prasat Kraham), the
"Red Temple". Only the concentric complex on the island is Prasat Thom in a narrow sense.
The red brick tower of Prasat Krahom is a temple on its own and a Gopuram gate for Prasat
Thom at the same time. Fragments of a huge Shiva statue were found in this red tower, the
hands are exhibited now in the National Museum in Phnom Penh. The alley mentioned above
begins here and leads across the dam. Prasat Thom (in a narrow sense) is then reached by a
Naga-flanked causeway.

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Prasat Krahom was once known for its carved lions, but almost none of them remain
today.The core structure of Prasat Thom, on that island inside the moat, consists of nine
towers arranged in 2 rows on a single platform. Long narrow buildings of the second
enclosure almost form a gallery. A Sanskrit inscription at Prasat Thom mentions the
consecration of a Shiva-Lingam called Tribhuvaneshvara ("Tree World's Lord") in 921, this
means, already before Jayavarman IV ascended the throne and Koh Ker became the capital.
This is remarkable as such a Lingam usually was identified with a king and symbolized
imperial power.

Behind the ruins of the entrance-pavilion and the laterite towers is a red brick tower, called
Prasat Krahom (krahom = red), which gives entrance to the enclosed monuments. It has a
cruciform plan, is in a good condition and once housed a statue of the Dancing Shiva with
five heads and ten arms. The sculpture had a height of 3.50 metres (11 ft 6 in), but is now
broken completely. A fragment of a hand of 0.5 metres (20 in) can be seen in the National
Museum in Phnom Penh.
Outer enclosure
The outer enclosure has a length of 328 metres (1,076 ft) and a breadth of 151 metres (495 ft)
An additional wall divides the inner area in two. In the eastern court are a moat and the
temple-complex Prasat Thom; in the western court is the pyramid, called Prang. The eastern
court with a length of 153 metres (502 ft) is nearly square, the western court has a length of
171 metres (561 ft).
Moat
The moat in the eastern court is about 47 metres (154 ft) wide. It borders the Prasat Thom.
Lined by trees it looks very picturesque. Two dams, one at the east side, the other at the west
side are leading to the ground within the moat. The dams are flanked by Naga-balustrades.
On the eastern dam between the Nagas was additionally a colonnade with pillars. Behind
each Naga of the east side was standing a huge Garuda.
Prasat Aob Neang ; The next single tower at the circuit is called Prasat Aob Neang. It is a
Prasat tower built of bricks. The bricks used in Koh Ker were comparatively small and of
excellent quality. As in the case of Angkor, the layers of organic mortar (of an unknown
formular) are almost invisible. In the course of time, brick sanctuaries in Koh Ker proved to
be more stable than the laterite constructions.

Prasat Thom
The principal structure of Koh Ker is Prasat Thom, buiIt already before Koh Ker became the
capital. It forms a prestigious procession way towards the pyramid called Prang. The alley
connects two complexes, the first one being an enlarged entrance, the inner one an ensemble
of nine Prasat towers surrounded by an impressive moat. The next compound includes the
temple pyramid Prasat Prang. This layout is not the usual concentric one, it is linear. This
means, the complexes are arrayed in a line, one after another instead of inner courtyards
surrounded by outer ones. A few decades later on, parts of this layout were copied by the
most lovely Khmer temple, Banteay Srei.More accurately, Prasat Thom (as well as Banteay
Srei) can also be described as a combination of linear and concentric layout, since Prasat
Thom shows a quite common scheme of three concentric enclosures, too. The first (inner)
and the second enclosure walls are on the artificial island, the second one runs along the wide
moat, which is surrounded by the third (outer) enclosure wall. In this perspective, the
complex outside the temple island can be interpreted as an enormously enlarged Gopuram

212
entrance gate of that third enclosure wall.

Probably some parts of the Prasat Thom including the moat and the 1. (inner) enclosure were
built before 921 AD. The sanctuary was expanded under the reign of Jayavarman IV and has
now two surrounding walls inside of the moat. The first wall (inner wall) is made of brick;
the second wall (outer wall) with a length of 66 m (217 ft) and a breath of 55 m (180 ft) is
made of laterite. Two doors are in the east and in the west. The doors of the second wall have
a cruciform plan. The doors of the first wall are smaller and not of cruciform layout. The
plane between the first and second wall is completely overbuilt with rectangular structures,
possibly later additions. In the center court is the sanctuary and opposite it are two so-called
libraries. Behind the sanctuary on a rectangular platform stand nine towers in two rows (one
of five, one four towers). Twelve smaller prasats in groups of three surround the platform. All
21 towers once housed lingas.
Prang
The seven-tiered pyramid called Prang was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV.
Construction of the sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square
building measures 62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform
stood a huge lingam probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons.
Inscriptions say that it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am
probably stood in a shrine which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft)
high. On the north side of the pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. The original
stairs are in a very bad condition as is the bamboo-ladder which was constructed in the 20th
century, so it is forbidden to climb to the top of the pyramid via this route. There is however a
new staircase which can be used to ascend to the top tit of the pyramid. Concerning the
seventh tier some scientists say, this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides
beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made. There is just one Khmer temple which resembles the
temple Baksei Chamkrong in Angkor. But the four-tiered monument there is much smaller
and has a staircase on each of the four sides. On the platform on the top of the Baksei
Chamkrong is a prasat in a good condition.

Tomb of the White Elephant

Behind the court with the seven-tiered pyramid is an artificial hill of exact circle form
covered with trees. It is named Tomb of the White elephant. "The white Elephant" is a very
well-known legend in southeast Asia. There are different theories about the hill. Some say
that this structure could be the foundation of a second pyramid. Others say that it could be the
grave of Jayavarman IV. The steep path leading to the top of the hill is closed now because of
security reasons.[1]: 7–8
Sanctuaries along the access road
Prasat Pram

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Prasat Neang Khmau showing fire-scarred walls/Prasat Pram
The most south sanctuary of this group is the Prasat Pram on the west side of the road. A
small (300 metres (328 yd)) long path leads to the monument. It has five towers or prasats
(pram = five). Three brick towers stand in a row on the same platform. They face east. The
central one is a bit taller than the others. In each of these prasats, once stood a lingam. These
and the beautifully carved lintels were looted. Two prasats (faced west) are standing in front
of the platform. One is built of brick and has diamond-shaped holes in the upper part. This
fact indicates that this tower once served as a fire sanctuary (fire cults were very important
during the era of the Khmer kings). The other building is small, made of laterite and (in
comparison with the brick towers) in bad condition. The bricks of small regular size are held
together with an organic mortar of unknown composition (plant sap?). Originally the towers
were covered by white stucco; remains of it can still be seen. Two of the towers are
pictorially covered by roots. The five towers are surrounded by an enclosure. The collapsed
entrance door (gopuram) is at the east side. Two artefacts of the Prasat Pram can be seen in
the National Museum in Phnom Penh: A damaged lion statue and fragments of a standing
four-armed Vishnu.
Prasat Neang Khmau
The next structure along the Koh Ker circuit road is Prasat Neang Khmau on the right side.
The temple got its name "Temple of the Black Lady" from the intriguing dark bluish colour
of its laterite. The colour is the result of an oxidation process. The single tower belongs to a
complex of approximately 50 metres square, enclosed by laterite wallsLocated 12.5 km
(7.8 mi) to the south of the main Koh Ker pyramid and built of sandstone and brick. [9] An
early 10th century temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva. The temple's fire damaged
(black) outer surface probably gave it its name (Neang Khmau means the "Black Lady" in
Khmer).
The name of the temple is also said mean "Black Virgin" and legend says it might once have
been heaven to Kali, the Dark Goddess of Destruction.

Another legend about the temple says that many years ago a powerful king Preah Bat Sorya
Teyong lived at the Chiso mountain. One day his daughter Neang Khmao, went to Tonle
Protron and met a handsome man, Bandit Srey, who instantly fell in love with her and who
used magic to make her fall in love with him. When the king heard about this he ordered his
daughter be exiled and he built two temples for her to live in. Whilst in exile she fell in love

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with a monk who subsequently fell in love with her and gave up being a monk to live with
the princess in the temple since which it has been known as Neang Khmao Temple.

Prasat Bak
More north than the Prasat Neang Khmau and on the west side of the road is the Prasat Bak, a
small square sanctuary built of laterite; one side measures only 5 m (16 ft). The temple which
is in a very bad condition today housed till 1960 a colossal statue of Ganesha (Ganesha is a
Hindu god, son of Shiva and Uma. He is depicted with a human body and an elephant's
head). It is known, that the sculpture with the sitting Ganesha now is in a collection outside of
Cambodia.
Prasat Chen
This sanctuary is the most north of this group and lies too on the west side of the street. It has
two enclosures. The main entrance door (now collapsed) was itself a sanctuary with a square
central room (one side measured 4 m (13 ft)). Three laterite towers (partially collapsed) stand
on the same platform. In front of them are the remains of two brick libraries. The statue of the
two fighting monkey kings Sugriva and Valin (figures of the Hindu epic Ramayana) was
found at this site and is now in the National Museum in Phnom Penh. A fragment of a multi-
armed statue of Vishnu was found in front of the tower in the middle. In this temple are five

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inscriptions. They mention the names of all the numerous peoples connected to the temple
site and their function.
Monuments along the ring-road

Ruins of Prasat Krachap

Prasat Balang (Prasat Leung Moi)
The Prasat Balang is the first of three Linga-Shrines standing along the ring-road. It is a
square laterite building standing on a platform and has one doorway and an open roof. In the
sanctuary is an impressive lingam standing on yoni. The phallus-symbol is about 2 m (7 ft)
high, has a diameter of nearly 1 m (39 in) and a weight of several tons. Together with the
yoni it was carved out of the bedrock at this place. The lingam is in a good condition. The
yoni is about 1 m (39 in) high and looks like an altar. On all four sides once were carved
reliefs. In each of the four corners stood a beautiful chiselled Garudu with raised arms giving
the impression these mythical figures would bear the yoni. Unfortunately the reliefs and the
Garudas were looted. Around the Yoni there is just a small space giving room for some
priests to perform the prescribed rituals. The water they put on the lingam became holy by
touching the symbol of Shiva, run down and was collected in a ditch of the yoni. Then via a
spout (with is still intact) it flowed to the outside of the shrine where believers could touch
the blessed water.[1]: 26
Prasat Thneng (Prasat Leung Pee)
The Prasat Thneng is very similar to the Prasat Balang. Unfortunately looters tried to hack
away the impressive lingam but were not successful. A notch of about a depth of half a meter
(20 in) is left but the Shicva-symbol is still standing unshakeable at its place on the damaged
yoni.
Leung Bye-Prasat Leung Bon
Prasat Andong Kuk (Prasat Sralau)
A Buddhist temple built late 12th century/early 13th century in the reign of Jayavarman VII,
it was one of more than 100 of hospital-sanctuaries he built. The modern name Sralau refers
to a species of tree.
Prasat Krachap.
Prasat Krachap is in a desolate condition. Nonetheless, it is interesting because of the density
of its
structures, its well preserved enclosure walls, many stone carvings and inscriptions.
They inform about the date of consecration, 928. Originally, Prasat Krachap had five Prasat
towers in quincunx order.Prasat Leung is a group of three huge single Prasats, all of them
housing Shiva Lingas. The largest is called Prasat Leung Moi or Prasat Balang. It enshrines
one of the largest and best preserved Lingam found in Cambodia. The phallus on top of a 1m
Yoni, which is the stylized female genital, is 2 m high and nearly 1 m wide. The Lingam and
Yoni were carved out of the bedrock.To the south of Prasat Leung and Prasat Thom, the
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1,200 m long and 550 m wide Baray reservoir called Rahal, now dried up, was right in the
centre of the city. The laterite embankments are the largest structure in Koh Ker.Sometimes
written Prasat Kra Chap, today the site has well preserved entrance gate and the ruins of 5
towers arranged in a quincunx. From inscriptions around the doors it has been established
that the temple was dedicated in 928 to Tribhuvanadeva, a linga representation of Shiva.
.
Prasat Bantaey Pee Chean.

Banteay Peechean
.
Prasat Chrap.
Prasat Chrap has two concentric enclosures. In the centre, three tall laterite towers stand in a
row,
all of them lost their facades. There are only remnants of two more brick Prasats (or maybe
library buildings) facing the principal group.Prasat Banteay Pee Chean, dedicated in 937, is
one of the most monuments of Koh Ker. Though in ruins it is worth discovering. The central
laterite tower was surrounded by many brick buildings, you can see nice lintel carvings on the
front door of a library. Two enclosure walls with Gopuram entrance gates surround the
central complex.
A temple comprising 3 towers built of laterite. Today all towers are badly damaged; the
interiors with fire damage and the west facades destroyed suggesting damage was deliberate
or due to a common design flaw. There are no surviving inscriptions to date the temple nor to
identify which gods it was dedicated to.
Prasat Damrei.
A small path leads from the ring-road to the Prasat Damrei (damrei = elephant). This
sanctuary has an enclosure and stands on a high platform. On each of its four sides is a
staircase with about ten steps. Eight stone lions once flanked the stairs but only one remains
in its original place. A beautiful elephant sculpture once stood at each of the four corners of
the platform but only two remain. The sanctuary is built of brick and is in good condition. A
Sanskrit inscription found at the temple offers evidence that an erstwhile lingam was once
erected on the top of the pyramid (Prang),

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Archaeological Landscape of Koh Ker, Northwest Cambodia
Damian Evans,Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient
Vol. 97/98 (2010-2011), pp. 91-150 (60 pages),Published By: École française d’Extrême-Orient

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 Phnom Kulen: Archeological Site/Ancient Site of Mahendraparvata-Delegation of the
Kingdom of Cambodia to UNESCO
Description
Phnom Kulen range is located 30 km northeast of Angkor archaeological site, Siem Reap
province, northwest Cambodia. It is registered since 1992 on the Government of Cambodia’s
tentative list as a World Heritage potential cultural site, with the criteria V and VI. Phnom
Kulen means the Mountain of Leeches in Khmer. According to the old Khmer inscriptions
(and particularly Sdok Kak Thom inscription), the mountain is known as Mahendraparvata,
the mountain of the Great Indra, an ancient city established at the late 8 th-early 9th-centuries,
comprising several temples, the religious remains of this former capital of the Khmer Empire.
The capital was settled on the plateau, located 70 Km to the south of the Dangrek Mountains,
and 30 Km away from the great Tonle Sap Lake. Today, the Phnom Kulen national Park is a
37,375-hectares protected area, located in Banteay Srey, Svay Leu and Varin districts, in
Siem Reap province.

The ancient Mahendraparvata (late 8th-early 9th centuries) on Phnom Kulen is today a partially
forested site containing about 40 brick temples, including one pyramid mountain-temple, as
well as ancient reservoirs, dykes with spillway, channels, ponds, plots, platforms, and earthen
mounds, all part of an ancient urban system.

Other later archaeological remains are also located on Phnom Kulen such as dozen
prehistoric sites with rock paintings, more than 40 rock shelters occupied by hermits from the
10th century, including 2 sculpted riverbed (Kbal Spean and the One Thousand Linga),
ceramic kilns dated from the 10 th to 11th centuries, a late Angkorian temples such as Prasat
Krol Romeas located at the large natural waterfall (end of the 12 th century), and the large and
very much venerated nowadays Preah Ang Thom reclining Buddha.

Phnom Kulen is located in Northwest Cambodia, such as the others Cambodian Cultural
World Heritage sites: Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambor Prei Kuk. The mountain range is
also at the origin of the Siem Reap River, as well as the other main rivers of Angkor region
(Puok and Roluos). It has a major role for the local aquifer and for the surface water, draining
most of the plateau before reaching Angkor, nourishing its entire hydraulic system, the major
reservoir (baray) and the temples or city moats through a network of channels, and ending in
the great Tonle Sap Lake.

In addition, Phnom Kulen holds a major symbolic significance for the ancient Khmer Empire
as, according to ancient inscription, King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence
from Java in 802 CE from the city of Mahendraparvata. There also, this king initiated the
first Devaraja cult of the king, as stated in Sdok Kak Thom inscription. Among local recent
legends, one identifies the mountain with the place where Buddha stepped a foot, when the
entire country was flooded.

