MAC 1114

Analytic Trigonometry
2025-2026

Dr. Courtney Simmons

revised by K. Bowers
MAC 1114: Analytic Trigonometry

1. Angles and Their Measure 1

1..1 Radian Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1..2 Common Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1..3 Converting Between Degrees and Radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1..4 Coterminal Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2. Trig Functions on the Unit Circle 8

2..1 Reference Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2..2 Common Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2..3 Terminal Points of Common Angles on the Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2..4 The Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2..5 The Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2..6 Approximating Trig Functions for Other Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3. Trig Functions of Any Angle 24

3..1 Revisiting Coterminal and Reference Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3..2 Extending to Circles of Radius r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3..3 Right Triangle Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4. Graphing the Trigonometric Functions 34

4..1 Graphical Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4..2 Identifying Characteristics of a Sinusoidal Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4..3 Graphing Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4..4 Creating an Equation from a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4..5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4..6 Graphing Secant and Cosecant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4..7 Graphing Tangent and Cotangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 52

5..1 Domain Restrictions for Arc Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5..2 Composition of Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5..3 “Mixed” Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5..4 “Mixed” Compositions Using Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6. Basic Identities 66
6..1 Cofunction Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6..2 The Pythagorean Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6..3 Rewriting Algebra Using Trig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7. Verifying Trigonometric Identities 71
7..1 Simplifying Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7..2 Verifying Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

8. Trigonometric ‘Formulas’ 81
8..1 Sum and Di↵erence Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8..2 Double Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8..3 Half Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

9. Solving Trigonometric Equations 93

9..1 Using Algebra to Solve Trig Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9..2 General Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9..3 Using General Solutions to Find Solutions on an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

10.Arc Length and Area 103

10..1 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10..2 Area of a Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

11.Applicatons of Right Triangle Trigonometry 107

11..1 Angles of Elevation and Angles of Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
11..2 Applying Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

12.Finding Angles using a Calculator 111

13.Law of Sines & Law of Cosines 112

13..1 Law of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
13..2 Law of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13..3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
13..4 Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

14.Polar Coordinates 129

14..1 Converting Between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
14..2 Converting Between Polar and Rectangular Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

15.Vectors 139
15..1 The Geometry of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
15..2 Vector Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
15..3 Unit Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15..4 Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
15..5 Vector Projections and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
 Angles and Their Measure

Angles are a way to measure rotation or openness. Angles consist of two rays sharing a
common endpoint called a vertex. Angles are obtained by rotating a ray about its endpoint.
The starting position of a ray is called the initial side of an angle, and the final position of
the ray is called the terminal side.

Anatomy of an Angle in Standard Position

An angle is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin in the xy-plane, and
its initial side is the positive x-axis.
y

Commonly used names for angles:

• ✓: theta

• ↵: alpha
x
• : beta

• : gamma

The measure of an angle quantifies the direction and amount of rotation from the
initial side to the terminal side. In standard position, the measure of an angle is
positive if the rotation is counterclockwise, and negative if the rotation is clockwise.

Approximate the following two angles, in standard position, measured in degrees. Recall
there are 360○ in a full rotation.

Approximate ↵ Approximate

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Radian Measure
From geometry we are familiar with degree measure, however this is not the only way to
measure angles. Radian measure quantifies the amount of openness required to subtend a
specific arc length on a circle (measured in terms of radius length.)

Radian measure is particularly useful for more advanced mathematics you will find in
trigonometry, physics, engineering, and calculus.
Radian Measure
An angle in standard position with a measure of 1 radian intercepts an arc on a circle
equal to the radius length of that circle.

The radian measure of an angle ✓ can be calculated by dividing the length of the arc,
s, by the radius length, r.
✓=
s
r

https://www.geogebra.org/m/gn8d9qvc https://www.geogebra.org/m/snrtnasq

Radians (rad) are typically written ‘unitless’ because they are measured in unit length per unit length.

2 2024-2025
y y

x x

1
Full revolution revolution
2

y y

x x

1 3
revolution revolution
4 4

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Common Angles
Subdividing Quadrant I

y y

QI QI

x x

Label the radian measure for each of the angles in QII, QIII, and QIV.

QII QI

QIII QIV

4 2024-2025
QII QI

QIII QIV

QII QI

QIII QIV

2024-2025 5
The Unit Circle
Through symmetry we can build the rest of common angles for the unit circle!!! You must be
able to quickly write in the angle measures and their corresponding unit circle points quickly
for the quadrant I points and the axis points. It is recommended that you use symmetry
and/or reference angles to find points in quadrants II, III, and IV as needed rather than
memorizing everything you see below. Practice this often! Please note that the points below
that are typed for you are the ones you must be able to write quickly.
y

(0, 1)
�
� � � , �
1 3
,
2 2 � �
� � � �
⇡ 2 2
, ,
2 2
�
2⇡ 2 ⇡

� � � , �
3⇡ 3 3 ⇡ 3 1
, 90○ 2 2
4 ○ ○ 4
5⇡ 120 60 ⇡
6 6
150○ 30○

(−1, 0) (1, 0)
⇡ 180○ 0○ ○
360 2⇡ x

210○ 330○
7⇡ 11⇡
240○ 300○
6 6
5⇡ ○ 7⇡
� , � 4
270
4 � , �
4⇡ 5⇡
3 3⇡ 3
� , � 2 � , �

� , � � , �

(0, −1)

16 2024-2025
Converting Between Degrees and Radians
If 180○ = ⇡ rad, we can make the following unit conversions:

Degrees → Radians: Radians → Degrees:

Multiply by:

Example 1.1
Convert the following angles into the appropriate angle measure.

b) Convert 97○ to radians.

11⇡
a) Convert to degrees.
12

c) Convert −40○ to radians. d) Convert −

⇡
to degrees.
5

NOTE: You should not be in the habit of using these conversions for the ”common angles”.
You should be able to find those angles more quickly using the 1st quadrant ”common angles”
to help.

6 2024-2025
Coterminal Angles
Two angles in standard position with the same initial side and the same terminal side are
called coterminal angles.
Example 1.2

Consider the angle 60○ ≡

⇡
rad.
3
y

Identify the degree measure and the radian measure for the following angles:
y y y

x x x

We need to understand co-terminal angles in order to ”reduce” positive angles that are
greater than one full rotation to ones within one rotation. We also need to know how to find
a co-terminal angle within one positive rotation for a negative angle.

2024-2025 7
 Trig Functions on the Unit Circle
Quadrants
The xy−coordinate plane is divided into four quadrants, I, II, III, IV, labeled counter-
clockwise.

QII QI

QIII QIV

Reference Angles

Reference Angles
If ✓ is an angle in standard position, the reference angle for ✓ is the positive acute
angle ↵ created by the terminal ray of ✓ and the horizontal axis.

y y y
QII ✓
✓
✓
↵ x x
x ↵ ↵

QIII QIV

• Angles that align with the coordinate axes do not have a reference angle.

• If ✓ > 2⇡ = 360○ first find a coternimal angle ✓′ with 0 ≤ ✓′ < 2⇡.

Then use ✓′ to find your reference angle ↵.

8 2024-2025
Example 2.1
Find the reference angle for the following angles:

−3⇡
a) ✓ = b) ✓ =
⇡
5 4

c) ✓ = d) ✓ = 255.32○
13⇡
7

e) ✓ =
23⇡
7

2024-2025 9
Common Angles
Subdividing Quadrant I

y y

QI QI

x x

Using common angles as reference angles for angles in QII, QIII, and QIV.