Recently, the LiDAR technology has revealed a very large and formally planned network of
oriented earthen dikes forming axis. This urban grid connects previously known, temples, and
the water infrastructures, such as the dams blocking the valleys of the plateau and creating
large reservoirs. Organizing the landscape on a large scale (more than 40 km 2), it also

218
organizes settlement plots. Most of the temples are single brick towers, attributed to
Jayavarman II reign. One of them stands out, Prasat Rong Chen, the five-tiered pyramid
temple built on the highest point of the southern part of the plateau. Partially constructed
from leveling or soils embankments (first two levels) and laterite blocks (last three levels),
the temple’s top level is accessible by ramps, unique remains of a construction left
unfinished. An unfinished large reservoir, or baray, was also evidenced thanks to the Lidar
technology. Additionally, the Royal Palace of the ancient capital (Banteay) was identified in
2009 (Chevance, 2014) and confirms the presence of the king and his court on the plateau, at
the early 9th century. Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen) is, therefore, very significant as it is
one of the earliest capitals of the Angkor period, which extended from the 9 th to
15th centuries.

Systematic archaeological survey and excavations have identified an array of cultural

features. There are more extensive of a large settlement than the historical record indication.
For instance, later Angkorian inscriptions often refer to Jayavarman’s capital on the plateau,
but no inscriptions dating from that period have been found so far in Phnom Kulen. However,
the significant infrastructures in Phnom Kulen demonstrated the “first engineered landscapes
of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the pre-Angkorian to Angkorian
period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and sociopolitical
organization that would shape the course of the region’s history for the next 500 years”
(Chevance et al, 2019: 1305). Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen, “therefore, represents a
significant milestone in the development of urban from/in the region”

It is believed that “the grid of major axes provides the overall framework upon which other
patterns of habitation are based and elaborated” (Chevance et al, 2019:1316). According to
Lidar and following field verification researchers “found hundreds of ponds within the central
area, only two of them interrupt the course of the major axes, the other ponds are scattered
within the city blocks” . Several evidences “suggest that the central grid was laid out before,
or during, the elaboration of the habitation network, and that the two systems functioned
contemporaneously
The existence of a royal palace, numerous temples and neighbourhoods, indicate that a royal
court was located on the Kulen plateau. A substantial population living in “an extensive,
well-defined, built-up area” supports it . “This area was clearly of parceled neighbourhoods
indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre (Prior to the Mahendraparvata
construction, “the evidence shows that settlement patterns in the Angkor region comprised
small, loosely structured urban areas that lacked any formal grid, had no clear boundaries and
appear to have developed organically without a coherent plan. Beyond the Angkor region, a
handful of centres show evidence of enclosing walls, for instead, at the sixth to eight
centuries AD site of Sambor Prei Kuk. On the other hand, these much smaller in scale than at
Mahendraparvata and contain no internal grids. Thus, Mahendraparvata marks an important
point of departure, and appears to represent the first large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the
Khmer world. It would be some time before such a design would be fully realized again in
the Angkor region. The ninth-century AD city of Hariharalaya, the capital immediately
following Mahendraparvata, contains a monumental core but, overall, evinces an organic
layout typical of the early Angkorian ‘open cities’.

It is only in the tenth and eleventh centuries AD that the massive linear axes and internal
frameworks of cities appear again in the Angkor region (Gaucher 2017), and not until the
twelfth century that we have unambiguous evidence for gridded cities achieved on the same

219
scale as Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016). Hence, the urban network revealed by lidar and
described here seems to form an enormous and remarkably early experiment in formal urban
planning. The urban model that first developed on this mountain plateau, although sparsely
inhabited at the time and not widely adopted straight away, would eventually be adapted to
the low-lying floodplains of Angkor, and become a prototype for high-density urban centres
at the height of the Khmer Empire” .

Mahendraparvata map bring new insights regarding the history of the Angkorian urbanism. It
combines the two previously identified forms (Evans et al, 2013; Evans, 2016), while missing
many other elements. It has an extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central
area with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and
there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density
occupation revolving around fields and ponds. Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately
recognizable as Angkorian, and identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in
its development of urban form.

Moreover, the architecture and art of Phnom Kulen, moreover, indicate the development of a
unique style during the reign of Jayavarman II, at the end of the 8 th century. The sandstones
decorative architectural elements (columns and lintels) and the sculptures progressed to a
unique and a new “Kulen style”. This style illustrates a transition from the previous pre-
angkorian styles to the future angkorian and post-angkorian styles.
After this early capital of the Khmer Empire was abandoned as the siege of power, the court
moved from Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen to (Hariharalaya in Rolous, 15 Km east of
the future Angkor). Phnom Kulen site continued to be considered as a sacred mountain and
later archaeological sites show, it was never completely abandoned. Epigraphic evidence
indicated that Kings consecrated sculpture riverbed (Kbal Spean) and later temples and
particular infrastructures such as channels, stairways, ceramic kilns or mounds fields
evidence an occupation of the Phnom Kulen during the angkorian period. Nowadays, several
Phnom Kulen archaeological sites still hold a sacred value for Cambodians and are the
witnesses of an important worship by Khmer people, coming from the entire country. Monks
and modern hermits often reused hermit’s sites, insuring a sacred continuity, and numerous
legends, folktales, and narratives continue to be associated by the local communities to the
archaeological sites.
Finally, Phnom Kulen is also known to host the ancient quarries, where the sandstone blocks
were extracted. From Phnom Kulen site, a complex and long network of channels and parallel
raised earthen road allowed their transportation to Angkor, to build the prestigious religious
monument, from the 10th century. Phnom Kulen ancient quarrying industry, known from the
late 19th century, was developed on a very large scale, recently revealed by the Lidar (Evans,
2017). It has left numerous localized pits with high stepped surfaces forming a complex
network of stone exploitation.

Justification of Outstanding Universal Value

The Phnom Kulen will be presented as an extension of Angkor site, in accordance with the
guideline for the implementation of the 1972 convention. The proposed tentative list meets
criteria ii, iv, and v for the inclusion of Mahendraparvata on the World Heritage List, as a
cultural site. There are three main outstanding universal value of Mahendraparvata/Phnom
Kulen tentative list, as a first unique urban city, a living cultural heritage, and as the
sandstone source for the construction of the Angkor temples (quarries location).

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Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen has recently discovered an immense, formally planned
urban network, comprising axis and linking, temples, and water infrastructure (Chevance et
al, 2019). The majority of temples from site are primarily built of brick, laterite, and also
dates from the Jayavarman II period (Michael and Evans, 2018: 121). Together with the
recently identified Royal Palace Banteay , they confirmed the presence of this early
Angkorian capital.
Recently, the LiDAR mission identified an additional main piece of hydrological
infrastructure in this area. The East-West orientated Thnal Srae Thbong dike and the 1 Km
long Thnal Mrech dike (Pepper Dyke), with several 10 th to 11th centuries ceramic kiln sites,
are part of a very large unfinished reservoir of baray. This last feature completes, together
with the mountain-temple and the Royal Palace, the main markers of an angkorian capital.
They are integrated in the urban network and the whole indicates a significant evidence for
the early Angkorian period to setup infrastructure and city.

Criteriion (ii): Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is a unique example of town-planning for

an ancient city, with related infrastructure, temples, monumental artistic remains, and other

∼40-50 Km2” of the plateau. This comprises a network of major thoroughfares that divide a
archaeological sites. Mahendraparvata presents “a centrally planned urban area, spanning

central zone into a city grid; a system of smaller-scale land parceling that subdivides city
blocks within that grid; a distribution of small shrines, mounds and ponds; a large-scale
water-management system, consisting of dams and a major, unfinished reservoir; and finally,
a distinctive spatial arrangement of a royal palace, state pyramid temple and other
infrastructural elements that are consistent with and unique to all other known Khmer Empire
capitals.

The complex demonstrates a significant interchange of human values during the early Khmer
Empire, in 9th century. The site also indicated a masterpiece of human creative genius in
terms of architectural framework, iconography, and an early and unique city planning from
the Angkor period. The iconic architecture at Mahendraparvata on Kulen is seen in O Paong,
Neak Ta, Thma Dap or Damrei Krap temples, and Rong Chen is the first pyramid temple in
the angkorian world, built on a natural mountain.

Criterion (iv): Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is an outstanding example of a type of a

unique, religious architecture, combined with a modified landscape to form one of the first
grid city in ancient Cambodia. The religious monuments (about 40 brick temples) have been
discovered on the plateau itself, in addition rock shelters, carved riverbed, and prehistoric site
with rock painting.

Furthermore, Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen presents various elements characteristic of

an urban form from an Angkorian capital. The important Rong Chen mountain temple, with
its distinctive pyramidal shape, is typical of other state temples located at the heart of pre-
Angkorian and Angkorian urban areas. The Royal Palace with it “rectangular shape, size,
orientation and architectural remains indicate that it was the center of power of a royal
capital” (Chevance et al, 2019:1307), during the reign of Jayavarman II in AD 770-835. The
royal capital presents a grid of major axes, which provides the overall framework upon in
other patterns of habitation are based and elaborated. Therefore, “the network of Phnom
Kulen mostly developed according to an overall plan, and the major axes, including the
largest earthen dams, were the earliest and most fundamental elements of that design”
(Chevance et al, 2019: 1316).

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Another famous site, Preah Ang Thom is an eight meters long statue of the reclining Buddha,
estimated to be carved between the late angkorian period and the post-angkorian period
(12th to 16th centuries). Preah Ang Thom is the most sacred and worshiped site for the Kulen
Mountain after the angkorian period. Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen continued to be a
significant worship settlement during the angkorian period, notably with the hermits in the
rock shelters of Phnom Kulen. Therefore, Phnom Kulen has a significant cultural, which is
necessary to preserve as an ancient city site and a cultural landscape.

Criterion (v): Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen presents a very large-scale and unique
settlement from the 8th-9th centuries. Archaeological survey found hundreds of ponds within
the central area and recovered some run along the ancient axis and dykes. Major dams were
raised to block valleys and create reservoirs. The data also suggest that settlement on
Mahendraparvata was not only spatially extensive but also temporally enduring. For example,
Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen plateau comprised 366 individual mounds attributed to
the 10th century.

Moreover, sandstone quarries on the southeast foothill of Phnom Kulen indicate a very large
industry, illustrating another human interaction with its natural environment from the 9 th to
12th centuries. The quarries provided most of the sandstone blocks used to build the Angkor
temples and most of the statues to represent the Khmer gods.
Statements of authenticity and/or integrity
Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is a proposed site, already projected as a National Park by
the Cambodia Government, under a royal decree as Preah Jayavarman-Norodom Phnom
Kulen National Park. It was established in 1993 and covers 373.73 km 2. The systematic
archaeological surveys and excavations have identified an array of cultural features. These
sites are representative of the integrity for all attributes such as ‘historical, monumental,
archaeological feature, natural landscape, and artifacts of the ancient complex; infrastructure
of city planning, hydraulic feature, road network, water system, ritual and spiritual
expression’, which characterized the nomination for a World Heritage Site. These significant
elements contribute to the potential Outstanding Universal Value of the Mahendraparvata on
Phnom Kulen represented by more than 40 brick temples, an urban network, water-
management, infrastructures, and composing the structure of an ancient city. In addition, rock
shelters, riverbed sculptures, and prehistoric rock painting sites, enhance the value of the site.
The boundary of Phnom Kulen National Park includes the Phnom Kulen plateau and its
environment, such as the protection forested area. Recently, remote sensing data have
revolutionized our view, revealing the remains of a city with a complex and important
extensive network of urban infrastructure.

Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen has suffered damages from the ravage of time, looting
during the Cambodian war (1970s-1990s), climate change, and historical events. Following
the collapse of the Khmer Empire in the 15th century and civil war, Phnom Kulen was largely
forgotten, except for its large reclining Buddha, which was a pilgrim center. It was not until
the early 20th century that French explorers became aware of Jayavarman II city. The 1930’s
exploration of Phnom Kulen confirmed its importance as a capital, revealing numerous brick
temples with a homogenous architectural decoration. Some artifacts were sent to France for
exhibition. Research stopped as Cambodia plunged into a civil war in the early 1970’s.
Phnom Kulen would become a Khmer Rouge stronghold, preventing any archeological work
for more than 25 years. The area became isolated and was vulnerable to looting. Some statues
were relocated to Phnom Penh or Angkor Conservation for safety, while other were looted
and went to private hands.

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After civil war’s end in the 1990’s, when peace arrived in Cambodia, Phnom Kulen was still
isolated. Researches resume with a few institutions such as University of Sophia and
Singapore, sponsoring excavation on the ceramic kiln sites. Since 2008, the APSARA
Authority (in charge of Angkor Site management), and the Archaeology and Development
Foundation (ADF) have started a collaborative project to explore the area, update the
archaeological map of the mountain, excavate the most representative sites, restore the
excavated artifacts and present a chronological occupation of the entire site. After LiDAR
technology produced a new map of the region in 2012, the results showed that the property
retains many features and monuments of which illustrated the exceptional cultural,
architectural, artistic, historical, technological and hydraulic values of the site. Many temples
and structures have been preserved. Restoration, and conservation have been applied to
several ancient brick temples and structure. Recently, APSARA Authority continues the
restoration and conservation of brick temples and sculptures.
The decorative elements, statuary and inscriptions from this site have been preserved,
researched, and documented. Many of the masterpieces have been restored, preserved, and
exhibited in museums in Cambodia and oversea. Phnom Kulen LiDAR remote sensing
technology allowed the scanning map of the region by using methods detailed by Evans
(Evans et al, 2013). This revolutionary technique uncovered the extent of the Khmer Empire.
Since then, ADF and APSARA field survey on Phnom Kulen has confirmed the discovery of
a framework of linear axes, oriented roughly to cardinal directions and spanning much of the
southern area of the plateau (Chevance et al, 2019). Surveys and excavations also indicated
that many sites structures are in good condition. The Cambodian government secure the
protection, with APSARA Authority actions, and 50 workers and 3 archaeologists insure the
regular cleaning and guarding of the major sites. Recently, restoration efforts have
contributed to the preservation of several temples.

Comparison with other similar properties

The Mahendraparvata site on Phnom Kulen can be compared to four of ten different of World
Cultural Heritage sites: on a national, sub-regional, regional and international level. This is
not only complying with other World Heritage criteria, but also reflecting the period, features
and characteristics, such as the influence of town-planning, urban infrastructure, language,
religion, architecture, materials and hydrology.
1. National
Bakong temple (Cambodia: the 9th century C.E.): Bakong temple is the first temple mountain
covered with sandstone, constructed by rulers of the Khmer empire at Hariharlaya, the capital
right after Mahendraparvata, where the Jayavarman II declared the sovereignty of Cambodia.
His successor, Indravarman I constructed the Bakong temple dedicated to the god Shiva and
consecrated its central religious image, a linga whose name Sri Indresvara. The Devarāja cult,
similar to Mahendraparvata’s on Phnom Kulen, consisted in the idea of divine kingship of
royal power. The structure of Bakong has a stepped pyramid shape, similar to Rong Chen in
Mahendraparvata, both identified as early example of Khmer temple mountain.
In addition, the Bakong pyramid temple has been covered with high bas-relief, representing
asuras in battle. Large stone statues of elephants are positioned as guardians at the corners of
the three lower levels of the pyramid and statues of lions guard the stairways.

Phnom Bakheng Temple (Cambodia: late 9th to 10th centuries): Phnom Bakheng temple is a
mountain temple located in Angkor. Phnom Bakheng is one of three hilltop temples in the
Angkor region that are attributed to Yasovarman’s reign (889-910 C.E). The other two are
Phnom Krom to the south near the Tonle Sap lake, and Phnom Bok, northeast of the

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Eastern baray reservoir. Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home
of the Hindu gods. This is a similar configuration with Rong Chen temple in
Mahendraparvata/Phnom Kulen and Bakong temple at Hariharalaya Rolous. However, The
Bakeng temple is built in a pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens.
There are five sandstone sanctuaries on the top level. Originally, 108 small towers were
arrayed around the temple at ground level and its tiers. Bakeng temple built on a rectangular
base and rise in five levels and is crowned by five main towers. One hundred and eight are
considered the level of the god and haven. These 33 can be seen from the center of any side,
but thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on Mount Meru. The center one represents
the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones represent the four lunar phases, each with 27
days. The seven levels of the monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace
contains 12 towers, which represent the 12 years cycle of Jupiter. Thus, it is an astronomical
calendar in stone.