QII QI

QIII QIV

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QII QI

QIII QIV

QII QI

QIII QIV

2024-2025 11
Terminal Points of Common Angles on the Unit Circle

Definition of Unit Circle

A unit circle is a circle centered at the origin with radius 1. For a point to lie on the
unit circle, it must satisfy the equation,

x2 + y 2 = 1

Example 2.2
Do the following points lie on the unit circle?

a) (0, −1) b) (1, 1)

�
c) √ , � d) � , �
1 1 5 2
2 3 3 3

12 2024-2025
 Terminal Point
A terminal point P is the intersection of a circle with radius r centered at the origin
and the terminal ray of an angle ✓ in standard position.
y
P

✓
x

Example 2.3

rad = 45○ . Identify

⇡
Assume we have a circle with radius 1 and consider the angle
4
the coordinates of the point P .
y

QI
P

⇡
4
x

2024-2025 13
Example 2.4
NOTE: You will find the values of the terminal points in this example and the next
by doing a group activity, either in lab or during lecture time.

rad = 30○ . Identify

⇡
Assume we have a circle with radius 1 and consider the angle
6
the coordinates of the terminal point P . NOTE: We will see where the x and y values
at this point and the next one come from when we cover right triangle trigonometry.
y

QI

⇡
6 x

Example 2.5

rad = 60○ . Identify

⇡
Assume we have a circle with radius 1 and consider the angle
3
the coordinates of the terminal point P .
y

P QI

⇡
3
x

14 2024-2025
Example 2.6
3⇡
Find the terminal point on the unit circle determined by radians. Use exact values,
2
not decimal approximations.

Example 2.7
�
Suppose that �x, � is a point in Quadrant II lying on the unit circle.
19
5
Find x. Write the exact value, not a decimal approximation.

2024-2025 15
The Unit Circle
Through symmetry we can build the rest of common angles for the unit circle!!! You must be
able to quickly write in the angle measures and their corresponding unit circle points quickly
for the quadrant I points and the axis points. It is recommended that you use symmetry
and/or reference angles to find points in quadrants II, III, and IV as needed rather than
memorizing everything you see below. Practice this often! Please note that the points below
that are typed for you are the ones you must be able to write quickly.
y

(0, 1)
�
� � � , �
1 3
,
2 2 � �
� � � �
⇡ 2 2
, ,
2 2
�
2⇡ 2 ⇡

� � � , �
3⇡ 3 3 ⇡ 3 1
, 90○ 2 2
4 ○ ○ 4
5⇡ 120 60 ⇡
6 6
150○ 30○

(−1, 0) (1, 0)
⇡ 180○ 0○ ○
360 2⇡ x

210○ 330○
7⇡ 11⇡
240○ 300○
6 6
5⇡ ○ 7⇡
� , � 4
270
4 � , �
4⇡ 5⇡
3 3⇡ 3
� , � 2 � , �

� , � � , �

(0, −1)

16 2024-2025
The Trigonometric Functions
Recall that trigonometry is the study of radial position. So, whenever we talk about mea-
suring distance in trigonometry, we’re using a radius length as our measuring stick!

The Sine Function (how far up or down)

For a circle with radius r and angle ✓ in standard position, the sine function, sin(✓),
measures the signed distance between the terminal point and the horizontal axis
measured in lengths of the radius r.

On the unit circle, if the terminal point of the angle ✓ is P = (x, y), then
sin(✓) = y.

Example 2.8
Consider the following two circles of di↵erent radius lengths.

a) r = 1, sin √ � = b) r = 2.75, sin √ � =

⇡ ⇡
2 2
y y
P
P
x

2024-2025 17
Example 2.9
Consider the following two circles of di↵erent radius lengths.

a) r = 1, sin √ �= b) r = 2.75, sin √ �=

7⇡ 7⇡
6 6
y y

x
P

The Cosine Function (how far left or right)

For a circle with radius r and angle ✓ in standard position, the cosine function,
cos(✓), measures the signed distance between the terminal point and the vertical axis
measured in lengths of the radius r.

On the unit circle, if the terminal point of the angle ✓ is P = (x, y), then
cos(✓) = x.

18 2024-2025
Example 2.10
⇡
For an angle ✓ with reference angle what can we say about cos(✓)?
4

a) cos √ � = b) cos √ �=
⇡ 7⇡
4 4

y y

x x

−11⇡
c) cos √ �= d) cos √ �=
13⇡
4 4

y y

x x

P P

2024-2025 19
 The Tangent Function (more up/down or more left/right?)

For an angle ✓ in standard position, the tangent function, tan(✓), measures the signed
proportionality between sin(✓) and cos(✓).

tan(✓) =
sin(✓)
.
cos(✓)

On the unit circle, if the terminal point of the angle ✓ is P = (x, y), then tan(✓) = .
y
x

Example 2.11
Identify the following:

a) tan √ �= b) tan (⇡) =

2⇡
3

−⇡
c) tan √ �= d) tan √ � =
⇡
4 2

20 2024-2025
 The Reciprocal Identities

For an angle ✓ in standard position, the functions secant, cosecant and cotangent are
the reciprocals of the primary trigonometric functions:

sec(✓) = csc(✓) = cot(✓) = =

1 1 1 cos(✓)
cos(✓) sin(✓) tan(✓) sin(✓)

cos(✓) = sin(✓) = tan(✓) =

1 1 1
sec(✓) csc(✓) cot(✓)

Example 2.12
Suppose that ✓ is an angle in standard position whose terminal side intersects the unit
circle at √− , − �. Find the values of cos(✓), tan(✓), and sec(✓)
21 20
29 29

2024-2025 21
 Even/Odd Properties
Recall from algebra, a function is called even if f (−x) = f (x). A function is called
odd if f (−x) = −f (x). Notice,

Even Odd
cos(−✓) = cos(✓) sin(−✓) = − sin(✓)
sec(−✓) = sec(✓) csc(−✓) = − csc(✓)
tan(−✓) = − tan(✓)
cot(−✓) = − cot(✓)

Example 2.13
Use even or odd properties to write an equivalent trigonometric expression

a) cos √− �=
3⇡
8

b) csc(−71○ ) =

Example 2.14

Using an even property, find the exact value for sec √− � =.

⇡
6

22 2024-2025
Approximating Trig Functions for Other Angles

Example 2.15
Identify the primary trigonometric function values for each of the provided locations
which lie on Capital Circle. There are two purposes for this example:
1) To show that radian measures do not need to include pi and
2) There are an infinite number of points on the unit circle, not just the ones for the
“common” angles and axis angles.

W Cap
N Meridian
le N ita
lC
irc
C

irc
ital

le N
Cap

W Tennessee St. E Tennessee St. E

S Monroe
Cap

E
eS
ita

rcl
lC

irc
Ci

le S l
ita
W Cap

a) Canopy Road Cafe located at ✓ = 1 rad

sin(✓) ≈ cos(✓) ≈

b) Tallahassee airport located at ↵ = 3.6 rad

sin(↵) ≈ cos(↵) ≈

2024-2025 23
 Trig Functions of Any Angle

Periodic Functions
A function f is periodic if f (x + p) = f (x) for some constant p. The smallest positive
value p for which f is periodic is called the period of f .

Notice, if ↵ and ✓ are coterminal angles, then

sin(↵) = sin(✓) and cos(↵) = cos(✓).

*All six trigonometric functions are periodic.

What is a function? What are the domains and ranges for the sine, cosine and tangent
functions?

How can we use the fact that these functions are periodic to find trig function values for
angles outside of 0 ≤ ✓ ≤ 2⇡ or 0 ≤ ✓ ≤ 360○ ?

cos(30○ + 360○ ) = cos(390○ ) and sin √ + 2⇡� = sin √ �

⇡ 13⇡
6 6

24 2024-2025
Revisiting Coterminal and Reference Angles

Using Coterminal Angles to Find Exact Trigonometric Values

For any angle ✓, if ✓′ is coterminal to ✓, then

sin(✓) = sin(✓′ ) tan(✓) = tan(✓′ ) sec(✓) = sec(✓′ )

cos(✓) = cos(✓′ ) csc(✓) = csc(✓′ ) cot(✓) = cot(✓′ )

Recall: Reference Angles

If ✓ is an angle in standard position, the reference angle for ✓ is the positive acute
angle ↵ created by the terminal ray of ✓ and the horizontal axis.

y y y
QII ✓
✓
✓
↵ x x
x ↵ ↵

QIII QIV

Using Reference Angles to Find Exact Trigonometric Values

To find the value of the trigonometric function of a given angle ✓,

(1) Find the reference angle ↵.

*If ✓ > 2⇡ first find the coterminal angle ✓′ and use ✓′ to find ↵.

(2) Determine the function value for the reference angle ↵.

(3) Affix the appropriate ± sign based on the quadrant ✓ is in.

Notice this is exactly how we built our unit circle!