Baksei Chamkrong (10th century): Baksei Chamkrong is a small Hindu temple located in
Angkor. It is dedicated to lord Shiva and used to hold a golden image of him. It was also
dedicated to Yasovarman by his son, King Harshavarman I. This temple is constructed by
bricks and laterite with architectural decoration in sandstone. There is an inscription on either
side of the doorway, which details the dedication and praises the early Khmer kings, quoting
Jayavarman II who settled in Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen. The main sandstone lintel is
decorated with a fine carving of Indra standing on his three-headed elephant Airavata. The
brick sanctuary tower and eight meters square on a sandstone base open to the east.

KOH KER

pyramid of Prasat Thom in 2005 before clearance of vegetation

224
225
226
he south eastern group of temples
Prasat Pram

Koh Ker is entered from the south with the temple group Prasat Pram (five towers) being
the first we usually visit on our day tours. Of the five towers, three are made of brick and two
of those are spectacularly clothed in tree roots of the strangler fig. This parasitic tree usually
feeds of the tree and eventually kills its host. On this occasion the roots of the fig are both
destroyer and scaffolding giving support to the loosened brickwork of the left hand tower.
Heading north the single tower of Prasat Neang Khmau "Black Lady Temple" is to be sen on
the right. Although it has the appearance of being burned, the laterite stone is high in iron, so
has become black due to oxidization. You will see a lot of ruined towers blackened inside in
this area. This is probably caused by the action of the damp humid air which is drawn in
through the doorway and funnels up to the opening in the roof.
A kilometre north lies the triple towers of Prasat Chin "Chinese temple" For those who have
visited the National Museum In Phnom Penh you will see the Fighting apes statue which was
removed from this site to the safety of Phnom Penh. You can see here why this was so
important. The damage caused by looting os worst here than any of the other sites . Three
bomb shattered towers and piles of brick rubble with splintered parts of door frames and lie
around. The broken torso of a human figure lies ignominiously near the main tower.
Andong Preng "sacred well of oil" is a small reservoir wigh untill recently was used for the
water supply for the de-mining camp which was here for several years up to 2009. You can
see the stone terraces of the reservoir to gain easy access when the water levels drop. Teo the
right of the road you can see the large Rahal Reservior (1200x550metres) this was the main
water supply to the city which has now dried up.

Prasat Thom and the sanctuaries

227
Prasat Krahom

The most important area of Koh Ker is an area to the north centered on the Pyramid of Prasat
Thom. Unusually the moat does not surround the main temple pyramid but encloses the
central sanctuary to the east . The main temple buddings are of brick construction with the
stone entrance gopura. The red brick tower of Prasat Krahom is in remarkable condition after
1000 years and an explosion by looters which totally destroyed the sculpture inside. The
bricks were held together by a mortar made from vegetable glue and or tree sap .
The broken remains of a sacred ox is visible in the first enclosure gopura. The sculpture was
in good condition untill the 1970s whn rampant looting caused the destruction and removal
of most of the large statues here. The doorways are the largest in sny of the Angkor
Temples. \This seven stepped pyramid of Prasat Thom is the largest that the Khmer ever
constructed Standing 37meteres high it is an impressive structure. It would have had a tall
stupa or tower on the top. There is no evidence of it, other than the pedestal with Garuda
figures which surround a deep hole which extends down to its foundations. There is one
entrance stairway to the east which has partially collapsed. It is no longer possible to climb to
the top due to safety issues.
Nearby is a smaller tree covered mound Phnom Damrei or elephant hill. This is almost
certainly the remains of an unfinished pyramid in alignment with the main Prasat Thom. here
is a small elephant shrine at the base and a steep, rough path leading to the top shrine.
In August 2011 the path up Phnom Damrei has been

closed for safety reasons.

228
Map showing Prasat Thom/The Lingas BELOW

Koh Ker has some of the most impressive and largest lingas in the region. The phallic
symbols were an important part of Hindu Religion; they are always placed on the top of a
Yoni pedestal. This is a representation of the female womb and has a drainage channel to
divert the holy water poured over the linga to vessels placed outside the walls. The one
shown here,Prasat Balang, is the most complete in a set of Linga shrines to the east of the
Prasat Thom group.
The Buddhists did not accept the practice of worshiping the linga, so after conversion most of
the Hindu Lingas were removed. As Koh Ker was abandoned a long time before this, nearly
all the lingas remained in place.

Other temples round the Rahal Reservoir

Prasat Krachap

229
The ancient City of Koh Ker "Chok Gargyar" surrounds the Rahal Reservior. It was
originally over 1200m long x 550m wide, however it has mostly dried up. traveling east from
Prasat Thom, a circuit road passes the Linga temples and Prasat Andong Kuk (Temple of
Prison Well ) to a couple of stone and laterite temples in the style of Banteay Srey. Prasat
Krachap and Banteay Pitchean are dedicated to Brahma and Vishnu. Prasat Kratchap has
notable stone pillars with clear Sanskrit writings and reliefs of Vishnu riding the sacred bull
on the gables to the south side. Banteay Pitcheanis a large and atmospheric ruin with double
walls with three ruined towers. A red brick tower of Prasat Chamres can be seen in the
distance before Prasat Chhrap which has three blackened laterite towers.

At the south of the grump lie Prasat Damrei the elephant temple which is under restoration
and some recent;y uncovered carvings at Ang Khna. These carvings mostly Buddha and
animal figures surround another small reservior Trapeang Khna. .

Koh Ker is a very important Khmer archaeological site which is undergoing development for
tourism. Up till late 2004 the roads were extremely difficult and only a very few determined
people had ever been there. up to tat time . In 2004/05 a new road linking Beng Mealea was
cut through the forest. This new road is mostly tarmacked and goes to the Thai Border at
O’Samach. This road now makes Koh Ker accessible as a long day trip.which we can
combine with Beng Melaea. As at August 2010, the site of Koh Ker is still off the main
tourist trail. There are no buses or public transport so car, van or motor bike or pickup trucks
are the only ways to get here. By car or 4Wd, Koh Ker takes 2 hours from Siem Reap.
There are few tourist facilities as present; just some open air food stalls and a new WC block
which opened in January 2007.
This remote area has no major towns and only a small village in cleared forest nearby.
Accommodation is in a few basic lodgings in Sray Yong 10kms to the south.
The map shows the main temple sites. If you want a more details map Please contact us and
we can send at a higher resolution

http://www.flickr.com/photos/8563941@N06/sets/72157623856351051/

230
Koh Ker, three hours from Siem Reap, served as the capital of the Khmer empire from 928 to
944, and was built under King Jayavarman IV under whose reign colossal sculptures and
lingas were constructed, leading to charges of megalomania. Some of the lingas remain,
though the sculptures have been removed to the museum in Phnom Penh. The site, which has
only recently been demined, is dominated by Prasat Thom, a 30 meter high pyramid temple.
In view of the distance, there are far fewer crowds here, making a visit an easier and more
pastoral experience.
There are remnants of more than 180 temples in Koh Ker, in an area of more than 8,000
hectares.
The number is still increasing, since more ruins have constantly being discovered in the
surrounding of Koh Ker, particularly on satellite images. But plenty of land mines in this
region make it difficult to explore the remote structures. However, the archaeological zone
with the major monuments that are of interest for travelers can be visited without risk. Koh
Ker comes close to what is called "capital of a forgotten empire" or "lost city in the jungle".
It is Cambodia's second largest temple town. Koh Ker is of enourmous size and it would be a
major attraction on the tourist worldmap if not located in the shadow of Angkor.

Koh Ker was located at the most important road of the Khmer empire from Angkor via Bang
Melea to Preah Vihear, extending to Wat Phu in present-day South Laos and finally to the
South China sea.Koh Ker was briefly the Khmer capital during the reign of Jayavarman IV
(928-942 CE).Inscriptions mentioning Koh Ker as the capital were found outside Koh Ker,
too, in Siem Reap, Battambang, Kampong Cham and even in Takeo province in the very
south of the empire.

231
 100 + temples of Koh Ker
At least ten thousand inhabitants lived in the new capital.Jayavarman IV had been the
principal in this area and had erected monuments in Koh Ker already before ascending the
232
throne of the entire Khmer empire. After his rival Ishanavarman II had died in Angkor,
Jayavarman IV decided to continue to reside in Koh Ker. This is why it became the capital.
Those days it was called Chok Gargyar "Island of Glory" and Lingapura "Phallus-city".
During the reign Jayavarman's son and successor Harshavarman II the elites in Angkor
managed to gain the upper hand again, and Rajendravarman II finally shifted the capital back
to Angkor in 944. Sanctuaries with Shiva-Lingams already existed already before Koh Ker
became the capital.
Almost all huge-scale monuments in Koh Ker were erected by Jayavarman IV, most of them
even before he seized the throne of the Angkorian empire.The first significant ruin that one
comes to when approaching from Siem Reap is Prasat Pram. It is named for its five towers.
Two of the towers are heavily overgrown, with roots strangling the buildings. The roots of
the strangler fig of the northeastern tower are the most picturesque example
of a "jungle temple" anyone can imagine.

O0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0

About the Author Dr Uday Dokras

The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in
India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New
Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel
Holiday Inn; was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the
Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently
Consultant to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting
Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and
Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor

to a multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he
obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts
(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his
Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's
University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and Doctorate from
Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a
Management Training Program in Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel

Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute
for 5 years.

233
 In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of
the University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting
lecturer there.

In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study

of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life

sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students
in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class
students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8” - and the workbook
“Lausnir.”

Total writings
RESEARCH PAPERS-1030 + in Researchgate and academia.edu
Books 260 +
Followers (readers) 1, 565,000 consolidated as on 26 th january,
2023.

Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India

Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

234
Coordinates: 14°50′54″N 105°49′20″E
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Vat Phou and Associated Ancient

Settlements within the Champasak
Cultural Landscape

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Causeway, looking towards the sanctuary

Location Champasak Province, Laos

Criteria Cultural: (iii)(iv)(vi)

Reference 481

Inscription 2001 (25th Session)

Area 39,000 ha (96,000 acres)

Coordinates 14°50′54″N 105°49′20″E

235
 Location of Vat Phou in Laos

Vat Phou (or Vat Phu; Lao: ວັດພູ [wāt pʰúː] temple-mountain) is a
ruined Khmer Hindu temple complex in southern Laos and one of the oldest
places of worship in Southeast Asia. It is at the base of mount Phou Khao,
some 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from the Mekong in Champasak Province.
There was a sanctuary on the site centred on a sacred spring and an offering
place for a mighty tutelary sprit dating back to pre-historic times. The first
megalithic stone structures had been built probably as early as the second
century BCE, consisting of two stone cells, a carving of a crocodile, a serpent
stairs and several offering platforms.[1] One of the first pre-Angkor brick
buildings onsite was erected in the early 7th century and became the focus of
all consequent building activities.[1] Most of the other surviving buildings date
from the Angkor period in the 11th to 13th centuries.

History[edit]
Northern palace in the Wat Phou complex.

236
Phou Khao has a natural lingam on its peak.
Vat Phou was initially associated with the city of Shrestapura,[2]: 66 which lay on
the bank of the Mekong directly east of Lingaparvata Mountain (now called
Phou Khao). By the latter part of the fifth century, the city was the capital of a
kingdom that texts and inscriptions connect with the Chenla
Kingdom and Champa. The first structure on the mountain was constructed
around this time.[2] The mountain gained spiritual importance from the lingam-
shaped protuberance on its summit. The mountain itself was, therefore,
considered the home of Shiva, and the river as representing the ocean or
the Ganges.
Vat Phou was a part of the Khmer Empire centred on Angkor to the
southwest, at least as early as the reign of Yasovarman I in the early 10th
century. Shrestapura was superseded by a new city in the Angkorian period,
directly south of the temple.[4] In the later period, the original buildings were
replaced, re-using some of the stone blocks; the temple now seen was built
primarily during the Koh Ker and Baphuon periods of the 11th century. Minor
changes were made during the following two centuries, before the temple, like
most in the empire, was converted to Theravada Buddhist use.
This continued after the area came under control of the Lao, and a festival is
held on the site each February. Little restoration work has been done, other
than the restoration of boundary posts along the path. Vat Phou was
designated a World Heritage Site in 2001.

237
The facade of the sanctuary. The Buddha image inside is modern, and the site is used
for religious worship today.
Like most Khmer temples, Vat Phou is oriented towards the east, although the
axis faces eight degrees south of due east, being determined primarily by the
orientation of the mountain and the river. Including the barays (reservoirs), it
stretches 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) east from the source of the spring, at the
base of a cliff 100 metres (330 ft) up the hill. 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) east of the
temple, on the west bank of the Mekong, lay the city, while a road south from
the temple itself led to other temples and ultimately to the city of Angkor.

A plan of Vat Phou: proportions and positions are approximate.

Approached from the city (of which little remains), the first part of the temple
reached is a series of barays. Only one now contains water, the 600 by 200 m
middle baray which lies directly along the temple's axis; there were reservoirs
north and south of this, and a further pair on each side of the causeway
between the middle baray and the palaces.

View from near the sanctuary on the upper level of Vat Phou, looking back towards
the Mekong

238
The two palaces stand on a terrace on either side of the axis. They are known
as the north and south palaces or, without any evidence, the men's and
women's palaces (the term "palace" is a mere convention and their purpose is
unknown). Each consisted of a rectangular courtyard with a corridor and
entrance on the side towards the axis, and false doors at the east and west
ends. The courtyards of both buildings have laterite walls. The walls of the
northern palace's corridor are laterite, while those of the southern palace
are sandstone. The northern building is now in better condition. The palaces
are notable chiefly for their pediments and lintels, which are in the early
Angkor Wat style.
Buddha statue

A lintel showing Vishnu on Garuda, on the northeast wall of the sanctuary// Carving of a
crocodile on the upper level, possibly the site of an annual human sacrifice in pre-
Angkorian times.
The next terrace has a small shrine to Nandi (Shiva's mount) to the south, in
poor condition. The road connecting Vat Phou to Angkor ran south from this
temple. Continuing west, successive staircases lead up further terraces;
between them stands a dvarapala which has come to be worshiped as
king Kammatha, mythical builder of the temple. On the narrow next terrace are
the remains of six small shrines destroyed by treasure-hunters.
The path culminates in seven sandstone tiers which rise to the upper terrace
and central sanctuary. The sanctuary is in two parts. The front section, of
sandstone, is now occupied by four Buddha images, while the brick rear part,
which formerly contained the central lingam, is empty.
The entire roof is missing, although a makeshift covering has been added to
the front. Water from the spring which emerges from the cliff about 60 m
southwest of the sanctuary was channeled along stone aqueducts into the
rear chamber, continuously bathing the lingam. The sanctuary is later than the
north and south palaces, belonging to the Baphuon period of the later 11th
century. The east side has three doorways: from south to north, their
pediments show Krishna defeating the nāga Kaliya; Indra riding Airavata;
and Vishnu riding Garuda. The east wall bears dvarapalas and devatas.
239
Entrances to the south and north have inner and outer lintels, including one to
the south of Krishna ripping Kamsa apart.

A lintel showing Krishna killing Kamsa, on the south wall of the sanctuary.
Other features of the area are a library, in poor condition, south of the
sanctuary, and a relief of the Trimurti to the northwest. There are other
carvings further north: a Buddha footprint on the cliff face and boulders
shaped to resemble elephants and a crocodile. The crocodile stone has
acquired some notoriety as being possibly the site of an annual human
sacrifice described in a sixth-century Chinese text. The identification is lent
some plausibility by the similarity of the crocodile's dimensions to those of a
human.
The most remarkable feature of the Vat Phou complex is that it shows the
development of the Khmer stone architecture from its earliest beginnings until
the 13th century.

240
Dvaravati, ancient kingdom of Southeast Asia that flourished from the 6th to the late 11th century. It
was the first Mon kingdom established in what is now Thailand and played an important role as a
propagator of Indian culture.The Khmer empire was a powerful state in South East Asia,
formed by people of the same name, lasting from 802 CE to 1431 CE. At its peak, the
empire covered much of what today is Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and southern Vietnam

Many ask the question- what is the relationship of this Kingdom with DWARKA also called
Dvaravati? Dwarka in Gujrath State,India is often identified with the Dwarka Kingdom, the
ancient kingdom of Krishna, and is believed to have been the first capital of Gujarat. The
city's name literally means gateway. Dwarka has also been referred to throughout its history
as "Mokshapuri", "Dwarkamati", and "Dwarkavati". It is mentioned in the ancient prehistoric
epic period of the Mahabharata.[2] According to legend, Krishna settled here after he defeated
and killed his uncle Kansa at Mathura. This mythological account of Krishna's migration to
Dwarka from Mathura is closely associated with the culture of Gujarat. Krishna is also said to
have reclaimed 12 yojanas or 96 square kilometres (37 sq mi) of land from the sea to create
Dwarka.

The Dvaravati in Thailand was ruled by the Mon people who are the earliest known
inhabitants of lower Burma. They founded an empire, and introduced both writing and
Hinduism into Burma. Dvaravati was an ancient Mon Kingdom, It was an Hindu Sanscritized
Kingdom,Much later in the year 573, two Mon brothers, Prince Samala and Prince Wimala,
founded another Mon kingdom Hongsavatoi at the present site of modern Pegu. This
kingdom flourished in peace and prosperity for several centuries until it was occupied by the
Burman dynasty.

The Ayutthaya Ayutthaya, or Ayodhyā, pronounced was a Siamese kingdom that existed in
Southeast Asia from 1350 to 1767, centered around the city of Ayutthaya, in Siam, or
present-day Thailand. The Ayutthaya Kingdom is considered to be the precursor of modern
Thailand and its developments are an important part of the History of Thailand.The
Ayutthaya Kingdom emerged from the mandala of city-states on the Lower Chao
Phraya Valley in the late fourteenth century during the decline of the Khmer Empire. After a
century of territorial expansions, Ayutthaya became centralized and rose as a major power
in Southeast Asia.

241
From the above we can see that various Kingdoms and cities had Indian Names ( Sanskrit) In
Thailand.
1. Ayutthaya was Ayodhya the city of Ram the Hindu “GOD”
2. Dvarawati was Dwarka the legendary city founded by God Krishna
3. Many other cities flourished in Thailand as well as Cambodia all having Sanskrit
names and named after Hindu Gods
1. Khmer cities were according to inscription on the stele of Sdok Kok
Thom, Indrapura or Amarendrapura - the first capital of Jayavarman II reign about
781, before the foundation of Khmer Empire in 802.
2. Mahendraparvata (early 9th cent.) named after Mahendra or Shiva
3. Hariharalaya (9th cent.) the abode of hari. Hari (Sanskrit: हरि,) is a name of
Vishnu from Hindu tradition. Hari means the supreme absolute in the Vedas.
4. Koh Ker (928–944). Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of the
Khmer empire. In inscriptions the town is mentioned as Lingapura (city
of lingams) or Chok Gargyar (translated as city of glance, or as iron tree forest).
However Lingapura means the city of Shiva.
5. Yasodharapura (Angkor) (late 9th to early 15th cent.)
Yasodharapura यशोधरपुर "Yaśōdharapura"), also known as Angkor is a city
that was the second capital of the Khmer Empire (after Amarendrapura),
established by King Yasovarman I in the late 9th century and centred on the
temple of Phnom Bakheng.Yasodharapura was referred to in the inscriptions as
Phnom Kandal (Central Mountain). Phnom Bakheng was constructed just before

242
 the foundation of Yasodharapura due to Yasovarman's belief that the mountain
was among the holiest of places to worship the Hindu deities. Yashodharapura
was linked to an earlier capital, Hariharalaya, by a causeway. The urban complex
included the Yashodharatataka.The succeeding capitals built in the area were called
Yasodharapura. One of those is Angkor Thom, centred on the Bayon temple by King
Jayavarman VII (1181-1218AD).
6. In 1352, King U Thong (also known as Ramathibodi I of the Ayutthaya Kingdom)
laid siege to it. The Ayutthaya were successful the next year in capturing the city,
placing one of their princes on the throne. In 1357 the Khmer regained it. Angkor
Thom was raided and abandoned in the 15th century by King Borommarachathirat
II of Ayutthaya.

The Sanskrit Meanings of Thailand's Provinces

The name of Siam (Thailand) comes from the Sanskrit Syama, meaning “dark”. The capital of
Siam, Ayutthaya, was named after Ayodhaya, the capital mentioned in the Ramayana.
Today’s Bangkok’s full name is as follows: “ Krung thep mahanakhon amon rattanakosin
mahinthara ayuthaya mahadilok phop noppharat ratchathani burirom
udomratchaniwet mahasathan amon piman awatan sathit sakkathattiya witsanukam
prasit “

” The city of angels, the great city, the residence of the emerald Buddha, the impregnable city
of Ayutthaya, of God Indra, the grand capital of the world endowed with nine precious gems,
the happy city, abounding in an enormous royal palace that resembles the heavenly abode
where reigns the reincarnated god, a city given by Indra and built by Vishnukarn “.

The map above shows 42 of Thailand’s ancient 76 provinces, and their Sanskrit meanings:
❇1. Chaiyaphum — Land (bhumi) of victory (jaya)
❇ 2. Phitsnulok — Country (loka) of Visnu
❇ 3. Uttaradit — Northern (uttara) city

243
❇ 4. Lobpuri — Originally Lavapuri the city of Lava the son of Rama
❇ 5. Ayuthaya — Ayodhaya the city of Rama
❇ 6. Saraburi — City (puri) of wealth (sara)
❇ 7. Nakhon Ratchasima — City (nagara) of the lion (sima) king (raja)
❇ 8. Chonburi — City (puri) of water (jala)
❇ 9. Chantaburi — Moon (chandra) city (puri)
❇ 10. Phetchaburi — City (buri) of food (bhojya).
❇ 11. Ratchaburi — City (puri) of kings (raja)
❇ 12. Kanchanaburi — City (puri) of gold (kanchana)
❇ 13. Prachinburi — Ancient (pracin) city (puri)
❇ 14. Nakon Sawan — Heavenly (svarga) city (nagara)
❇ 15. Phetchabun — City (puri) of food (bhojya)
❇ 16. Kalasin — Black (kala) waters
❇ 17. Ubon Ratchathani — Royal (raja) lotus city (sthan)
❇ 18. Buriram — City (puri) of pleasure (ram)
❇ 19. Suphanaburi — City (puri) of gold (suvarna)
❇ 20. Surin — City of the God (sura) in (Indra)
❇ 21. Maha Sarakhan — Great (maha) wealth (sara) of gold (kanaka)
❇ 22. Sukhothai — City (sthana) of happiness (sukha)
❇ 24. Singburi — City (puri) of lions (simha)
❇ 25. Sakhon Nakhon — means the “city of cities” — the Sanskrit Sakala meaning “whole”
“total” and Nagara meaning “city”
❇ 26. Nakhon Phanom — City (nagara) of the Mountain
❇ 27 Nong Bua Lamphu — It seems that “Lamphu” is the same as the Lamphun mentioned
above as the 23rd city, and the “Bua” seems to be a shortened version of “Buana” which is
Malay for “world” and this is from the Sanskrit “Bhuvana” meaning “world”.
❇ 28. Nakhon Pathom — First (prathama) city (nagara)
❇ 29. Pathum thani — Lotus (padma) flower town (sthana)
❇ 30. Sisaket — was originally “Sri Nakhon Lamduan”, with “Sri” meaning “wealth”, “lord”
the “Nakhon”, Sanskrit “nagara” meaning “city” the original “Sri” forms the “Si” in “Sisaket”.
❇ 32. Samut Songkhram — War (sangrama) ocean (samudra)
❇ 33. Samut Sakhon — Oceans (samudra) lake (sagara)
❇ 34. Samut Prakan — Ocean (samudra) fortress (prakara)
❇ 35. Bangkok — Known to the natives as Krung thep as explained above
❇ 36. Nonthaburi — City (puri)
❇ 37. Prachuap Khiri Khan — City of gold (khan) mountains (giri)
❇ 38. Uthaithani — Northern (uttara) city (sthana)
Other names further down the map which are not visible are:
❇ 39. Yala — Net (jala)
❇ 40. Nakhon Si Thammarat — City (nagara) of the auspicious (sri) Dharma King
(dharmaraj)
❇ 41. Narathiwat — Residence (vat) of wise (dhi) people (nara)
❇ 42 Surat thani — City (sthana) of the Sun (Surya) its actually named after the Indian city
of Surat

Therefore, 42 names out of 76 Thailand’s provinces, are clearly understandable in Sanskrit

and many of the others we either have no information to their meaning or they are new names
which have gained their independence such as the province of Sa Kaew which was originally
part of Prachin Buri, a Sanskrit name meaning “ancient city”.

244
Running alongside Thailand, Burma and Cambodia is the Mekong river, a river which is
known as the “mother of waters”. The Chinese name for this river is “Meigong” — the river
has most probably derived its name from “Ma Ganga”.
Greater India, :The reason for this was that Greater India, or the Indian cultural sphere, was
an area composed of many countries and regions in South and Southeast Asia that were
historically influenced by Indian culture. The term Greater India as a reference to the Indian
cultural sphere was popularised by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s. It is an
umbrella term encompassing the Indian subcontinent, and surrounding countries which are
culturally linked or have received significant Sanskritisation and Indian influence in matters
such as written language and religion. These countries have been transformed to varying
degrees by the acceptance and induction of cultural and institutional elements that originated
in India and spread elsewhere via trade routes. Since around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land
and maritime trade had resulted in prolonged socio-economic and cultural stimulation and
diffusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs into the region's cosmology, in particular in
Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. In Central Asia, transmission of ideas were predominantly of a
religious nature. The spread of Islam significantly altered the course of the history of Greater
India.
By the early centuries of the common era, most of the principalities of Southeast Asia had
effectively absorbed defining aspects of Hindu culture, religion and administration. The
notion of divine god-kingship was introduced by the concept of Harihara, Sanskrit and other
Indian epigraphic systems were declared official, like those of the south Indian Pallava
dynasty and Chalukya dynasty. These Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George
Cœdès in his work Histoire ancienne des états hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, were
characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability.

245
To the north, Indian religious ideas were accepted into the cosmology of Himalayan peoples,
most profoundly in Tibet and Bhutan. Buddhist monasticism extended into Afghanistan,
Uzbekistan and other parts of Central Asia, and Buddhist texts and ideas were readily
accepted in China and Japan in the east. To the west, Indian culture converged with Greater
Persia via the Hindukush and the Pamir Mountain. It is however not Akhand Bharat literally
meaning
Undivided.India.It.posits.that. India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet
, Sri -Lanka and Burma are one nation.
Hinduism and Buddhism exerted an enormous influence on the civilizations of Southeast
Asia and contributed greatly to the development of a written tradition in that area. About the
beginning of the Common Era, Indian merchants may have settled there, bringing Brahmans
and Buddhist monks with them. These religious men were patronized by rulers who
converted to Hinduism or Buddhism. The earliest material evidence of Hinduism in Southeast
Asia comes from Borneo, where late 4th-century Sanskrit inscriptions testify to the
performance of Vedic sacrifices by Brahmans at the behest of local chiefs. Chinese chronicles
attest an Indianized kingdom in Vietnam two centuries earlier. The dominant form of
Hinduism exported to Southeast Asia was Shaivism, though some Vaishnavism was also
known there. Later, from the 9th century onward, Tantrism, both

Hindu and Buddhist, spread throughout the

region. Beginning in the first half of the 1st
millennium CE, many of the early kingdoms
in Southeast Asia adopted and adapted specific
Hindu texts, theologies, rituals, architectural
styles, and forms of social organization that
suited their historical and social conditions. It
is not clear whether this presence came about
primarily through slow immigration and
settlement by key personnel from India or
through visits to India by Southeast Asians
who took elements of Indian culture back
home. Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests,
and, occasionally, princes traveled to
246
Southeast Asia from India in the first few
centuries of the Common Era and eventually
settled there. Enormous temples
to Shiva and Vishnu were built in the ancient
Khmer empire, attesting to the power
and prestige of Hindu traditions in the
region. Angkor Wat, built in the 12th century
in what is now Cambodia, was
originally consecrated to Vishnu, although it
was soon converted to (and is still in use as) a
Buddhist temple. One of the largest Hindu
temples ever built, it contains the largest bas-
relief in the world, depicting the churning of
the ocean of milk, a minor theme of Indian
architecture but one of the dominant narratives
in Khmer temples.

247
Naresuan life - Wat Suwan Dararam 2142 BC
Despite the existence in Southeast Asia of Hindu temples and iconography as well as Sanskrit
inscriptions, the nature and extent of Hindu influence upon the civilizations of the region is
fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. Whereas early 20th-century scholars wrote about
the Indianization of Southeast Asia, those of the late 20th and early 21st centuries argued that
this influence was very limited and affected only a small cross section of the elite. It is
nevertheless certain that divinity and royalty were closely connected in Southeast Asian
civilizations and that several Hindu rituals were used to valorize the powers of the monarch.

248
The civilizations of Southeast Asia developed forms of Hinduism and Buddhism that
incorporated distinctive local features and in other respects reflected local cultures, but the
framework of their religious life, at least in the upper classes, was largely Indian. Stories from
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata became widely known in Southeast Asia and are still
popular there in local versions. In Indonesia the people of Bali still follow a form of
Hinduism adapted to their own genius. Versions of the Manu-smriti were taken to Southeast
Asia and were translated and adapted to indigenous cultures until they lost most of their
original content.
Dwarka, a city in Gujarat’s Dwarka district is situated on Okhamandal peninsula’s western
shore and along the banks of River Gomti. Dwarka is one of the most significant Hindu
pilgrimage destinations and is said to be the ancient and legendary capital of Lord Krishna’s
kingdom. Dwarka is one of the Chardham of the greater Chardham circuit and is one of the
revered ‘Sapt Puris’; i.e. 7 holy pilgrimage spots for Hindus. To know more about the city’s
historical, religious and legendary backgrounds:

Sanskrit makes its first appearance in inscriptions in South Asia during the early centuries
of the Common Era. It then gradually takes over and becomes the inscriptional language par
excellence in the whole of the South Asian subcontinent and much of Southeast Asia. For
almost a thousand years Sanskrit ‘rules’ in this enormous domain. Sheldon Pollock (1996,
2006) speaks for this reason of the ‘Sanskrit cosmopolis’, which he dates approximately
between CE 300 and 1300.Sanskrit gave a political dimension of the spread of Sanskrit. One
defining feature of the Sanskrit cosmopolis, was that Sanskrit became the premiere
instrument of political expression in the polities that comprised it, those of most of South and
much of Southeast Asia.

“In the 8th and 9th centuries two significant transformations occurred in the political history
of the Khmers. The first was the establishment of a series of royal capitals north of the Tonle
Sap Lake in present-day Cambodia at Hariharalaya (Roluos), Mahendraparvata (Kulen) and
eventually at Yaśodharapura which was named after its first king Yaśovarman I; this last city
is now known as nagara (Sanskrit for “royal city”), or aṅgar (Angkor) in modern Khmer. The
kings of Yaśodharapura or Angkor developed an urban complex unprecedented in Southeast

249
Asia, featuring numerous hydraulic works and vast religious monuments. They also created a
novel centralized system of governance, appointing royal functionaries to provinces
throughout the region from the Mekong Delta to the Mun River Basin of present-day
Northeast Thailand.

Yaśodharapura remained the capital of this kingdom with only one known exception until the
15th century. This period of remarkable political power and stability has been called the
Angkor or Angkorian period (9th-15th centuries) after the modern Khmer name of the city.
The second political innovation of this period has received comparatively little attention: the
advent of an idea that the polity was not explicitly defined by its royal center but by its
territory and people. In the 7th century before the rise of Angkor we read only of cities (pura)
—Bhavapura, Īśānapura, and Purandarapura—which served as charismatic centers to ill-
defined kingdoms and their outlying tributaries. In contrast, the polity in the Angkorian
period (9th-15th centuries) was not called after its capital city, Yaśodharapura, but had a
distinct designation: Kambujadeśa, “the land of the descendants of Kambu.” While
Yaśodharapura referred to a political place or royal city (pura), Kambujadeśa (i.e., Cambodia)
represented a territory or space (deśa) inhabited by a certain human collectivity, the Kambuja
or the descendants of Kambu. Members of the polity of Kambujadeśa/Cambodia were not
only perceived to be descendants of this primordial ancestor Kambu, but they were also by
implication born in or native to (ja) a particular political space.
Thus, early Cambodia was more than an extension of a capital or of a king’s personality; it
was conceived, perhaps uniquely among polities in early Southeast Asia, to be an extensive
“territorial community of nativity.”1

____________________________________________________________
__

1. Chapter 12. The Spread of Sanskrit in Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-Cultural Exchange, book:
Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia, Johannes Bronkhorst 2017

The Descendants of Kambu: The Political Imagination of Angkorian Cambodia By Ian Nathaniel
Lowman A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in South and Southeast Asian Studies in the Graduate Division of the University of
California, Berkeley

The Mon-Dvaravati Tradition of Early North-Central Thailand (700-900AD ) multiple

competing kingdoms emerged in central

250
Head of Krishna /Linga with One Face of Shiva (Ekamukhalinga)/Harihara/The Miracle of
Shravasti

Seated Buddha Flanked by Two Bodhisattvas/Buddha Preaching/Bodhisattva

Avalokiteshvara

Seated Buddha/Buddha Preaching/Head of Buddha/Eleven-Headed Avalokiteshvara/Bodhisattva of Infinite

Compassion-Kurt Behrendt. Department of Asian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

251
The earliest images of Dvaravati site are Hindu as seen above a group that can be
stylistically related to pre-Angkorian sculpture such as that found at Prasat Andet.