2024-2025 25
Example 3.1
Use reference angles to find the exact value.

a) cos(420○ ) = b) sin(−7⇡) =

c) sin(−630○ ) = d) tan √ �=
5⇡
2

e) cos √ �= f) csc √ �=
31⇡ 5⇡
6 4

−⇡
g) cot √ �= h) tan √ �
17⇡
3 6

i) sec √ �
5⇡
3

26 2024-2025
Extending to Circles of Radius r
In a previous section we discussed terminal points on a circle with radius 1. Now we can
extend these ideas to a circle with radius r.

Circle with radius r

(r ⋅ cos(✓), r ⋅ sin(✓))

r ⋅ sin(✓)
r
Unit Circle

1
sin(✓)

cos(✓) r ⋅ cos(✓)

2024-2025 27
 Trigonometric Functions

For an angle ✓ in standard position and circle with radius r, the terminal point of ✓ is

P = (r cos(✓), r sin(✓)).

Correspondingly, if the terminal point of ✓ is P = (x, y), then

sin(✓) = cos(✓) = tan(✓) =

y x y
r r x

csc(✓) = sec(✓) = cot(✓) =

r r x
y x y

Positive Quadrants for Primary Trig Functions

y

Students All

Take Calculus

Reciprocal identities follow.

28 2024-2025
Example 3.2
A terminal point for the angle ✓ in standard position is P = (3, −7). Find the exact
value of each of the six trig functions of ✓.

sin(✓) = cos(✓) = tan(✓) =

csc(✓) = sec(✓) = cot(✓) =

Example 3.3
A terminal point for the angle ✓ in standard position is P = (−21, 20).

Find sin(✓).

2024-2025 29
Right Triangle Trigonometry

OPP-ADJ-HYP
In a right triangle with an acute angle ✓:

• The leg that lies across the triangle from ✓ is called the opposite leg (OPP).

• The leg that lies on one ray of the angle ✓ is called the adjacent leg (ADJ).

• The longest side of the triangle is the hypotenuse (HYP) and is opposite the
right angle.

Recall that on a circle of radius r, the coordinates of a terminal point on an angle ✓ are

P = (r ⋅ cos(✓), r ⋅ sin(✓)).

(adjacent, opposite)
se

opposite
nu
ote
p
hy

✓
adjacent

So we can write

sin(✓) = cos(✓) = tan(✓) =

30 2024-2025
 SOH-CAH-TOA

For a right triangle and angle ✓,

sin(✓) = cos(✓) = tan(✓) =

OPP ADJ OPP
HYP HYP ADJ

csc(✓) = sec(✓) = cot(✓) =

HYP HYP ADJ
OPP ADJ OPP

Example 3.4

↵ 25 cm
7 cm

24 cm

sin(↵) = sin( ) =

csc(↵) = csc( ) =

cos(↵) = cos( ) =

sec(↵) = sec( ) =

tan(↵) = tan( ) =

cot(↵) = cot( ) =

2024-2025 31
Example 3.5
Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the missing side, then find the
exact value of the trigonometric functions.

✓
3 in

4 in

a) sin(✓) = b) cos(✓) =

Example 3.6

If ✓ is an acute angle and tan(✓) =

5
, find the other five trigonometric functions
12
evaluated at ✓.

sin(✓) = cos(✓) = tan(✓) =

csc(✓) = sec(✓) = cot(✓) =

32 2024-2025
Example 3.7
�
How many angles between 0 and 2⇡ satisfy cos(✓) = −
3
?
2

Example 3.8
�
Given sin(✓) = − and cos(✓) < 0, find cot(✓) and cos(✓).
55
8

Example 3.9
Given tan(✓) = −3 and cos(✓) > 0, find sin(✓).

2024-2025 33
 Graphing the Trigonometric Functions

90○ = ; (0, 1)
⇡
2
√ √
2⇡ −1
120○ = √ ; � � 60○ = ;� , �
3 ⇡ 1 3
3 √2 3 2 2√ √
,
3⇡ − 2
2
○ ○
135 = ;� � 45 = ; � �
2 ⇡ 2 2
, ,
4 √2 2 4 2 √2
5⇡ − 3 1
150○ = ;� , � 30○ = ; � , �
⇡ 3 1
6 2 2 6 2 2

180○ = ⇡; (−1, 0) 0○ = 0; 360○ = 2⇡; (1, 0)

√ √
7⇡ − 3 1
210○ = ;� ,− � 330○ = ;� ,− �
11⇡ 3 1
6 2√ 2 √ √
6 √
2 2
5⇡ − 2
225○ = ;� ,− �√ 315○ = ;� − �
2 7⇡ 2 2
4 √2
,
4⇡ −1
4 2 2 2
○
240 = ;� ,− � 300○ = ;� ,− �
3 5⇡ 1 3
3 2 2 3 2 2

270○ = ; (0, −1)

3⇡
2

Graph of the Sine Function (Odd Function)

sin(✓)
1

✓
−2⇡ −3⇡ −⇡
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2 2 2 2 2 2

−1

Domain: Range: Period: Graphing Sine:

34 2024-2025
 Graph of the Cosine Function (Even Function)

cos(✓)
1

✓
−2⇡ −3⇡ −⇡
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2 2 2 2 2 2

−1

Domain: Range: Period: Graphing Cosine:

Example 4.1
Comparing Sine and Cosine over 1 period [0 ≤ ✓ < 2⇡].

y
1 y = cos(✓)

✓
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡
2 2 2 2

−1 y = sin(✓)

2024-2025 35
Graphical Transformations

Recall from Algebra: Vertical Stretch/Shrink/Reflect

Suppose y = f (x) is a function and A is a real number.
• Vertical Stretch: �A� > 1
The graph of y = Af (x) is the graph of y = f (x) stretched vertically by a factor of A.

• Vertical Shrink (compress): 0 < �A� < 1

The graph of y = Af (x) is the graph of y = f (x) shrunk vertically by a factor of A.

• Vertical Reflection: A < 0

The graph of −f (x) is the graph of f (x) reflected about the horizontal axis.

Example 4.2
Graph the following transformations:
y y
3 3

2 2

1 1
sin(x) sin(x)
x x
− −
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2−1 2 2 2 2 2−1 2 2 2 2

−2 −2

−3 −3

y = 2.5 sin(x) y = −2.5 sin(x)

y
1
cos(x)

x
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2 2 2 2 2

−1

y=
2
cos(x)
3

36 2024-2025
 Amplitude
We call the value of the scaling factor �A� the amplitude of the function. Amplitude...

• represents the amount of deviation from the central position of the wave.

• is half the distance between maximum and minimum values of the function.

What is the amplitude for y = cos x and y = sin x?

Example 4.3
Identify the amplitude of the following sinusoidal function.

y
15

10

x
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
−5
2 2 2 2 2

−10

2024-2025 37
 Recall from Algebra: Vertical & Horizontal Shifts
Suppose y = f (x) is a function and C and D are real numbers.

• Vertical Shifts

– Shift Up: D > 0

The graph of y = f (x) + D is the graph of y = f (x) shifted up D units.
– Shift Down: D < 0
The graph of y = f (x) + D is the graph of y = f (x) shifted down D units.

• Phase Shifts

– Shift Left: C < 0

The graph of y = f (x − C) is the graph of y = f (x) shifted left C units.
– Shift Right: C > 0
The graph of y = f (x − C) is the graph of y = f (x) shifted right C units.

Example 4.4
Graph the following transformations:

y y
3 3
2 2
2 sin(x)
1 1
cos(x)
x x
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2−1 2 2 2 2 2−1 2 2 2 2
−2 −2
−3 −3

y = cos √x − � + 2
⇡
2 y = 2 sin(x + ⇡) − 1

38 2024-2025
 Recall from Algebra: Horizontal Stretch/Shrink
Suppose y = f (x) is a function and B is a real number.

• Horizontal Stretch: 0 < �B� < 1

The graph of y = f (Bx) is the graph of y = f (x) stretched by a factor of B units.

• Horizontal Shrink (compress): �B� > 1

The graph of y = f (Bx) is the graph of y = f (x) compressed by a factor of B units.