Dvaravati

Spread of Dvaravati Culture and Mon Dvaravati sites.

1.Mon Wheel of the Law (Dharmacakra), art of Dvaravati period, c. 8th century CE.
2. Buddha, art of Dvaravati period, c. 8th-9th century CE.
3. Bronze double denarius of the Gallic Roman emperor Victorinus (269-271 AD) found at U
Thong, Thailand.
4. Khao Khlang Nai was a Buddhist sanctuary. The central stupa, rectangular in shape and
oriented toward the east, is characteristic of dvaravati architectural style, dated back around
6th-7th century CE.

252
 5. Khao Khlang Nok, was an ancient Dvaravati-style stupa in Si Thep, dated back around 8th-9th
century CE, at present, it is large laterite base.

The Dvaravati was an ancient Mon kingdom from the 7th century to the 11th century that
was located in the region now known as central Thailand. It was described by the Chinese
pilgrim Hsuan-tsang in the middle of the 7th century as a Buddhist kingdom named "To-lo-
po-ti" situated to the west of Isanapura (Cambodia) and to the east of Sri Ksetra (Burma).
Dvaravati also refers to a culture, an art style, and a disparate conglomeration
of principalities of Mon people. Archaeological research over the past two decades or so has
revealed the presence of a "Proto-Dvaravati" period which spans the 4th to 5th centuries, and
perhaps earlier.
The culture of Dvaravati was based around moated cities, the earliest of which appears to
be U Thong in what is now Suphan Buri Province. Other key sites include Nakhon
Pathom, Phong Tuk, Si Thep, Khu Bua and Si Mahosot, amongst others. Legends engraved
on royal urns report the following kings: Suryavikrama (673-688), Harivikrama (688-695),
Sihavikrama (695-718). A Khmer inscription dated 937 documents a line of princes of
Chanasapura started by a Bhagadatta and ended by a Sundaravarman and his sons
Narapatisimhavarman and Mangalavarman. But at that time, the 12th century, Dvaravati
began to come under the influence of the Khmer Empire and central Southeast asia was
ultimately invaded by King Suryavarman II in the first half of the 12th century.
[4]
Hariphunchai survived its southern progenitors until the late 13th century, when it was
incorporated into Lan Na.
The term Dvaravati derives from coins which were inscribed in Sanskrit śrī dvāravatī. The
Sanskrit word dvāravatī literally means "that which has gates" (from dvāra "door, gate,
entrance").
Little is known about the administration of Dvaravati. It might simply have been a loose
gathering of chiefdoms rather than a centralised state, expanding from the coastal area of the
upper peninsula to the riverine region of Chao Phraya River. Hinduism and Buddhism were
significant. The three largest settlements appear to have been at Nakhon Pathom, Suphanburi,
Praak Srigacha, with additional centers at U Thong, Chansen, Khu Bua, Pong Tuk, Mueang
Phra Rot, Lopburi, Si Mahosot, Kamphaeng Saen, Dong Lakhon, U-Taphao, Ban Khu
Mueang, and Si Thep.
The traditional chronology of Dvaravati is mainly based on the Chinese textual account and
stylistic comparison by art historians. However, the results from excavations in Chansen and
Tha Muang mound at U-Thong raise questions about the traditional dating. Newly dated
typical Dvaravati cultural items from the site of U-Thong indicate that the starting point of
the tradition of Dvaravati culture may possibly date as far back to 200 CE. [7]
[3]
Archaeological, art historical, and epigraphic (inscriptions) evidence all indicate, however,
that the main period of Dvaravati spanned the seventh to ninth centuries. [3] Dvaravati culture
and influence also spread into Isan and parts of lowland Laos from the sixth century onward.
Key sites include Mueang Fa Daet in Kalasin Province and Mueang Sema in Nakhon
Ratchasima Province.[8][9]
Dvaravati art

253
Thailand, Ku Bua, (Dvaravati culture), 650-700 C.E.. Three musicians in right are playing (from center)
a 5-stringed lute, cymbals, a tube zither or bar zither with gourd

Dvaravati art is a form of artistic work originating from Mon. Dvaravati flourished from
the Dvaravati Mon ancient artifacts are in present-day Thailand and Burma, Mon states to the
west in southern Myanmar (Burma) and with the Mon state in northern Thailand. Dvaravati
experienced political domination by neighbouring peoples on three occasions: in the 10th
century, when the Burmese conquered the Mon state of Thaton west of the Tenasserim
Yoma; from the 11th to the 13th century, when the Khmer Empire (Cambodia) arose in the
east; and finally, in the late 13th century, when Dvaravati was absorbed by the Thai empire.
Dvaravati art came into form around the 6th century by the Mon communities as part of
numerous minor kingdoms that existed in Thailand. Surrounding geography proved
treacherous for travel and thus provided a fair amount of isolation for the individual
kingdoms. Isolation enabled development of a highly sophisticated and distinct Mon-
Dvaravati style.[1]
Influence
Dvaravati itself was heavily influenced by Indian culture though the process of cultural
diffusion over several centuries starting from the Christian 5th century, and played an
important role in introducing Mahayana Buddhism and particularly Buddhist art to the
region.[2][3][4]
Architecture: Archaeological research and restoration have indicated that Buddhist
monuments of the Dvaravati style exhibited contemporary art of Gupta temple-architecture

254
with many constructed with open-air structures. Chief among the architecture is
the stupa style architecture.
Various pottery excavated from former Dvaravati sites in central Thailand exhibit the
sophistication and complexity of Dvaravati art.Many Buddha statues were created with
Dvaravati style. Some Buddha statues have mudras (hand positions) and others have
katakahasta mudra (fingers folded down into palms, suggesting if it is holding something),
both of which have evolved before 800 CE. Buddha statues are common artefacts.
Pottery Artifacts have been collected over the years. Many pristine examples of artifacts can
be found in Thai museums such as the Phra Pathommachedi National Museum in Nakhon
Pathom city and the Prachinburi National Museum in Prachinburi, Prachinburi, Thailand.

bronze statue Mon-Dvaravati period.

1.Gold plaque with Standing Buddha
6. Head of Krishna
7. Head of a Male Figure
8. Head of a Male Deity
9. Bronze standing Buddha
The Khmer Empire or the Angkorian Empire (Khmer: ចក្រភពអង្គរ), are the
terms that historians use to refer to Cambodia from the 9th century to the 15th century when
the nation was a Hindu/Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. The empire grew out of the
former civilizations of Funan and Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalised most
of mainland Southeast Asia[3] and parts of Southern China, stretching from the tip of
the Indochinese Peninsula northward to modern Yunnan province, China, and
from Vietnam westward to Myanmar.
Perhaps its most notable legacy is the site of Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, the Khmer
capital during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor
Wat and Bayon, bear testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth,
impressive art and culture, architectural technique, aesthetics achievements, and the variety of
belief systems that it patronised over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during
its peak in the 11th to 13th centuries, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.
[6]

255
The beginning of the era of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, when
King Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin ("universal ruler", title equivalent to
"emperor") on Phnom Kulen. The empire ended with the Siege of Angkor by the
Siamese Kingdom of Ayutthaya in 1431.
The Dvārakā–Kamboja route is an ancient land trade route that was an important branch of
the Silk Road during antiquity and the early medieval era. It is referred to in Buddhist, Hindu,
and Jain works. It connected the Kamboja Kingdom in
today's Afghanistan and Tajikistan via Pakistan to Dvārakā (Dvaravati) and other major ports
in Gujarat, India, permitting goods from Afghanistan and China to be exported by sea to
southern India, Sri Lanka, the Middle East and Ancient Greece and Rome. The road was the
second most important ancient caravan route linking India with the nations of the northwest.
The Kamboja–Dvārakā trade route began at the seaport of Dvārakā. It passed through
the Anarta region to Madhyamika, a city near Chittor. South of Aravalli, the road reached
the Indus River, where it turned north. At Roruka (modern Rodi), the route split in two: one
road turned east and followed the river Sarasvati to Hastinapura and Indraprastha, while the
second branch continued north to join the main east-west road (the Uttarapatha Route across
northern India from Pataliputra to Bamyan) at Pushkalavati.
From Pushkalavati, the Kamboja-Dvārakā and Uttarapatha routes ran together
to Bahlika through Kabul and Bamyan. At Bahlika, the road turned east to pass through
the Pamir Mountains and Badakshan, finally connecting with the Silk Road to China.[1][4][5][6]
Both the historical record and archaeological evidence show that the ancient kingdoms in the
northwest (Gandhāra and Kamboja) had economic and political relations with the western
Indian kingdoms (Anarta and Saurashtra) since Ancient times. This commercial intercourse
appears to have led to the adoption of similar sociopolitical institutions by both the Kambojas
and the Saurashtras.
Historical records
References in both Hindu and Buddhist scriptures mention trading activities of the ancient
Kambojas with other nations:

 It is referred to in the Pali work called Petavatthu, wherein it is said that traders went with
caravans with wagons loaded with goods from Dvāravati to Kamboja.
 The Arthashastra by Kautiliya, a treatise on statecraft written between the 4th century
BCE and the 4th century CE, classifies the Kamboja and Saurashtra kingdoms as one
entity, since the same form of politico-economic institutions existed in both republics.
The text makes particular mention of warfare, cattle-based agriculture and trade. The
description tallies with those in the Bṛhat Saṃhitā, a 6th-century CE encyclopedia and
the major epic Mahabharata, which makes particular reference to the wealth of the
Kambojas.
Archaeological evidence
Numerous precious objects discovered in excavations in Afghanistan, at
Bamyan, Taxila and Begram, bear evidence to a close trade relationship between the region
and ancient Phoenicia and Rome to the west and Sri Lanka to the south.
Because archaeological digs in Gujarat have also found ancient ports, the Kamboja–Dvārakā
Route is viewed as the logical corridor for those trade items that reached the sea before
traveling on east and west.

256
 Dvaravati art in Isan

Where is the Isan region of Thailand?

Isan is Thailand's largest region, located on the Khorat Plateau, bordered by the Mekong
River (along the border with Laos) to the north and east, by Cambodia to the southeast and
the Sankamphaeng Range south of Nakhon Ratchasima.
The ancient culture was not limited to the Central Region of Thailand, but spread to the
present-day Northeast, where Fa Daed Song Yang in Kalasin is an outstanding example.
More than 500km away from Bangkok is Fa Daed Song Yang City dating back to the
Dvaravati period (6th-12th centuries) and located in what is now Ban Sema in Kamalasai
district of Kalasin. It was registered by the Fine Arts Department as a historic site in 1936.

According to Pimnara, the sema stone inscriptions indicate development from the Dvaravati
period to the Ayutthaya and Lan Chang periods, while archaeological excavations confirm
human settlement since pre-historic times.
In the 7th century after the spread of Buddhism to the area due to the influence of trade, the
city flourished and was expanded. Evidence of human settlement includes graves where
human skeletons and fragments of pottery, as well as jars containing human bones, were
found.
The main religion was Buddhism since many clay votive tablets and hundreds of sandstone
sema stones were unearthed.
"Buddhism was important during the Dvaravati period. Stories carved on sema stones are
mostly stories from Jataka tales and the Lord Buddha's life. The Northeast has many ancient
sites related to Buddhism. Other major ancient cities of the Dvaravati period include Khu Bua
in Ratchaburi, U Thong in Nakhon Pathom with Phra Pathom Chedi and Phra Prathone
Chedi," Sunisa Chitrbhandh, archaeologist and director of the administration office of the
Fine Arts Department, said.
According to the Fine Arts Department's related handbooks, Fa Daed Song Yang has been
called by several names. Locals called it Fa Daed Song Hang after a folk tale, while some
historical documents during the period of King Fa Ngum of Vientiane call it "Pone Phung
Daed" (sunbathing zone). It is located in Kalasin's low-lying plains where the Phan and Pao
rivers merge.
The city adopted Buddhism and also the post-Pallava alphabets from India via trade and
contacts with the Central Region. Fine Arts Department expert Toem Meetem read the
inscribed words behind two votive tablets and found that they were in an ancient Mon
language, written with post-Pallava characters used in India around the 9th century. Both
inscription plates mention the construction of Buddha images in dedication to monks who
had ordained the owners of the images. A sema stone at Wat Phochai Semaram contains an
inscription stone written with the post-Pallava letters saying, "Merit for Niamoon and for
Saming Phra Jak in the future". Niamoon is believed to be a person's name, while the words
"Saming Phra Jak" are a pronoun for a bureaucrat-turned-monk.
Archaeological excavations since 1967 found 14 Buddhist sites built in the Dvaravati art style
dating to the 7th-11th centuries. The main one is Phrathat Yakhu. At Fa Daed Song Hang,
there were traces of salt mining and the making of bronze and iron tools. Rice fields were
symmetrical square shapes. In addition, more than 10 stupas and several ponds like Nong
Trapang Pond were uncovered. Historical evidence shows the city came to an end and
became deserted after being attacked along with many other cities by the army of Burmese
King Anawrahta (1015-1078).

257
About 20km from Muang Kalasin is Phu Khao. It boasts a reclining Buddha carved into a
rock cave by locals who had strong faith in Buddhism.

This practice is similar to the construction of the replicas of the Lord Buddha's footprints as
the symbol of Buddhism, according to Sunisa.

"Kalasin also has three reclining Buddha statues. One of the three statues is at Phu Khao and
the others from the Dvaravati period are enshrined at Wat Inpratharnporn [Phu Por],"
Pimnara noted.
Besides in Kalasin, traces of Dvaravati culture can be found in other northeastern provinces
like Roi Et, Sakon Nakhon and Nakhon Phanom. Roi Et boasts several pre-historic
archaeological sites and ancient cities with moats while the base of Phrathat Phanom is
believed to be Dvaravati art. Sakhon Nakhon has a number of pre-historic sites, Dvaravati
sites with sema stones, two Khmer sanctuaries in Muang district and several cave paintings.

The
Davaravati dress in Ancient culture in center Thailand 6-9th century. Dvaravati
refers to a culture, an art style, and a disparate conglomeration of
principalities. Dvaravati itself was heavily influenced by Indian culture and
played an important role in introducing Buddhism and particularly Buddhist art
to the region.

Wat Buddha Nimitr, or Phu Khao, in Sahat Sakhan district of Kalasin houses a 2m-long and
0.5m-high reclining Buddha statue carved into a rock cave. The statue is unique for lying on
the left side of the body and having no hair bun. Some people believe it represents the Lord
Buddha when he attained parinirvana , while another legend says it stands for Phra
Mokkalana, one of the Buddha’s major disciples. According to legend, the reclining Buddha
was built more than 2,000 years ago when King Si Khottabun of Vientiane restored Phrathat
Phanom and hosted celebrations. A group of Khmer people, led by a man named Sa, travelled
to the celebrations, but failed to get there in time. They decided to bury all the money and
valuables destined for merit-making and carved the statue of Phra Mokkanlana at Phu Khao
instead.

258
Wat Nua, or Wat Sri Boon Ruang, in Muang Kalasin boasts eight sema stones from the
Dvaravati period. They are believed to have been brought from Fa Daed Song Yang Ancient
City. Only one of the eight sema stones at Wat Nua is carved showing architecture and
traditional clothes of people at that time, but no specific story can be reaffirmed. The rest are
plain.

Most of the sema stones found at Fa Daed Song Yang are made of either red or white
sandstone. Two important ones found near Phrathat Yakhu depict Bhuridatta Jataka and
Mahosot Jataka. The first one shows Brahmin Arampai pulling the naga Bhuridatta near a
termite mound and trees. The naga Bhuridatta was one of the Lord Buddha’s previous lives.
The second stone portrays a scene from Mahosot Jataka, when Mahosot was pretending to
kill King Chullaneewas with a sword.