Example 4.5 Graph the following transformations:

y
1
cos(x)

y = cos √ x�
1
x 2
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2 2 2 2 2

−1

y
1
cos(x)

y = cos (2x)
x
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2 2 2 2 2

−1

Notice this means a horizontal stretch/shrink will change the period of a trigonometric
function.

2024-2025 39
 Identifying a Transformed Period & Phase Shift
Recall that the natural period for sine and cosine is 2⇡. So the transformed period
and phase shift of y = sin(Bx − C) or y = cos(Bx − C) can be found by solving the
following inequality:

0 ≤ Bx − C ≤ 2⇡ �⇒ ≤x≤ + .
C 2⇡ C
B B B
This gives,

• Period: √ + �− =
2⇡ C C 2⇡
.
B B B B
C
• Phase Shift: .
B
*For ease, use the even and odd properties to first ensure B > 0.

Example 4.6

Graph y = sin √ x − � .
⇡ ⇡
4 2

40 2024-2025
 Summary of Graphical Properties for Sine and Cosine
For the graphs of y = A sin (Bx − C) + D and y = A cos (Bx − C) + D, with B > 0,

• The amplitude is �A�.

2⇡
• The period is .
B
C
• The phase shift is .
B
• The vertical shift is D.

• One full cycle is given on the interval 0 ≤ Bx − C ≤ 2⇡.

• The domain is R.

• The range is −�A� + D ≤ y ≤ �A� + D.

Identifying Characteristics of a Sinusoidal Curve

Example 4.7
For the following function, find the amplitude, period, and phase shift.

y = −7 cos √3x − �
⇡
4

amplitude: period: phase shift:

2024-2025 41
Graphing Reflections

Example 4.8
Compare the following transformations of y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) Start by using the
odd/even properties of sine and cosine to ensure B > 0. Always complete a vertical
reflection before a vertical shift.

y = sin √− + ⇡� + 2
x
3
y
3

x
⇡ 2⇡ 3⇡ 4⇡ 5⇡ 6⇡ 7⇡ 8⇡ 9⇡
−1

−2

−3

y = − cos √− + ⇡� + 2
x
3
y
3

x
⇡ 2⇡ 3⇡ 4⇡ 5⇡ 6⇡ 7⇡ 8⇡ 9⇡
−1

−2

−3

42 2024-2025
Creating an Equation from a Graph

Example 4.9
Write the equation of a sine or cosine function to describe the following graph:

y
1

− −
1 1 1 1 3 1 5
4 8 −1 8 4 8 2 8
−2

−3

−4

−5

2024-2025 43
Applications

Example 4.10
The monthly high temperature for Bu↵alo, New York, peaks at an average high of
80○ in July down to an average high of 32○ in January. Assume that this pattern for
monthly high temperatures continues indefinitely and behaves like a cosine wave.

Write a function of the form H(t) = A cos(Bt − C) + D to model the average

high temperature. The value H(t) is the average high temperature for month t, with
January as t = 0.
y
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
x
−10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

44 2024-2025
Example 4.11
An adult human at rest inhales and exhales approximately 500 mL of air (called the
tidal volume) in approximately 5 seconds. However, at the end of each exhalation, the
lungs still contain a volume of air, called the functional residual capacity (FRC) which
is approximately 2000 mL. Write a function V (t) = A cos(Bt) + D that represents the
volume of air in the lungs t seconds after the end of an inhalation.

2024-2025 45
Graphing Secant and Cosecant

To graph the secant and cosecant graphs, we will use sec(x) = and csc(x) =
1 1
.
cos(x) sin(x)
Graph of the Secant Function (Even Function)

4 sec(✓)

✓ cos(✓)
−2⇡ −3⇡ −⇡
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2 2 2 2 2 2
−2

−4

Domain: Range: Period: Graphing Secant:

Graph of the Cosecant Function (Odd Function)

4 csc(✓)

✓ sin(✓)
−2⇡ −3⇡ −⇡
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡ 7⇡ 4⇡
2 2 2 2 2 2
−2

−4

Domain: Range: Period: Graphing Cosecant:

46 2024-2025
Example 4.12
Use the graph of y = 4 cos(2⇡x) to graph y = 4 sec(2⇡x).

10 y

5
4 cos(2⇡x)
x
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2

−5

−10

Example 4.13
Use the graph of y = sin(x + ⇡) − 2 to graph y = csc(x + ⇡) − 2.

y
x
−3⇡ −5⇡ −2⇡ −3⇡ −⇡
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡
sin(x + ⇡) − 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
−2

−4

2024-2025 47
Graphing Tangent and Cotangent
Recall that unlike the rest of the trigonometric functions, tangent and cotangent have a
period of ⇡.
Graph of the Tangent Function (Odd Function)

4 tan(✓)

✓
−2⇡ −3⇡ −⇡
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡
2 2 2 2
−2

−4

Domain: Range: Period: Graphing Tangent:

Graph of the Cotangent Function (Odd Function)

4 cot(✓)

✓
−2⇡ −3⇡ −⇡
−
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡
2 2 2 2
−2

−4

Domain: Range: Period: Graphing Cotangent:

48 2024-2025
Example 4.14
Graph the following three functions:

y = tan (⇡x)

y = tan √⇡x + �
⇡
2

y = 3 tan √⇡x + � − 2
⇡
2

2024-2025 49
Example 4.15
Graph the following two functions:

y = 10 cot √ � + 5
x
2

y = −10 cot √ � + 5
x
2

50 2024-2025
Domain Range and Period of the Trig Functions

Period Domain Range

sin(✓) ∶ 2⇡ R [−1, 1]
(all real numbers)

csc(✓) ∶ 2⇡ {✓ � sin(✓) ≠ 0} (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

{✓ � ✓ ≠ k⇡, k ∈ Z}

cos(✓) ∶ 2⇡ R [−1, 1]

sec(✓) ∶ 2⇡ {✓ � cos(✓) ≠ 0} (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

{✓ � ✓ ≠ + k⇡, k ∈ Z}
⇡
2

tan(✓) ∶ ⇡ {✓ � cos(✓) ≠ 0} R ∶ (−∞, ∞)

{✓ � ✓ ≠ + k⇡, k ∈ Z}
⇡
2

cot(✓) ∶ ⇡ {✓ � sin(✓) ≠ 0} R ∶ (−∞, ∞)

{✓ � ✓ ≠ k⇡, k ∈ Z}

2024-2025 51
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
So far, we can identify the values for the trigonometric functions for a given angle, ✓. If the
radius of a circle, r, is our unit of measurement, then:

P
sin(✓): how far above or
below the x-axis P is.

cos(✓): how far to the left

or right of the y-axis P is.

tan(✓): the ratio of sine to

cosine.

So if sine and cosine use angles to identify lengths, their inverse functions, arcsine
and arccosine, will use lengths to find angles.

Example 5.1
�
Suppose we know that sin(✓) =
3
. What is ✓ (in degrees)?
2

52 2024-2025
Domain Restrictions for Arc Functions

The trigonometric functions are not one-to-one because many di↵erent angles can provide
the same output. This means to define the inverse functions we’ll have to restrict the allow-
able domain so there is only one possible answer.

Arcsine (sin−1 x): The inverse of the sine function

Domain restriction of sine to define arcsine:

y
1
sin(x)

−2⇡ 3⇡ −⇡ − ⇡
x
⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡
− 2 2
2 2

−1

Restricted Domain of Sine: Preserved Range of Sine:

Properties of Arcsine:

Domain: Range:

sin−1 (x)
⇡
2

Graph:
x
−1 1

−
⇡
2

2024-2025 53
Example 5.2
�
Returning to Example 2, we can now definitively identify sin � −1
� even if there are
3
�
2
infinitely many angles that satisfy sin(✓) =
3
.
2

Example 5.3
Find the exact value of each expression, if it is defined. Do not use a calculator.

�
a) sin √ � =
−1
b) sin �−
−1
�=
1 3
2 2

c) sin−1 (−1) = d) sin−1 (3) =

54 2024-2025
Arccosine (cos−1 x): The inverse of the cosine function
Domain restriction of cosine to define arccosine:

y
1
cos(x)

−2⇡ 3⇡ −⇡ − ⇡
x
⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡
− 2 2
2 2

−1

Restricted Domain of Cosine: Preserved Range of Cosine:

Properties of Arccosine:

Domain: Range:

Graph:

cos−1 (x)
⇡

⇡
2

−1
x
1

2024-2025 55
Example 5.4
Find the exact value of each expression, if it is defined. Do not use a calculator.