259
Situated at Ban Sema opposite the entrance of Fa Daed Song Yang Ancient City in Kalasin,
Wat Phochai Semaram, or Wat Ban Kom, displays many sema stones collected from Fa Daed
Song Yang. The carved stones are kept in a temple building while many others, which are not
carved, were erected in the front yard of the temple near the northern wall. Among the carved
sema stones is one depicting Phra Mahosot answering a king’s questions in the presence of a
goat and dog. The faces, eyes, noses, mouths, costumes and accessories of sculptures on these
sema stones are localised. The way their legs are crossed loosely and motifs like that of phak
kood, local vegetables, are unique to the area. Also displayed in the temple compound is a
replica of a carved sema stone called Pimpa Pilarp. The original was moved to the Khon
Kaen National Museum. It portrays a seated Lord Buddha and his former wife Pimpa
Yasathara showing him respect by wiping his feet with her long hair. Another outstanding
one is the model of the sema stone depicting the Lord Buddha being requested by his son
Rahul to give him his throne and fortune.

Wat Udom Pracharat in Muang district of Kalasin does not date back to the Dhavaravati
period but it is well worth a visit. The temple has an ubosot (ordination hall), or sim in the
Isan dialect, that was registered as a historic site in 1998. It was built of bricks and has a
threetiered roof. It reflects the influence of Vietnamese art since many Vietnamese people,
including skilled carpenters and stucco artisans, migrated to the northeast of Thailand after
world wars I and II. This ubosot has arched windows and doors, fresco art on the roofs and
windows and naga sculptures upon staircases. The front gable is decorated with fresco art in
the images of the Garuda and two dragons. Outstanding is hoop taem, or mural paintings,
painted in 1933. Hoop taem mostly depict folk tales and the Lord Buddha’s previous lives,
blending local lifestyles and art. In the Northeast, murals are painted on both the exterior and
interior walls. The use of colours focuses on blue, yellow, green and white. The exterior
murals portray maha vesantara jataka and boon phaves, especially the procession of Prince
Maha Vesantara back to his city. The interior murals, including those behind the Buddha

260
statue, depict the Lord Buddha’s life starting from the right to left side with Prince
Siddhartha’s departure from his palace to the Lord Buddha conquering the Mara. Some of the
murals mix details of local culture, such as hua larn chon kan (head-hitting games between
bald men), funerals, boar hunting, modern soldiers and local costumes.

Phrathat Yakhu is Fa Daed Song Yang City’s most important site. This 15m-high brick octagonal stupa is the largest
among all the 14 stupas found in the city. The base with four corners standing out is the art of the Dvaravati period while
the upper part was extended with bricks and fresco during the Ayutthaya period and decorated in a local northeastern
style during the Rattanakosin period. In 1983, 11 sema stones were brought back to where they are believed to have been
erected. Every May, local villagers organise the ‘‘Bung Fai’’ or bamboo rocket festival at Ban Sema to seek rain and
good fortune for the community./A Roman coin/ Lapis lazuli.

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From the port of Dvārakā at the terminus of the Kamboja–Dvārakā Route, traders connected
with sea trading routes to exchange goods as far west as Rome and as far east as Kampuchea.
Goods shipped at Dvārakā also reached Greece, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula, southern
India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, the land of Suwannaphum (whose location has still not been
determined) and the Indochinese peninsula.
Dvārakā was, however, not the only port at the route's terminus. Perhaps more important was
Barygaza or Bharukaccha (modern Bharuch, located on the mainland to the east of
the Kathiawar peninsula on the river Narbada.
Horse dealers from north-west Kamboja traded as far as Sri Lanka, and there may have been
a trading community of them living in Anuradhapura, possibly along with some Greek
traders. This trade continued for centuries, long after the Kambhojans had converted to Islam
in the 9th century CE.
The chief export products from Kamboja were horses, ponies, blankets embroidered with
threads of gold,
Kambu/Kambuka silver, zinc, mashapurni, asafoetida, somvalak or punga, walnuts, almonds,
saffron, raisins and precious stones including lapis lazuli, green turquoise and emeralds.
Historical records: western sea trade
The sea trade from the southern end of the Kamboja–Dvārakā Route to the west is
documented in Greek, Buddhist and Jain records:

 The 1st-century CE Greek work The Periplus of the Erythraean Seamentions several
seaports on the west coast of India, from Barbarikon at the mouth of the Indus to
Bharakuccha, Sopara, Kalyan and Muziris. The Periplus also refers to Saurashtra as a
seaboard of Arabia.
 A century later, Ptolemy's The Geographia also refers to Bharakuccha port as a great
commercial center situated on the Narbada estuary. Ptolemy also refers to Saurashtra
as Syrestrene.
 The 7th-century CE Chinese traveler Yuan Chwang calls Saurashtra Sa-la-ch'a and refers
to it as "the highway to the sea where all the inhabitants were traders by profession".
 Undated ancient Jain texts also refer to heavy trade activity in Saurashtran seaports, some
of which had become the official residences of international traders. [ Bharakuccha in
particular is described as donamukha, meaning where goods were exchanged
freelyThe Brhatkalpa describes the port of Sopara as a great commercial center and a
residence of numerous traders.
 Other ports mentioned in texts include Vallabhi (modern Vala), a flourishing seaport
during the Maitraka dynasty in the 5th through 8th centuries CE. The existence of a port
at Kamboi is attested in 10th-century CE records.
The commerce of the western Indian coast was lucrative. Bharukacchan and Soparan traders
who established settlements or trading posts in the Persian Gulf reaped enormous profits from
the Indo-Roman trade and, according to the Vienna Papyrus, written in the mid-2nd century
CE, paid high rates of interest.
Archaeological evidence: western sea trade
There is good archaeological evidence of Roman trade goods in the first two centuries CE
reaching Kamboja and Bactria through the Gujarati peninsula. Archaeologists have found
frescoes, stucco decorations and statuary from ancient Phoenicia and Rome in
Bamian, Begram and Taxila in Afghanistan.

262
Goods from Rome on the trade route included frankincense, coral of various colors
(particularly red), figured linen from Egypt, wines, decorated silver vessels, gum, stone,
opaque glass and Greek or European slave?women. Roman gold coins were also traded and
were usually melted into bullion in Afghanistan, although very little gold came from Rome
after 70 CE. In exchange, ships bound for Rome and the west loaded up in
Barbaricum/Bharukaccha with lapis lazuli from Badakshan, green turquoise from the Hindu
Kush and Chinese silk (mentioned as reaching Barbaricum via Bactria in The Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea).
Historical records: eastern sea trade
The eastern and southern sea trade from the ports at the southern terminus of the Kamboja–
Dvārakā Route is described in Buddhist, Jain and Sri Lankan documents.

 Ancient Buddhist references attest that the nations from the northwest, including the
Kamboja as well as the Gandhara, Kashmira, Sindhu and Sovira kingdoms were part of a
trade loop with western Indian sea ports. Trade ships regularly plied between
Bharukaccha, Sopara and other western Indian ports, and southern India, Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, Suvannabhumi and the Indochinese peninsula.
The Pali work called Petavatthu says that traders went with caravans with wagons loaded
with goods from Dvāravati to Kamboja. The Pali work Apadāna refers to a saint named
Bāhiya Dārucīriya who was born in the port of Bharakuccha and according to a commentary
who made several trade voyages. He sailed the length of the Indus seven times, and also
travelled across the sea as far as Suvannabhumi and returned safely home. Also, the 4th
century CE Pali text Sihalavatthu refers to Kambojas being in the Province of Rohana on the
island of Tambapanni, or Sri Lanka..

 An undated Jain text mentions a merchant sailing from Bharukaccha and arriving in Sri
Lanka in the court of a king named Chandragupta.
 There is also a tradition in Sri Lanka, (recorded in the Pūjāvaliya) that Tapassu and
Bhalluka, the two merchant brothers, natives of Pokkharavati (modern Pushkalavati) in
what then was ancient Kamboja-Gandhara and now is the Northwest Frontier Province of
Pakistan, "visited the east coast of Ceylon and built a Cetiya there.". In addition, several
ancient epigraphic inscriptions found in a cave in Anuradhapura refer to Kamboja
corporations and a Grand Kamboja Sangha (community) in ancient Sinhala, as early as
the 3rd century BC.
 SeveralIranian recordsmention an embassy from a Sri Lankan king to the Iranian emperor
Anusharwan (531–578). The Sri Lankan monarch is reported to have sent
the Persian emperor ten elephants, two hundred thousand pieces of teakwood and seven
pearl divers.
Archaeological evidence: eastern sea trade
Archaeological digs in Sri Lanka have turned up coins, beads
and intaglios from Bactria and Afghanistan. A fragment of a Gandhara Buddha
statue in schist was recentlyunearthed from the excavations at Jetavanaramaya in
Anuradhapura. Other finds in Sri Lanka, such as lapis lazuli of the Badakshan type, connect
that island with Kamboja, ancient source of the material.
Facts in the original Pali sources
According to Malalasekara, in the entry 'Kamboja' in Dictionary of Pali Proper Names: 'The
country was evidently on one of the great caravan routes, and there was a road direct from

263
Dvāraka to Kamboja (Pv.p. 23).'The Pali work called Petavatthu that Malalasekera refers to
(as Pv.p. 23) says that caravan wagons loaded with goods went from Dvāraka to Kamboja.
The introductory story as given in the Petavatthu Commentary says that the thousand caravan
carts that went from Dvāravatī to Kamboja passed through an arid desert where they got lost.
With regards Bāhiya Dārucīriya, Malalasekara writes that he 'engaged himself in trade,
voyaging in a ship. Seven times he sailed down the Indus and across the sea and returned
safely home. On the eighth occasion, while on his way to Suvaṇṇabhūmi, his ship was
wrecked, and he floated ashore on a plank, reaching land near Suppāraka.’
The Apadāna verses of Bāhiya say that he was born in the town of Bhārukaccha
( modern Bharuch) and departed on a ship from there. After being on sea for a few days, he
fell into the sea due to a frightful, horrible sea-monster (makara), but on a plank managed to
reach the port of Suppāraka.
The source for Malalasekera's statement that Bāhiya sailed down the Indus and went to
Suvaṇṇabhūmi is the Udāna Commentary of Dhammapāla, which says that Bāhiya was born
in the country of Bāhiya, and was a merchant. Masefield translates the commentary as
follows: 'He filled a ship with abundant goods, ... , for the purposes of trade, entered upon the
ocean and, in successively roaming about, on seven occasions approached his own city via an
expedition up the Indus. But on the eighth occasion, he embarked into his ship with his goods
loaded on board thinking he would go to Suvaṇṇabhūmi. Having ventured deep into the Great
Ocean, the ship went off-course in the midst of the ocean, without reaching the desired
destination, with the people (on board) becoming a meal for fish and turtles. But Bāhiya,
being tossed about ever so slowly by the motion of the waves as he made his way (to safety)
after grabbing hold of a ship’s plank, on the seventh day reached the shore in the locality of
the port of Suppāraka.’
The port of Suppāraka, is either modern Sopara near Bhārukacchaor modern Bharuch,
or Vasai near Mumbai, about 290 kilometers south of Bhārukaccha

Figure 1. Selected historical sites in Thailand, showing core Dvaravati region. Inset details Dvaravati
core region and major Dvaravati sites after Indrawooth (2004) and Mudar (1999).

264
LAND USE, POLITICAL COMPLEXITY, AND URBANISM IN MAINLAND SOUTHEAST
ASIA.Lisa Kealhofer,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258125588_LAND_USE_POLITICAL_COMPLEXITY_A
ND_URBANISM_IN_MAINLAND_SOUTHEAST_ASIA

So the main question now arfises: Was Dvaravati in Thailand named

after Krishna’s mythical city DWARKA in spite of the fact that no
evidence of Krishna- neither idols, or temples have been uncovered
in this region. Or was the name gin=ven to honour KRISHNA the
central figute of Mahabharagta? E shall never know but it seens
probsble

Krishna Govardhan Pre Angkorean Period

265
 Ancient
Khmer carving of Krishna, Angkor, Cambodia
Dvaravati or Dwarka: Myths & Legends
There are many mythical tales woven around the city of Dwarka, India the mythical city of
KRISHNA the Blue Hindu God. The most prominent myth is associated with the ‘hero of the
Dwapara’; Lord Krishna who is believed to have held his kingdom here. Dwarka in the
ancient times was known as Anarta which had been Lord Krishna’s terrestrial empire.
Dwarka consisted in islands like Antar dwipa, Dwarka Island and the mainland of Dwarka.
The city had been the capital city of the Yadava clan which ruled over the place since many
years. In the great epic Mahabharata Dwarka is mentioned as Yadavas’ capital city consisting
in many other neighboring states such as Vrishnis, Andhakas, Bhojas within its jurisdiction.
The most important chiefs of Yadava clan inhabiting Dwarka included Lord Krishna, who
was the king of Dwarka, then Balarama, Kritavarma, Satyaki, Akrura, Kritavarma, Uddhava
and Ugrasena. According to the most popular legendary tale, Lord Krishna migrated to
Kusasthali; the name by which Dwarka was known in the ancient times in order to evade the
continual harassing raids done on Mahura by Jarasandha; Kansa’s father in law. Jarasandha
wanted to avenge the death of Kansa, the wicked cruel uncle of Krishna whom the lord had
killed and thus was attacking Mathura time and again.

According to legendary, Kusasthali had been Lord Krishna’s ancestral native on his maternal
side. The city is said to have been set up a Yadava ancestor of Lord Krishna; Raivata after he
got defeated battle with Punyajanas and lost his kingdom to the latter. After the defeat,
Raivata fled to Mathura in order to keep himself and his clan members safe. Later on he
returned to establish the city of Kusasthali or Dwarka. This tale indicates that lord Krishna’s
shifting to Dwarka from Mathura took place in reverse order.

Marine archaeology has proved that the existence of the Dwarka and its submergence in
the second millennium B.C referred to in the Mahabharat, Harivamsa, Matsya and Vayu
Purans (Sanskrit texts) is a fact and not fiction. The implications of accepting the
archeologists’ finds as proof that the sunken city is indeed the legendary Dwarka would be
very significant for the understanding of what the Mahabharata is. It would no longer be

266
merely a book of myths and legends, but in fact, at least to some extent, a genuine account of
past events.

Speculations and Conclusions

Based on the correlation between the excavated structures and artefacts with the description
of Dwarka in Harivamsha purana, and the fact that the carbon dating of artefacts fall around
3500BC, the same period concluded by many astronomical analysts as the period of the
Mahabharata war and the submersion of Dwarka, it is more than reasonable to conclude that
the excavated site near Bet Dwarka is indeed the legandary city of Dwarka.

The discovery of the second exploration at Gulf of Khambat proves that it was not just
Dwarka that got submersed, but more costal regions got encroached by the sea over centuries,
and the dating of artefacts to 7500BC indicates that the ancient indian civilization is more
than 9000 years old, and the entire coastal regions has been going under sea from 9000BC,
and this phenomenon took over the city of Dwarka by around 3500BC.

Before the discovery of the legendary city of Dwaraka, some scholars were of view that the
Hindu Epic Mahabharata is only a myth and that it would be futile to search for the remains
of the ancient city and that too in the sea. Few scholars also believe that the Mahabharata
battle was a family feud which was exaggerated into a war. Excavations of Dr S. R. Rao at
Dwaraka prove that the descriptions found in the texts are not to be discarded as fancy stories
but are to be treated as based on logic and reasoning.

Thus the results have proved that the account in Mahabharata as to the existence of a
beautiful capital city of Dwaraka of Sri Krishna was not a mere figment of imagination but it
did exist.

Lord Narasimha and his role in naming of Simhapura,

CHAMPA
DR Uday Dokras

267
Left: Lord Sharabha on display in the Museum. Below: Lithograph depicting Vishnu as Narasimha(right)

The Mystery 5 Capital Cities of Champa Kingdom!

The Cham came to power in the 2nd century, AD, which eventually grew and became the site
of five capital cities:

- Simhapura (4th-8th centuries)

- Indrapura (9th-10th centuries)
- Vijaya (10th-15th centuries)
- Kauthara (8th-17th centuries)
- Panduranga (8th-19th centuries)

Settled along the coastal areas of central Vietnam. The economy was based on maritime trade
with ports at Hoi An and Qui Nhon and also piracy. Sometime in the 4th century, contact
with Indian traders brought the influence of Hindu religion, art, and social customs to Cham
society. During the 9th century, the Cham embraced Buddhism, and later Islam during the
17th century. Today there are more than 77,000 Cham descendants living in southern
Vietnam and in neighboring Cambodia.