�
a) cos−1 (0) = b) cos−1 � �=
3
2

�
c) cos �−
−1
�= d) sec−1 (2) =
2
2

56 2024-2025
Arctangent (tan−1 x): The inverse of the tangent function
Domain restriction of tangent to define arctangent:

−2⇡ −3⇡ −⇡ − ⇡
x
⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡
2 2−1 2 2

Restricted Domain of Tangent: Preserved Range of Tangent:

Properties of Arctangent:

Domain: Range:

Graph:

tan−1 (x)
⇡
2

x
−5 5

−
⇡
2

2024-2025 57
Example 5.5
Find the exact value of each expression, if it is defined. Do not use a calculator.

a) tan−1 (0) = b) tan−1 (−1) =

� �
c) tan−1 � 3� = d) cot−1 � 3� =

58 2024-2025
Composition of Inverses

Inverse Function Property

If a function f is one-to-one, then:

f (f −1 (y)) = y for all y in the domain of f −1 (y)

f −1 (f (x)) = x for all x in the domain of f (x).

Because the inverse trigonometric functions require that the trig functions work on a
restricted domain, this means

• sin(sin−1 (y)) = y for all y ∈ [−1, 1].

−⇡ ⇡
• sin−1 (sin(x)) = x for all x ∈ � , �.
2 2
• cos(cos−1 (y)) = y for all y ∈ [−1, 1].

• cos−1 (cos(x)) = x for all x ∈ [0, ⇡].

• tan(tan−1 (y)) = y for all y ∈ [−∞, ∞].

−⇡ ⇡
• tan−1 (tan(x)) = x for all x ∈ √ , �.
2 2

Example 5.6
Find the exact value, if it is defined.

a) sin �sin−1 (0.8)� = b) sin �sin−1 (4.5)� =

c) sin−1 √sin √ �� = d) sin−1 √sin √ �� =

⇡ 2⇡
6 3

2024-2025 59
 e) cos √cos−1 √ �� = f) cos �cos−1 (−5)� =
1
2

g) cos−1 √cos √ �� = h) cos−1 √cos √ �� =

3⇡ 5⇡
4 4

i) cos−1 √cos √ �� = j) tan �tan−1 (−6.5)� =

9⇡
7

k) tan−1 √tan √ �� = l) tan−1 √tan √ �� =

3⇡ 3⇡
4 8

60 2024-2025
Example 5.7
Compare the following compositions:

a)

y
sin−1 √sin √− �� = −
⇡ ⇡
4 4

cos−1 √cos √− �� =
⇡ ⇡
x 4 4

tan−1 √tan √− �� = −
⇡ ⇡
4 4

b)

y
sin−1 √sin √ �� =
⇡ ⇡
4 4

cos−1 √cos √ �� =
⇡ ⇡
x 4 4

tan−1 √tan √ �� =
⇡ ⇡
4 4

c)

y
sin−1 √sin √ �� =
3⇡ ⇡
4 4

cos−1 √cos √ �� =
3⇡ 3⇡
x 4 4

tan−1 √tan √ �� = −
3⇡ ⇡
4 4

2024-2025 61
 y
sin−1 √sin √ �� = −
5⇡ ⇡
4 4

cos−1 √cos √ �� =
5⇡ 3⇡
d)
x 4 4

tan−1 √tan √ �� =
5⇡ ⇡
4 4

y
sin−1 √sin √ �� = −
7⇡ ⇡
4 4

cos−1 √cos √ �� =
7⇡ ⇡
e)
x 4 4

tan−1 √tan √ �� = −
7⇡ ⇡
4 4

62 2024-2025
“Mixed” Compositions

Example 5.8
Find the exact value, if it is defined.

a) cos √sin−1 √ �� = b) cos−1 √sin √ �� =

1 5⇡
2 6

� �
c) tan �cos �−
−1
�� = d) sec �sin �−
−1
�� =
3 3
2 2

e) sin−1 √tan √ �� =
5⇡
4

f) tan−1 (cos (⇡)) =

2024-2025 63
“Mixed” Compositions Using Triangles

Example 5.9
Find the exact value, if it is defined.

�
a) tan �sin−1 � �� =
5
3

b) sec √sin−1 √− �� =
3
5

c) tan √cos−1 √− �� =
12
13

64 2024-2025
Example 5.10
Write as an algebraic expression in x (free of trigonometric or inverse trigonometric
functions).
tan �cos−1 x� , x > 0

Example 5.11
Write as an algebraic expression in x (free of trigonometric or inverse trigonometric
functions).
cos √sin−1 � , x > 1
1
x

2024-2025 65
 Basic Identities
Complementary Angles

Two angles are complementary if the sum of their measure is 90○ or . In a right
⇡
2
triangle A and B are complementary angles.

Notice that for a right triangle with acute angles ✓ and ↵ we can write

sin(✓) = = = cos(↵).
OP P✓ ADJ↵
HY P HY P

66 2024-2025
Cofunction Identities

Cofunction Identities
Cofunctions of complementary angles are equivalent.

Sine and Cosine are cofunctions:

sin(✓) = cos √ − ✓� cos(✓) = sin √ − ✓� .

⇡ ⇡
and
2 2
Secant and Cosecant are cofunctions:

sec(✓) = csc √ − ✓� csc(✓) = sec √ − ✓� .

⇡ ⇡
and
2 2
Tangent and Cotangent are cofunctions:

tan(✓) = cot √ − ✓� cot(✓) = tan √ − ✓� .

⇡ ⇡
and
2 2

Example 6.1
Use a cofunction to write an expression equal to the given expression:

a) tan(29○ ) =

b) csc( ) =
⇡
7

2024-2025 67
The Pythagorean Identities

Pythagorean Identity
We know the equation for the unit circle is x2 + y 2 = 1 and have identified that for a
terminal point P = (x, y) on the unit circle

cos(✓) = x and sin(✓) = y.

Therefore,
cos2 (✓) + sin2 (✓) = 1
Notation: The trigonometric functions are just specially named functions (like f (x)), so we write
(cos(✓)) as cos2 (✓) and (sin(✓)) as sin2 (✓)
2 2

Two More Pythagorean Identities

1 + tan2 (✓) = sec2 (✓) ∶

cot2 (✓) + 1 = csc2 (✓) ∶

68 2024-2025
Rewriting Algebra Using Trig
Sometimes we want to be able to flip between traditional forms of measurement into those
involving angles (this is especially useful in some areas of Calculus).
Example 6.2
�
4 + x2 as a function of ✓, where 0 < ✓ < by substituting x = 2 tan(✓).
⇡
Write
2

2
� 4 +x

Example 6.3
�
9 + x2 as a function of ✓, where 0 < ✓ <
⇡
a) If we wanted to write what would we
2
substitute for x?

�
9 + x2 as a function of ✓, where 0 < ✓ < .
⇡
b) Write
2

2024-2025 69
Example 6.4

Rewrite the algebraic expression as a function of ✓, where 0 < ✓ <

⇡
.
2

�
a) 16 − x2

�
9 + x2
b)
x

70 2024-2025
 Verifying Trigonometric Identities
In this module we focus on transforming trigonometric expressions algebraically to equivalent
expressions which may be more useful to us. For example,

cos(x) tan(x) = sin(x) for {x ∶ x ≠ k, k ∈ Z}

⇡
2
(i.e. whenever cos(x) ≠ 0). The Basic Identities listed below are ones you should know by
memory. They will not appear on a formula sheet.

Recall: Basic Trigonometric Identities (Memorize!!!)

sec(✓) = cos(✓) =
1 1
cos(✓) sec(✓)

csc(✓) = sin(✓) =
(RI) Reciprocal 1 1
Identities: sin(✓) csc(✓)

cot(✓) = tan(✓) =
1 1
tan(✓) cot(✓)

tan(✓) = cot(✓) =
(QI) Quotient sin(✓) cos(✓)
Identities: cos(✓) sin(✓)

sin2 (✓) + cos2 (✓) = 1

tan2 (✓) + 1 = sec2 (✓)

(PI) Pythagorean
Identities:
1 + cot2 (✓) = csc2 (✓)

Even Odd
cos(−✓) = cos(✓) sin(−✓) = − sin(✓)
(E/O) Even & Odd sec(−✓) = sec(✓) csc(−✓) = − csc(✓)
Identities: tan(−✓) = − tan(✓)
cot(−✓) = − cot(✓)

2024-2025 71
Simplifying Trigonometric Identities
In this section we will focus on simplifying complex trigonometric expressions. When a
question says to simplify a trigonometric expression, your final solution is typically a number
or single trigonometric expression with no fractions.
Example 7.1
Simplify the expression using the quotient and reciprocal identities.

a) csc2 (x) tan(x) sin(x)

b) sin(x) sec(x) cot(x)

72 2024-2025
 Recall from Algebra: Adding Fractions
If two fractions have di↵erent denominators, they can be added together by finding a

a c a d c b ad + cb
common denominator.
+ = ⋅ + ⋅ =
b d b d d b bd

Example 7.2
Simplify the expression by adding the fractional expression.

a) cot(✓) +
sin(✓)
1 + cos(✓)

sin2 (✓) + 1
+1
cos2 (✓)
b)

2024-2025 73
 Recall from Algebra: Distributing and Factoring
For real numbers, a, b, c and d, the following equalities hold:

(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2 ← incredibly useful

Example 7.3
Simplify the expression by factoring, distributing, and/or multiplying by the conjugate.

csc2 (y) + cot2 (y)

csc4 (y) − cot4 (y)
a)

74 2024-2025
 −
1 1
sec(t) − 1 sec(t) + 1
b)

tan2 (t) − 1
tan(t) sin(t) + sin(t)
c)

2024-2025 75
Verifying Identities
Sometimes it is not possible to simplify a trigonometric expression to a single term, how-
ever it might be useful to rewrite those expressions another way (of which there are infinite
possibilities!). Rewriting a trigonometric expression an alternative way is called establishing
a trigonometric identity. In this section we will practice verifying that given identities hold
true.

To verify a trigonometric identity you want to show that the right hand side of an equality
is equivalent to the left hand side of the expression using basic trigonometric identities and
algebraic manipulations. That is, we don’t yet know that the expressions are equivalent.
Our job is to show that they are!

Example 7.4

a) Below is a sequence of equalities verifying

csc(x) + 1
=
cot(x)
csc(x) − 1
.
cot(x)

Provide the mathematical justification for each step.

cot(x) (csc(x) + 1)
(LHS) ∶ =
cot(x)
csc(x) − 1 csc2 (x) − 1

cot(x) (csc(x) + 1)
=
cot2 (x)

csc(x) + 1
= ∶ (RHS)
cot(x)

76 2024-2025
b) Below is a sequence of equalities verifying
sec(x) + 1
(csc(x) + cot(x))2 =
sec(x) − 1
Provide the mathematical justification for each step.

sec(x) + 1 (sec(x) + 1)
2
(RHS) ∶ =
sec(x) − 1 sec2 (x) − 1

(sec(x) + 1)
2
=
tan2 (x)

sec(x) + 1
2
=� �
tan(x)

2
=� + �
sec(x) 1
tan(x) tan(x)

= (sec(x) cot(x) + cot(x))

2

2
=� cot(x) + cot(x)�
1
cos(x)

2
=� + cot(x)�
1 cos(x)
cos(x) sin(x)

2
=� + cot(x)�
1
sin(x)

= (csc(x) + cot(x)) ∶ (LHS)

2

2024-2025 77
Example 7.5
Verify that the following equality holds by using the basic trigonometric identities and
algebra.
sin(−x) + csc(x) = cot(x) cos(x)

a) Step 1 (informal trial and error): Simplify each side of the equality independently to
find where they meet.

LHS: sin(−x) + csc(x) = RHS: cot(x) cos(x) =

78 2024-2025
b) Step 2 (formal): Justify how one side of the equality equals the other.

2024-2025 79
Example 7.6
Verify that these equations are identities using the conjugate.

1 − sin(t)
= (sec(t) − tan(t))2
1 + sin(t)

1 − sin(t)
=
1 + sin(t)
LHS:

RHS: (sec(t) − tan(t))2 =

80 2024-2025
 Trigonometric ‘Formulas’
In this module we will identify some trigonometric identities that are so helpful they qualify
for the coveted title of a ‘Trigonometric Formula’.
Example 8.1

True or False: cos(120○ − 30○ ) = cos(120○ ) − cos(30○ ).

?

Sum and Di↵erence Formulas

It would be useful to have a general formula for situations like Example 1, so let’s consider
cos(x − y) in general.
Q Q
R
x
y x−y
x−y
P P
S

� �
��P Q�� = (cos(x) − cos(y)) + (sin(x) − sin(y))2 ��RS�� = (cos(x − y) − 1) + (sin(x − 1) − 0)
2 2

� �
�cos2 (x) − 2 cos(x) cos(y) + cos2 (y) �cos2 (x − y) − 2 cos(x − y) + 1
� �
=� = �
+ sin (x) − 2 sin(x) sin(y) + sin (y)
2 2
+ sin2 (x − y) − 0 sin(x − y) + 02
� �
= 2 − 2 cos(x) cos(y) − 2 sin(y) sin(x) = 2 − 2 cos(x − y)

So, we have that

��P Q��2 = ��RS��2
2 − 2 cos(x) cos(y) − 2 sin(x) sin(y) = 2 − 2 cos(x − y)
cos(x) cos(y) + sin(x) sin(y) = cos(x − y)

2024-2025 81
 Sum and Di↵erence Formulas
sin(x + y) = sin(x) cos(y) + sin(y) cos(x)
Sine Formulas:
sin(x − y) = sin(x) cos(y) − sin(y) cos(x)

cos(x + y) = cos(x) cos(y) − sin(x) sin(y)

Cosine Formulas:
cos(x − y) = cos(x) cos(y) + sin(x) sin(y)

tan(x) + tan(y)
tan(x + y) =
1 − tan(x) tan(y)
Tangent Formulas:
tan(x) − tan(y)
tan(x − y) =
1 + tan(x) tan(y)

Example 8.2
Use an addition or subtraction formula to find the exact value.

a) sin(15○ )

82 2024-2025
b) cos(285○ )

c) cos √ �
7⇡
12

2024-2025 83
 −⇡
d) sin √ �
12

e) tan(75○ )

84 2024-2025
 Example 8.3
Find the exact value of the following expressions.

a) cos √ � cos √ � − sin √ � sin √ �

⇡ 3⇡ ⇡ 3⇡
5 10 5 10

b) sin (18○ ) cos (27○ ) + cos (18○ ) sin (27○ )

tan � 7⇡ � �⇡�
9 − tan 9
1 + tan � 7⇡ � �⇡�
(c)
9 tan 9

2024-2025 85
Example 8.4
Find the exact value of cos(↵ − ) if

sin(↵) = − for ↵ in Quadrant IV and tan( ) = −

2 12
for in Quadrant II.
5 5

86 2024-2025
 Example 8.5
Use the Sum and Di↵erence Formulas to verify the following identities.

a) sin √x − � = cos(x)
3⇡
2

b) cos(x + y) − cos(x − y) = −2 sin(x) sin(y)

2024-2025 87
 sin(x + y)
c) = tan(x) + tan(y)
cos(x) cos(y)

88 2024-2025
Double Angle Identities
To obtain the double angle formulas we can use the sum and di↵erence formulas.
Double Angle Identites
sin(2✓) = 2 sin(✓) cos(✓)

cos(2✓) = cos2 (✓) − sin2 (✓)

cos(2✓) = 1 − 2 sin2 (✓)

cos(2✓) = 2 cos2 (✓) − 1

tan(2✓) = tan(2✓) =
2 tan(✓)
1 − tan2 (✓)

Example 8.6

If sin(✓) = , and ✓ is in the second quadrant, determine the exact values of the
1
8
following:

a) sin(2✓)

b) cos(2✓)

c) tan(2✓)

2024-2025 89
 Example 8.7
Use the double-angle identities to simplify the expression and give the exact value.

a) cos2 (75○ ) − sin2 (75○ )

b) 2 sin(112.5○ ) cos(112.5○ )

2 tan( ⇡8 )
1 − tan2 ( ⇡8 )
c)

90 2024-2025
Half Angle Identities

Half Angle Identites

� �
1 − cos(✓) 1 − cos(2✓)
sin √ � = ± sin (✓) = ±
✓
2 2 2
� �
1 + cos(✓) 1 + cos(2✓)
cos √ � = ± cos (✓) = ±
✓
2 2 2
1 − cos(✓) 1 − cos(2✓)
tan √ � = = tan (✓) = =
✓ sin(✓) sin(2✓)
2 1 + cos(✓) sin(✓) 1 + cos(2✓) sin(2✓)

Note: For the sine and cosine half angle identities it is necessary to choose the proper
sign (+ or −) based on the quadrant the angle the argument is in.