The Cham are believed to be of Austronesian origin; they are ethnically and culturally
distinct from the Viet to the north and the Khmer to the west. Early mention of the Cham are
contained in Chinese records dating to 192 AD. Efforts to expand their kingdom resulted in
battles with the Han Chinese for control of provinces near the Red River Delta to the north in
the 4th century. The Chinese regained control of the area and attacked the Champa capital of
Simhapura in 446 AD. Ongoing rebellion over the centuries by the Viet resulted in Vietnam’s
independence in the 10th century. However, the Cham battled the Viet for control of their
northern border.

Likewise the Cham was faced with regular incursions by the powerful Khmer kingdom in the
south. Ultimately, the Cham retaliated by capturing the Khmer capital at Angkor in 1177 AD.
The reaction of the Khmers under Jayavarman VII was fierce and decisive. By 1190 Champa
was split into two kingdoms, one became a Khmer vassal state and the other was linked to
Angkor by dynastic right. By 1220 AD the Champa region was annexed by the Khmer, and

268
the art reflects the noteworthy influence of that occupation. Politically, the Viet posed the
greater threat to the Cham kingdom and it slowly moved south claiming territory. In 1471 the
Viet overcame the Cham at their capital of Vijaya ending their independence. With little
cultural ties to their Hindu heritage and with the introduction of Islam to what remained of
their kingdom, Cham culture diminished. By 1820 the last Cham king and many
of his subjects fled to neighboring Cambodia or Malaysia.

What remains of 1,200 years of the Kingdom of Champa are the beautiful sculptures which
combine aspects native beliefs and Hindu and Buddhist imagery. Established in 1915 by the
French, the Cham Museum in Danang displays fine examples of Hindu deities including
Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, Saraswati, and Ganesh. Demons, devas, and demigods show
stylistic influences of Hindu culture but also reflect unique Cham artistic elements. Of great
interest are the unique pedestals on display. These symbols of fertility called uroja (meaning
“women’s breasts) likely reveal the esteem afforded women in Cham culture.

Even though today Simhapura is named Trà Kiệu is a village in Duy Sơn commune, Duy
Xuyên district, Quảng Nam province, Vietnam,located in the Thu Bồn river valley 18
kilometres (11 mi) inland from Hội An, which has since moved putting the site on the
southern bank of the Bà Rén river, a tributary of the Thu Bồn river.It was the first capital city
of the Hindu Champa Kingdom, then named Simhapura, from the 4th century to the 8th
century CE. The site has been known to the western world since the late 19th century. Today
nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular ramparts. Bửu Châu or jade hill
overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the Simhapura. There are also signs of a
border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently unknown if this was for defense,
hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else entirely. There has been much debate
regarding Trà Kiệu, as it is believed by some to be the capital city of Champa Kingdom and
by others to be the capital city of the Kingdom of Lâm Ấp (Linyi). Trà Kiệu also has two
main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics for household use and roof tiles
marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings about the iconic roof tiles with
faces on them. There are two main theories about why the faces start appearing on the tiles:
the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that workers at Trà Kiệu began carving
faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was an Indian mask maker who
introduced and popularized the face motifs as this style of decoration on roof tiles.

1. The Trà Kiệu pedestal of the 10th century supports a massive lingam and ablutionary cistern.
2. A row of apsaras, or celestial nymphs, is depicted on the base of the Trà Kiệu Pedestal.

3. Dancers' Pedestal of Trà Kiệu features this apsara or dancer and gandharva or musician.

269
 Location of Simhapore which was an Entrepot

Champa theory
Occupation of the Trà Kiệu site began in the 1st-2nd century, while Cham influence at the
site didn't begin until the mid to late 4th century. The city of Simhapura, now known as Trà
Kiệu, had its perimeter walls built in the early centuries of the Common Era which support
the above statements. While Champa influence began traveling out of India and into South-
Eastern Asia in the 4th century, Simhapura isn't believed to have become the capital of the
Champa Kingdom until the 10th century AD. Further mentions of Simhapura dating from the
11th century (1074–1076) when king Harivarman IV decided to restore the city back to its
golden age. Evidence of Cham influence in Trà Kiệu are sketches from Claeys that show the
district foundations on which Cham built their towers. There's evidence of bricks both broken
and intricately laid that denote the Cham's influence in Trà Kiệu. Additionally, the border
wall was made of brick which tells us that Trà Kiệu had enough Cham influence to fashion
their border walls after the Cham style. There was additionally a lot of Cham style pottery
found at Trà Kiệu, and while this is not definitive evidence there was enough pottery to make
it highly significant. Ultimately, while there is no absolute proof of the Champa Theory, there
is significant evidence of Chinese influence as well. However, the Cham influence is
undeniable and many Vietnamese Archeologists conclude that Simhapura now known as Trà
Kiệu was the capital of the Champa Kingdom.

270
 Stone sculpture of the god Siva on a pedestal and on
display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture (Da Nang). The presence of Siva gives some
credence to the Champa theory

Lin Yi theory
This theory is proposed by Leonard Aurousseau, who sent out the original documenter of Trà
Kiệu, J.-Y. Claeys. Claeys conducted flyovers of Trà Kiệu in 1927 and his research went on
to undermine Aurousseau, who thought Trà Kiệu was the capital of the Lin Yi empire that
enveloped parts of Vietnam. This deviates even from the later developed "Champa theory"
explained above because Aurousseau believed Trà Kiệu to be the city that was invaded by
China in the 5th century. This theory was based on the ancient Chinese records of the
invasion and was a shot in the dark as the precise location of Lin Yi has remained uncertain.
It was unclear from said Chinese records if Lin Yi referred to a Kingdom or a City.
Another scholar, Andrew David Hardy, theorizes the name Lin Yi may have been used by the
Chinese as a catch-all for a hostile Vietnamese polity. According to Hardy, Lin Yi was
located north of Cham territory and was likely not a Cham settlement and was instead later
absorbed into the Champa polity as it expanded north. He further theorizes that the Chinese
simply extended the name Lin Yi to the Champa Thu Bồn valley. As with Aurousseau's
theory, Hardy bases this hypothesis on speculation and on documentation of China's
interactions with the Champa, as well as an elusive Vietnamese polity.

Ceramic end tile with decoration from Trà Kiệu. Example

of roof tiles with face motif.

Chronology

271
 There are two main phases in the chronology of Trà Kiệu, which are as follows: Trà Kiệu I
Phase (which can be further subdivided into Ia and Ib) and Trà Kiệu II Phase. The largest
difference between Trà Kiệu I and II Phase lie in the styles of roof tiles found at the site. Trà
Kiệu I Phase is represented by the presence of roof tiles with textile impressions, while Trà
Kiệu II Phase roof tiles lack impressions. Roof tiles from Trà Kiệu II Phase are instead
decorated with motifs of human faces. A further breakdown of the chronology of Trà Kiệu
from researcher Trường Giang Đỗ is as follows:
 Trà Kiệu I Phase

o A range of pottery of coarse fabric, including:

o Ovoid jars, cord-marked jars, lids, dishes, bowls, pedestal cups and stoves and roof tiles
 Trà Kiệu I Phase Ia

Roof tiles marked with textile impressions

o
 Trà Kiệu II Phase
o No roof tiles with textile impressions on concave surface, instead decorated with human
faces

o Eaves tiles with human face motifs can be dated from the third century CE, likely from the
second quarter and onwards.
 From the 7th to the 10th centuries, the Cham controlled the trade in spices and
silk between China, India, the Indonesian islands, and the Abbasid empire
in Baghdad. They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by
exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding.
Consolidation under Prakasadharma and the Simhapura dynasty

Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary

In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of
Champa in Simhapura (Tra Kieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?)
and Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or
the Simhapura dynasty. He embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic
kingdoms in the south, and by 658 AD the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa)
stretching from Quảng Bình province in the north to present-day Ninh
Hòa city, Khánh Hòa province in the south, was unified under one ruler for the first
time.
Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known
as viṣaya (district. However, viṣaya also can be synonymous

272
with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that time there were two know districts:
Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could
be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the worship of three gods.
They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures. Prakāśadharma built
numerous temples and religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn. One structure is amazing
decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king, resembling a
theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.
Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in
653, 654, 669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous
kings. The seventh century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese,
became the chief tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms
of Kokuryo in the Northeast and Baekje in the East — though the latter was rivaled by
Japan.
Religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn
By the second half of the 7th century, royal temples were beginning to appear at Mỹ
Sơn. The dominant religious practice was that of the Hindu god Shiva, but temples
were also dedicated to Vishnu. Scholars have called the architectural style of this
period Mỹ Sơn E1, in reference to a particular edifice at Mỹ Sơn that is regarded as
emblematic of the style. Important surviving works of art in this style include a
pedestal for a linga that has come to be known as the Mỹ Sơn E1 Pedestal and a
pediment depicting the birth of Brahma from a lotus issuing from the navel of the
sleeping Vishnu
In an important stone inscription dated 657, found at Mỹ Sơn, King Prakasadharma,
who took on the name Vikrantavarman I at his coronation, claimed to be descended
through his mother from the Brahman Kaundinya and the serpent princess Soma, the
legendary ancestors of the Khmer of Cambodia. This inscription underlines the ethnic
and cultural connection of Champa with the Khmer Empire, its perennial rival to the
west. It also commemorates the king's dedication of a monument, probably a linga, to
Shiva.[57] Another inscription documents the king's almost mystical devotion to Shiva,
"who is the source of the supreme end of life, difficult to attain; whose true nature is
beyond the domain of thought and speech, yet whose image, identical with the
universe, is manifested by his forms."
In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as
"Huanwang", the political center of Champa shifted temporarily from Mỹ Sơn
southward to the regions of Panduranga and Kauthara, centered around the temple
complex of Po Nagar near modern Nha Trang that was dedicated to the indigenous
Earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In 774, raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara,
burned the temple of Po Nagar, and carried off the image of Shiva. The Cham
king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the raiders and defeated them in a naval
battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, declaring that he had regained
control of the area and had restored the temple. In 787, Javanese raiders destroyed a
temple dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga.
Other Sinhapuras

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Sinhapura ("Lion City" /Siṃhapura) was the capital of the legendary Indian
king Sinhabahu. It has been mentioned in the Buddhist legends about Prince Vijaya. The
name is also transliterated as Sihapura or Singhapura. The location of Sinhapura is disputed
with some scholars claiming the city was located in eastern India and others claiming it was
located in present-day Malaysia or Thailand. The city is linked to the origin of the Sinhalese
people and Sinhalese Buddhist ancient texts. There are several Simhapuras some named after
the Kings as a symbol of the Lion but this author thinks that they are to commemorate the
Avatar of Shiva called NARASIMHA ( Half Lion half Human) – whose story and
historiography we shall discuss later on. Cities have been named aftyer geography,
situation ,King or God.

The Kingdom of Tambapaṇṇī was the

first Sinhalese kingdom in Sri Lanka. founded
by Prince Vijaya and his followers.Tambapaṇṇī
is a name derived
from Tāmraparṇī or Tāmravarṇī (in Sanskrit).
This means the colour of copper or bronze
because when Vijaya and his followers landed
in Sri Lanka, when their hands and feet touched
the ground they became red with the dust of the
red-earth. Therefore, the city founded on that
spot was named Tambapaṇṇī.

According to Mahavamsa, the king of Vanga (historic Bengal region) married the daughter
of the king of Kalinga (present-day Odisha). The couple had a daughter named Suppadevi,
who was prophesied to copulate with the king of beasts. As an adult, Princess Suppadevi left
Vanga to seek an independent life. She joined a caravan headed for Magadha, but it was
attacked by Sinha ("lion") in a forest of the Lala (or Lada) region. The Mahavamsa mentions
the "Sinha" as an animal, but some modern interpreters state that Sinha was the name of a
beastly outlaw man living in the jungle. Lala is variously identified as Rarh (an area in the
Vanga-Kalinga region), or as Lata (a part of the present-day Gujarat).
Suppadevi fled during the attack, but encountered Sinha again. Sinha was attracted to her,
and she also caressed him, thinking of the prophecy. Sinha kept Suppadevi locked in a cave,
and had two children with her: a son named Sinhabahu (or Sihabahu; "lion-armed") and a
daughter named Sinhasivali (or Sihasivali). When the children grew up, Suppadevi escaped
with them to Vanga. They met a general who happened to be a cousin of Suppadevi, and later
married her. Meanwhile, Sinha started ravaging villages in an attempt to find his missing
family. The King of Vanga announced a reward for anyone who could kill Sinha. Sinhabahu
killed his own father to claim the reward. By the time Sinhabahu returned to the capital, the
King of Vanga had died. Sinhabahu was declared the new king by the ministers, but he later
handed over the kingship to his mother's husband, the general. He went back to his birthplace
in Lala, and founded the city of Sinhapura.
Sinhabahu married his sister Sinhasivali, and the couple had 32 sons in form of 16 pairs of
twins. Vijaya was their eldest son, followed by his twin Sumitta. Vijaya and his followers
were expelled from Sinhapura for their violent deeds against the citizens. During their exile,

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they reached the present-day Sri Lanka, where they found the Kingdom of Tambapanni.
Meanwhile, in Sinhapura, Sumitta succeeded his father as the king. Before an heirless Vijaya
died in Lanka, he sent a letter to Sumitta, asking him to come to Lanka and govern the new
kingdom. Sumitta was too old to go to Lanka, so he sent his youngest
son Panduvasdeva instead.
Mahavamsa mentions that Sinhapura was founded in Lala, but does not mention the exact
location of Lala. Scholars who believe the legend of Prince Vijaya to be semi-historical have
tried to identify the legendary Sinhapura with several modern places in India.
According to one theory, Sinhapura was in Kalinga, either in present-
day Odisha, Jharkhand or the northern part of Andhra Pradesh. A city named Simhapura
(another variant of "lion city") was the capital of Kalinga region during Mathara, Pitrubhakta
and Vasistha dynasties. The inscriptions of three Kalinga kings – Candavarman, Umavarman
and Ananta Saktivarman – were issued from Simhapura. Ananta Saktivarman's inscription is
dated approximately to the 5th century CE on paleographic grounds. A Sanskrit-
language plate inscription, also dated approximately to 5th century CE, mentions that it was
issued by a vassal king named Satrudamanadeva from the Simhapura city. The inscription
was found at Pedda Dugam, a place in Jalumuru mandal of Srikakulam district, Andhra
Pradesh. Simhapura was the capital of a kingdom in Kalinga region in as late as the 12th
century CE. The inscriptions of the Sri Lankan king Nissanka Malla state that he was born in
Sinhapura of Kalinga in 1157/8 CE, and that he was a descendant of Vijaya. However, his
records are considered to be boastful exaggerations.
R. C. Majumdar mentions that the Kalinga capital Simhapura and Sinhapura
of Mahavamsa may have been same, but "the whole story is too legendary to be considered
seriously".[7] Even those who identify Sinhapura with Simhapura of Kalinga differ in opinion
about its exact location. One source identifies the ancient city with the Singupuram village
near Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh. Another source identifies Sinhapura with Singhpur town
near Jajpur[in present-day Odisha.
Professor Manmath Nath Das points out that according to Mahavamsa, Lala (and therefore
Sinhapura) was located on the way from Vanga (present-day Bengal) to Magadha (present-
day Bihar). If Mahavamsa is correct, Sinhapura could not have been located in today's
Odisha or Andhra Pradesh, because these places lie to the south of Bengal, away from Bihar.
He, therefore, concludes that the Sinhapura of Mahavamsa was different from the capital city
mentioned in records of Kalinga's rulers: it was probably located in the present-day Chota
Nagpur area S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar also believed that Lala and Sinhapura were located
on road main road connecting Vanga to Magadha. According to him, this area was either a
part of the Kalinga kingdom, or located near its border.
Historians such as A. L. Basham and Senarath Paranavithana believe that the Lala kingdom
was situated far away from the Vanga-Kalinga region, in present-day Gujarat. According to
them, Sinhapura was located in present-day Sihor. According to Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri,
Sinhapura was in the Rarh region of Vanga. He identifies it with the present-
day Singur in West Bengal.
The Simhachala Hill Range, with the anglicised name Simhachalam Hills, are a towering
mountain range (377 m) in the city of Visakhapatnam, in Andhra Pradesh state,
southern India. It is one of the hill ranges in Andhra Pradesh and in the Eastern Ghats
covering an area of 32 km. The Simhachalm Hill Range has a lot of rich history. The
famous Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha temple is located here. The Chalukya period Radha
Madhava Swamy temple and some old Buddhist monuments are also found here. Sri Varaha

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Lakshmi Narasimha temple, Simhachalam, is a Hindu temple situated on
the Simhachalam Hill Range, dedicated to Lord Vishnu, who is worshipped there
as Varaha Narasimha.