Example 8.8
Use the half angle identity to find the following:

a) sin(75○ )

b) cos √ �
7⇡
8

2024-2025 91
Example 8.9
If sec(✓) = 7, and sin(✓) < 0, with 0 ≤ ✓ ≤ 2⇡, find the exact value for:

(a) sin √ �
✓
2

(b) cos √ �
✓
2

(c) tan √ �
✓
2

92 2024-2025
 Solving Trigonometric Equations

Now that we have the inverse trigonometric functions and can simplify trigonometric expres-
sions we can find sets of solutions to trigonometric expressions.

Example 9.1
Solve the following expressions on the interval 0 ≤ ✓ < 2⇡.

a) 2 sin(✓) + 5 = 6

https://www.geogebra.org/m/ynuznaem

�
b) 2 sin(✓) + 3=0

2024-2025 93
c) 3 sec(✓) + 2 = 8

�
d) tan(✓) + 3=0

94 2024-2025
Using Algebra to Solve Trig Equations

Recall from Algebra: Factoring

Often times it is necessary to factor in order to identify solutions to an algebraic
expression:
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
(a − b)(a + b) = a2 − b2

Recall from Algebra: Zero Product Property & Roots

In the real numbers

• if A ⋅ B = 0, then either A = 0 or B = 0.
�
• if x2 = number then, x = ± number .

Example 9.2
Solve each expression on the interval 0 ≤ ✓ < 2⇡.

a) 7 sin2 (✓) + 15 sin(✓) + 8 = 0

2024-2025 95
b) 2 sin2 (✓) + sin(✓) − 1 = 0

�
c) 2 cos2 (✓) + 3 cos(✓) = 0

d) 2 cos2 (✓) = 1

96 2024-2025
e) − cos2 (✓) + sin2 (✓) = 1 + cos(✓)

f) cot2 (✓) =
3
csc(✓)
2

2024-2025 97
General Solutions

General Solution Set

We can write a general solution that accounts for all possible solutions to an algebraic
expression involving trig functions.

1. Identify all angles, ✓, on the interval [0, 2⇡) that solve the expression (there is
often more than one solution on this interval).

2. Write each solution ✓ as ✓ + k ⋅ 2⇡, k ∈ Z to represent all angles with the same
terminal ray as ✓.

3. Simplify/reduce duplicate solutions. For example, if � , , � is the set of

2⇡ 4⇡ 5⇡
3 3 3
solutions on [0, 2⇡) we can rewrite the two expressions

+ k ⋅ 2⇡ and + k ⋅ 2⇡
2⇡ 5⇡
3 3
as a single expression
+ k ⋅ ⇡.
2⇡
3
4. Write your answers in set notation. For example, the solution set from step 3
would be,
�✓� ✓ = + k ⋅ ⇡, ✓ = + k ⋅ 2⇡, k ∈ Z� .
2⇡ 4⇡
3 3

98 2024-2025
Example 9.3
Write the general formula for the expressions in Example 1.

a) 2 sin(✓) + 5 = 6

�
b) 2 sin(✓) + 3=0

c) 3 sec(✓) + 2 = 8

�
d) tan(✓) + 3=0

e) 2 sin2 (x) − 1 = 0

2024-2025 99
 Example 9.4
Give the general formula for the following expressions. It’s important to note the
period.

�
a) sin(2✓) = −
3
2

b) sec √ �=2
3✓
2

100 2024-2025
Using General Solutions to Find Solutions on an Interval

Example 9.5
Find all the solutions to the following equations in the interval [0, 2⇡). It is important
to note the period.

�
a) cos(2✓) = −
3
2

b) cos(3✓) = 1

2024-2025 101
c) sin(x) + sin(2x) = 0 (careful on this one!)

d) cos(x) tan(x) + cos(x) = 0 (careful on this one too!)

102 2024-2025
 Arc Length and Area

Arc Length
Recall that the measure of an angle measured in radians is the total arc length, s, divided
by the radius length, r.
√✓ = �
s
r
Therefore we can deduce that...
Arc length
The arc length, s, intercepted by an angle ✓ is r times as big as ✓,

s = r✓.

For this formula to produce a comprehensible answer:

• ✓ must be measured in radians

• s and r must be measured in the same units

Example 10.1

a) Find the radian measure of an angle that intercepts an arc of length 13 in on a

circle of radius 20 in.
(Note: if specific rounding instructions are not given, provide an exact solution.)

b) A circular arc has measure 13 cm and is intercepted by an angle of 63○ . Find

the radius r of the circle. Round your answer to the nearest tenth.

2024-2025 103
Example 10.2
Two gears are calibrated so that the smaller gear drives the larger gear. For each
rotation of the smaller gear, how many degrees will the larger gear rotate?

Example 10.3
A bicycle tire has a diameter of 26 inches. The tire rolls without sliding along a
road. Let ✓ be the angle (in radians) the tire rotate as the bicycle travels x inches.
Assume ✓ is positive and consider only its magnitude (i.e. its position on the circle is
not relevant). Assume also that the distance x is positive.

a) Find x as a function of ✓. Use the exact values in the formula, not decimal
approximations.
x(✓) =

b) If the bicycle rolls forward so that the tire rotate 70 degrees, what is the distance
that the bicycle travels (in inches)? Round your answer to the nearest tenth of
an inch.

104 2024-2025
Area of a Sector
A sector of a circle is a “pie-shaped” wedge bounded by the sides of a central angle and its
intercepted arc. Similar to arc length, we can deduce the area of a sector is proportional to
its central angle. Specifically,

=
area of a sector central angle
.
area of entire circle angle of entire circle

Area of a Sector
The area A of a sector of a circle with radius r and central angle ✓, measured in
radians, is given by
A = r2 ✓.
1
2

2024-2025 105
Example 10.4
The back wiper blade on an SUV extends 3 in. from the pivot point to a distance of
17in from the pivot point. If the blade rotates through an angle of 135○ , how much
area does it cover? Round to the nearest square inch.

106 2024-2025
 Applicatons of Right Triangle Trigonometry

Angles of Elevation and Angles of Depression

Angles of Elevation and Depression

Angle of Elevation: Angle of Depression:

object horizontal
observer

observer
horizontal object

The Angle of Elevation from object A to object B is equal to the Angle of Depression
from object B to object A.

Example 11.1
An escalator in a department store is to carry people a vertical distance of 20 feet
between floors. How long is the escalator if it makes a 35○ angle with the ground?
Round to two decimal places.

2024-2025 107
Example 11.2
A boat, o↵shore from a vertical cli↵ known to be 38 meters in height, takes a sighting
of the top of the cli↵ and finds the angle of elevation to be 26○ .

How far o↵shore is the boat? Round to the nearest meter.

Example 11.3
An observer on the roof of a 40 ft building measures the angle of depression from the
roof to a park bench on the ground to be 24○ . What is the distance from the base of
the building to the bench as measured along the ground? Round to the nearest foot.

108 2024-2025
Example 11.4
While taking a ride in a hot air balloon, two riders choose di↵erent landmarks on the
same side of the balloon and measure the angle of depression from the balloon to the
landmarks (simultaneously). The angle of depression to landmark A is 51○ , and the
angle of depression to landmark B is 59○ . It is known that the two landmarks are 320
feet apart. How high is the balloon? Round to the nearest foot.