South East Asian Simhapura

Scholars claim the city of Simhapura was located in Southeast Asia. Paranavitana indirectly claimed
the city was located in Malaya while Rohanadheera claimed the city was Sing Buri, close to the city
of Lopburi, which was located within the Khmer Empire at the time, later ruled by the Thai
kingdoms.1 There have been several cities with the same name in India as well as in South East Asian
Countries. The inscription found at Pedda Dugam, a place in Jalumuru mandal of Srikakulam district,
Andhra Pradesh. Simhapura was the capital of a kingdom in Kalinga region in as late as the 12th
century CE.
No. 15─PEDDA-DUGAM PLATES OF SATRUDAMANA, YEAR 9
The inscriptions of the Sri Lankan king Nissanka Malla state that he was born in Sinhapura of
Kalinga in 1157/8 CE, and that he was a descendant of Vijaya. However, his records are considered
to be boastful exaggerations. There are several points of interest in the inscription under study. It
reveals for the first time the existence of a king named Śatrudamana who ruled from Siṁhapura
which has been identified with modern Singupuram near Srikakulam. It is well known that this city is
mentioned as the capital of the Kaliṅga country in the Ceylonese chronicles and that
many Mahārājas enjoying the title Kaliṅga-ādhipati or sakala-Kaliṅg-ādhipati, who flourished
about the fifth century A.D., issued their charters from the same place. [1] We also know that the
history of Kaliṅga about the fifth century was marked by the rivalry between the kings of Pishṭapura
(modern Pithapuram in the East Godavari District) in South Kaliṅga and those of Central Kaliṅga,
especially the rulers of Siṁhapura. Kings Umavarman and Chaṇḍavarman of the Pitṛibhakta family
had one of their capitals at Siṁhapura. The Māṭharas, who originally ruled from Pishṭapura, appear
to have ousted the Pitṛibhaktas from Central Kaliṅga. The Ragolu plates, issued by the Māṭhara king
Śaktivarman from Pishṭapura, record a grant of land in the neighbourhood of Siṁhapura, while the
Ningondi and Sakunaka grants of Prabhañjanavarman and Anantaśaktivarman, respectively the son
and grandson of Śaktivarman, were issued from Siṁhapura itself.

The Vāsishṭhas of Dēvarāshṭra in Central Kaliṅga, i.e. the modern Yellamanchili area of the
Visakhapatnam District, appear to have extended their power over the Pishṭapura region and
extirpated the Māṭharas sometime about the beginning of the sixth century A.D. King Śatrudamana
of our inscription appears to have ruled earlier than all the rulers mentioned above as having issued
their charters from Siṁhapura.An interesting fact to be noted in this connection is that, while the
other Mahārājas of the age and area generally claimed to have been the lords of Kaliṅga and were
apparently independent. Sharabha is an avatar of Shiva, part-lion and part-bird, that is usually only
found in southern India. It is believed to be the most powerful incarnation of Shiva. In Shaivite
Hindu mythology, Shiva takes the form of Sharabha to subdue Narasimha (an avatar of Vishnu). In
this sculpture, Vishnu can be seen beneath Sharabha’s claws.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay, eds. (2009). Nagapattinam to
Suvarnadwipa : reflections on the Chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia. Singapore:
Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 201. ISBN 978-981-230-937-2.

The story of Vishnu’s incarnation as the half-human half-lion, Narasimha, appears in the
Padma Purana. While Shiva’s incarnation as Sharabha is recorded in the Shiva Purana. These
holy texts are dedicated to different deities, and the two halves of the story are told from

276
different perspectives.In the Padma Purana, the demon Hiranyaksha carries the earth to the
underworld. To save the planet, Vishnu takes the form of Varaha, the divine boar, and fatally
stabs Hiranyaksha with his tusk. But Hiranyaksha had an elder brother, the king
Hiranyakashipu. When Hiranyakashipu discovered his brother had been killed, he prayed to
Lord Shiva, who was so pleased with this act of penance that he granted Hiranyakashipu
immortality.Later, King Hiranyakashipu had a son, Prahlad, who chose to worship Vishnu.
Hiranyakashipu was incensed. How could his son worship the deity who had killed his
brother? Hiranyakashipu set out to stop his son, then, when he saw he could not, he vowed to
kill him.Lord Vishnu vowed to protect Prahlad. But Shiva had given Hiranyakashipu the
power of not being killed by a human or animal or by any weapon. So, Vishnu transformed
himself into half-lion half-man; not quite human, not quite animal, and he killed
Hiranyakashipu, ripping into his stomach with his claws. Prahlad was safe and became ruler
of his father’s kingdom.

But Narasimha’s anger could not be sated. In some versions of the story, it is Prahlad who
finally calms him. But in the Shiva Purana, even Prahlad could not stop him. The other gods
turned to Shiva for help. After two unsuccessful attempts to calm the anger of Narasimha,
Shiva turns himself into his most devastating form, Sharabha – a huge and terrifying man-
eating bird. He knocked Narasimha down with his giant wings and carried him off.
Narasimha became so afraid he passed out, turning back into Vishnu – in the form we can see
here in the sculpture, kneeling under Sharabha’s paws. Afterwards, Narasimha praised Shiva.
In this version of the story, Shiva took his skull and added it to his necklace of heads.

This large figure of Lord Sharabha and Narasimha is probably from the top of a juggernaut
cart that is pulled through the streets during a religious festival.

Relate
The Legand of Pralhad and Narasimha
Prahlada (Sanskrit: प्रह्लाद, romanized: Prahlāda) is an asura king in Hindu mythology.
He is known for his staunch devotion towards the preserver deity, Vishnu. He appears in the
narrative of Narasimha, the man-lion avatar of Vishnu, who rescues Prahlada by slaying his
wicked father, Hiranyakashipu.

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Prahlada is described as a saintly boy, known for his innocence and bhakti to Vishnu. Despite
the abusive nature of his father, Hiranyakashipu, he continues to worship Vishnu. He is
considered to be a mahājana, or great devotee, by followers of Vaishnava traditions. A
treatise is accredited to him in the Bhagavata Purana, in which Prahlada describes the process
of his loving worship towards Vishnu.
The majority of stories in the Puranas regarding him are based on the activities of Prahlada as
a young boy, and he is usually depicted as such in paintings and illustrations.

Prahlada prays to Narasimha as the deity rips apart Hiranyakashipu

Prahlada was born to Kayadhu and Hiranyakashipu, an evil daitya king who had been granted
a boon that he could not be killed off by anything born from a living womb, neither be killed
by a man nor an animal, neither during the day nor at night, neither indoors nor outdoors,
neither on land nor in the air nor in water and of no man-made weapon. However, after
repeated attempts of filicide by Hiranyakashipu unto Prahlada, Prahlada was finally saved by
Narasimha, the fourth avatar of Vishnu, who descended to demonstrate the quality of divine
rage and redemption by killing the demon king. The word "Narsimha" is derived from the
Sanskrit words "nara", meaning man, and "siṃha", meaning lion. Thus, the preserver god
took the form of a part-man, part-lion to kill the asura.
After the death of his father, Prahlada ascended the asura throne, and ruled peacefully and
virtuously. He was known for his generosity and kindness. He sowed similar seeds in his
son Virochana, and grandson Mahabali.
Early life
When the ruler of the asuras, Hiraṇyakashipu, was performing a penance in the forest to gain
the boon of destroying Vishnu, the devas attacked the asura realm. A great battle ensued, in
which the devas were defeated. While fleeing, Indra abducted the pregnant Kayādhū, the wife
of Hiranyakashipu, as a spoil of war. Narada listened to the wails of the poor woman, and got
her released from Indra’s captivity. She stayed in the ashrama of the divine sage in gratitude.
Prahlada — while being inside his mother's womb — listened to Narada's chants of devotion
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towards Narayana. He was taught by Narada during his early childhood. As a result, he grew
devoted to Vishnu. His father was antagonised by his spiritual inclination, and tried to warn
Prahlada against offending him, since he had greatly desired to turn his son against Vishnu in
particular. Despite several warnings from his father Hiranyakashipu, Prahlada continued to
worship Vishnu instead of the former. The child is successful in converting other students of
the asura clan into Vaishnavism by teaching them the Narayana mantra.[6] His father then
decided to commit filicide and poisoned Prahlada, but he survived. When the daitya soldiers
attacked their prince with weapons, Prahlada informed them that their efforts were futile,
since Vishnu resided within them. The asura monarch then had the boy trampled by
the aṣṭadiggajas, the eight elephants who bear the weight of the earth, but their tusks were
broken to bits upon contact with him. He placed Prahlada in a room with venomous, dark
snakes, and they made a bed for him with their bodies
Prahalada was then thrown from a valley into a river, but was saved by Bhudevi, the consort
of Vishnu. Holika, the sister of Hiranyakashipu, was blessed in that she could not be hurt by
fire. Hiranyakashipu put Prahlada on the lap of Holika as she sat on a pyre. Prahlada prayed
to Vishnu to keep him safe. Holika burnt to death, even as Prahlada was left unscathed. This
event is celebrated as the Hindu festival of Holi.
The asura Shambara and Vayu were tasked to slay the prince, but both of them were driven
away by Vishnu. The boy was entrusted to Shukra, who educated him regarding his duties,
the sciences, and justice, and was returned to his father after he was deemed to have become
humble. The asura king once again broached the topic of God with his son, only to discover
that the latter had never wavered in his faith. Finally, the wicked daitya commanded all the
daityas and the danavas to collect all the mountains of the earth to construct a barrier over the
boy in the ocean, so that his son would be submerged for a millennium. Even though they
spread over him for a thousand miles, Prahlada, bound hand and foot, prayed to Vishnu, who
granted him a number of boons, and returned to prostrate before his father, who was left
bewildered.

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Prahlada shows his father that Vishnu exists everywhere
After tolerating repeated abuse from Hiranyakashipu, Prahlada is eventually saved
by Narasimha, an avatar of Vishnu in the form of a man-lion, emerges from within a stone
pillar, who places the king on his thighs, and kills him with his sharp nails at the threshold to
his home at dusk, thus nullifying all of Hiranyakashipu's boon of virtual immortality.
Prahlada eventually becomes the king of the daityas, and attains a place in the abode of
Vishnu (Vaikuntha) after his death.

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In the Bhagavad Gita (10.30) Krishna makes the following statement in regard to Prahlada,
showing his favour towards him:
prahlādaścāsmi daityānāṁ kālaḥ kalayatāmaham .
mr̥gāṇāṁ ca mr̥gēndrō’haṁ vainatēyaśca pakṣiṇām .. 10-30.

— Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 10, Verse 30

Translation: "Among the Daityas, I am the great devotee Prahlada and of calculators, I am
Time; among quadrupeds, I am the lion; and among birds, I am Garuda."
In the Vishnu Purana, the sage Parasara ends narrating the tale of Prahlada to Maitreya with
the following proclamation:[
Such, Maitreya, was the Daitya Prahlada, the wise and faithful worshipper of Viṣṇu, of whom
you wished to hear; and such was his miraculous power. Whoever listens to the history of
Prahlada is immediately cleansed from his sins: the iniquities that he commits, by night or by
day, shall be expiated by once hearing, or once reading, the history of Prahlada. The perusal
of this history on the day of full moon, of new moon, or on the eighth or twelfth day of the
lunation, shall yield fruit equal to the donation of a cow. As Viṣṇu protected Prahlāda in all
the calamities to which he was exposed, so shall the deity protect him who listens constantly
to the tale.

— Vishnu Purana, Book 1, Chapter 20

Conquest of the three worlds
Because of his steadfast devotion towards Vishnu as well as under the teachings
of Shukracharya, Prahlada became the mighty King of the Asuras. Prahlada was even more
powerful than his father, Hiranyakashipu ever was. He enjoyed the love and respect of his
subjects. Without lifting a single weapon, and by virtue of his good behaviour, Prahlada
conquered the three worlds easily, and Indra ran away from Svarga. In the disguise of
a Brahmin, Indra sought an audience with the asura king and asked him to teach him
about Sanatana Dharma. Pleased with this pupil, he offered him a boon, and Indra sought the
king's virtue, and hence robbed Prahlada of his dharma as well.

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Duel against Nara-Narayana
Prahlada once commanded the asuras to accompany him to the holy tirtha of Naimiṣa, where
he hoped to see a vision of Vishnu. They went hunting along the banks of the Sarasvati river.
Prahlada observed two ascetics with matted hair, bearing the bows of Sharanga and Ajagava.
The asura king asked them why they held weapons while performing a penance, and the two
ascetics responded that all those who held power were righteous in their conduct. One of
the rishis assured the king that none in the three worlds could conquer them in a duel.
Prahlada rose to the challenge. Nara fired arrows upon the king with his Ajagava, but the
latter was able to defeat him with his own gold-plated arrows. Prahlada employed the divine
Brahmastra against Nara's Narayanastra. Seeing them neutralised in a mid-air collision,
Prahlada wielded his mace against Narayana. His mace broke, and Prahlada found himself
growing helpless, and sought Vishnu's assistance. Vishnu told his devotee that the Nara-
Narayana brothers were invincible as they were the sons of Yama, and could only be
conquered in devotion rather than combat. The king left the regency to Andhaka and erected
an ashrama to propitiate Nara-Narayana and apologise for his folly.
War against Vishnu
According to the Kurma Purana, Prahlada always served thousands of Brahmins daily. One
day, Prahlada forgot to serve one Brahmin inadvertently. The latter cursed the asura that he
would forget Vishnu and become unrighteous. The curse soon came into fruition, with
Prahlada ignoring the Vedas and the Brahmins, and was soon deviating from the path of
dharma. Determined to avenge his father's death, he waged war against Vishnu. When he was
defeated, he realised his folly and abdicated his throne, allowing Andhaka to reign as king
Other conflicts
According to the Devi Bhagavata Purana, Prahlada was compelled to wage war against Indra
and the devas by the daityas. In the fierce devasura war that ensued, Prahlada emerged as the
victor. Fearing that the asura king would destroy the devas, Indra prayed to Mahadevi, and
Prahlada responded in kind. Pleased, the goddess pacificed both of them and they returned to
their abodes.
Prahlada, Virochana, Bali, and Bana fought against Shiva and the devas when Andhaka
attacked Kailasha. Prahlada had strongly advised Andhaka against the invasion, but Andhaka
refused. Andhaka was eventually defeated by Shiva, and Prahlada once more became King of
the Asuras.
Prahlada was present during the churning of the ocean and also fought in the Tarakamaya
War against the devas.
Prahlada's son was Virochana, who was the father of Bali. The devas had Virochana killed by
taking advantage of his generosity. Prahlada raised his grandson, Bali. Later on, Prahlada
and Bali lived on Sutala Loka under the instructions of Vishnu.
It was Prahlada who asked Shukracharya to acquire the Mritasanjivani mantra from Shiva, to
save the asuras from the devas.
After a long life, Prahlada attained Vaikuntha. Prahlada's great-grandson was the thousand-
armed Banasura, who was humbled in battle by Krishna.
Pilgrimage sites
The following sites in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh in India,
are associated with Prahlāda or Narasiṁha as places of pilgrimage:

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 Prahlad Ghat, Hardoi
 Shri Laxmi Narsimha Temple
 Malakonda
 Simhachalam
 Ahobilam
 Kadiri
 Yadagirigutta Temple
 Lakshmi Narasimha swamy temple, Penna Ahobilam
In Pakistan:

 Prahladpuri Temple, Multan

The Prahallada Nataka (also spelled as Prahlada-Naṭaka), a folk dance-theatre from Ganjam,
Odisha enacts the story of Narasimha and Hiranyakashipu. This art form dates back to the
18th century when the Rāmakruṣṇa Chhoṭarāya, the erstwhile king of the Jalantara state
wrote the text and the songs of the drama and started it.

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