2024-2025 109
Applying Inverse Functions

Example 11.5
To meet the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) a wheelchair
ramp must have a slope of 1:12 or less. That is, for every 1 in. of “rise,” there must
be at least 12 in. of “run”. If a wheelchair ramp is constructed with the maximum
slope, what angle does the ramp make with the ground? Round to the nearest tenth
of a degree.

Example 11.6
A student measures the length of the shadow of the Washington Monument to be 620
ft. If the Washington Monument is 555 ft tall, approximate the angle of elevation of
the Sun to the nearest tenth of a degree.

110 2024-2025
 Finding Angles using a Calculator
Below the ranges of the arc funtions are given in radians and degrees.

f (x) = arcsin x = sin−1 x − ≤✓≤ −90○ ≤ ✓ ≤ 90○ ,

⇡ ⇡
2 2
f (x) = arctan x = tan−1 x − <✓< −90○ < ✓ < 90○ ,
⇡ ⇡
2 2
f (x) = arccos x = cos−1 x 0≤✓≤⇡ 0○ ≤ ✓ ≤ 180○ .

This means when you use a calculator to find an arc function value, the calculator will only
return values within these ranges. If an angle lies in a di↵erent quadrant, you will use a
reference angle to find it.

Example 12.1
Use a calculator to approximate the degree measure (to 1 decimal place) of ✓ such that
sin ✓ = and 90○ ≤ ✓ ≤ 180○ .
4
5

Example 12.2
Use a calculator to approximate the radian measure (to at least 4 decimal places) of
the angle ✓ given that cos ✓ = − and ⇡ ≤ ✓ ≤
3 3⇡
. Round all intermediate calculations
5 2
to 4 decimal places.

2024-2025 111
 Law of Sines & Law of Cosines
So far we have focused on exclusively right triangles, however we also use trigonometry to
solve oblique triangles if we know at least one side length (S), and two other side lengths
(S), angles (A), or some combination thereof.

Acute Triangle Obtuse Triangle

Law of Sines
The law of sines can be used to solve SAA, ASA, or SSA oblique triangles.

b a
=
h1 sin(A) sin(B)

�⇒
a b
A c B or

=
a b
sin(A) = sin(B) =
h1 h1
sin(A) sin(B)
b a
b sin(A) = h1 a sin(B) = h1

c b
=
sin(C) sin(B)
h2
�⇒
c b
or

=
B a C c b
sin(C) sin(B)
sin(B) = sin(C) =
h2 h2
c b
c sin(B) = h2 b sin(C) = h2

112 2024-2025
 Law of Sines
If ABC is a triangle with sides of length a, b, and c opposite angles A, B, and C,
respectively, then

= = = =
a b c sin(A) sin(B) sin(C)
or
sin(A) sin(B) sin(C) a b c

By convention, ABC triangles are set up so that each angle is labeled with a capital letter
and the side opposite each angle is labeled with the corresponding lower case letter.

SAA Triangles
Example 13.1
Solve the triangle with A = 20○ , B = 25○ , and a = 2 inches. Round the lengths of the
sides to the nearest tenth of an inch.

2024-2025 113
ASA Triangles
Example 13.2
Solve the triangle with A = 132○ , B = 28○ , and c = 6.8 inches. Round the lengths of the
sides to the nearest tenth of an inch.

114 2024-2025
SSA Triangles: The Ambiguous Case

In order to solve a side-side-angle triangle we must invoke arcsine. However, we know from
previous chapters we know arcsine can only tell us about acute angles. This means we’ll
need to do some extra work to identify if, for a given set of information, we’ll be able to
make 1 right triangle, 1 obtuse triangle, 2 triangles (one acute and one obtuse), or if it’s not
possible to make a triangle at all. This will all depend on how our side lengths compare to
the possible height of the triangle(s). CAUTION: ALEKS explanation is di↵erent than the
discussion that follows. You need to understand the explanation in these notes in order to
solve ALEKS problems for the SSA case more e↵ectively.

https://www.geogebra.org/m/CvtkyRM5

Suppose we know angle A and side lengths b and a*. Begin by comparing a and b. If a ≥ b,
then

b a

A c B

a≥b
One triangle

Example 13.3
Use the interactive (above) with A = 30○ , b = 9, and a = 9 (or greater) to see that there
is one triangle.

*Note: these variables are placeholders. We can always arrange our triangle to look similar
to the one above with di↵erent lettering. In this diagram, A is the angle you know, a is the
side length opposite A, and b is the other side length you know.

2024-2025 115
If a < b, then identify the height of the triangle h.
C
a
b
h

A c B

h = b ⋅ sin(A)

Example 13.4
Use the interactive with A = 30○ , b = 9 and find h. In the following diagrams we will
look at di↵erent a values to demonstrate each case.

If a < h then no triangle is possible. If a = h then there is a single right triangle.

C C
a
b b a
h h

A c B A c B

a<h a=h
No triangle One right triangle

If h < a < b, then you’ll have two triangles.

C1 C2

b a b
h a h

A B1 A
c1 c2 B2

B1 = arcsin √ �
b sin(A)
B2 = 180○ − B1
a
Triangle # 1 Triangle # 2

116 2024-2025
Example 13.5
How many triangles ABC can be constructed with c = 3, b = 6 and C = 60○ ?

Example 13.6
How many triangles ABC can be constructed with b = 6, c = 10 and B = 30○ ?

NOTE: In ALEKS, you need to know before you solve a triangle whether you should choose
“no solution” or whether you will need to use “or” and solve two triangles.

2024-2025 117
Example 13.7
Solve the triangle with A = 28○ , a = 12, and b = 38. Round the measures of the
unknown angles and side to 1 decimal place.

118 2024-2025
Example 13.8
Solve the triangle with C = 68○ , a = 13, and c = 15. Round the measures of the
unknown angles and side to 1 decimal place.

2024-2025 119
Example 13.9
Solve the triangle with B = 28○ , b = 10, and a = 18. Round the measures of the
unknown angles and side to 1 decimal place.

120 2024-2025
Law of Cosines
For SSS and SAS triangles we can use the Law of Cosines. To derive the Law of Cosines, we
can imagine our triangle on a coordinate plane with

A = (0, 0), B = (c, 0), and C = (b cos(A), b sin(A)).

C = (b cos(A), b sin(A))

b a

A = (0, 0) c B = (c, 0)

�
The distance formula gives us; a = (b cos(A) − c)2 + (b sin(A) − 0)2 . So we have,

a2 = (b cos(A) − c)2 + (b sin(A) − 0)2 squaring both sides

a = b cos (A) − 2bc cos(A) + c + b sin (A)
2 2 2 2 2 2
distribution
a2 = b2 cos2 (A) + b2 sin2 (A) + c2 − 2bc cos(A) rearrangement
a2 = b2 (cos2 (A) + sin (A)) + c2 − 2bc cos(A)
2
factoring
a = b (1) + c − 2bc cos(A)
2 2 2
Pythagorean Identity

Law of Cosines
If ABC is a triangle with sides of length a, b, and c opposite angles A, B, and C,
respectively, then

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(A)
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos(B)
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(C)

2024-2025 121
SAS Triangle
Example 13.10
Solve the triangle with b = 19, c = 22, and A = 38○ . Round the measures of the unknown
angles and side to 1 decimal place.

122 2024-2025
SSS Triangle
Example 13.11
Solve the triangle with a = 10, b = 8, and c = 5. Round measures to 1 decimal place.

*Note: It is possible for no triangle to exist when you are given three sides. For example,
if you are provided a = 4.4, b = 6.2, and c = 11.1, the law of cosines for C produces an
underfined term.

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Applications

Example 13.12
The angle of elevation of a balloon from two points A and B on level ground are 32○
and 52○ respectively. Points A and B are 12 miles apart and the balloon is between
the points, in the same vertical plane.

To the nearest mile, find the distance between the balloon and point B.

124 2024-2025
Example 13.13
To estimate the height of a building, two measurements are taken. The first mea-
surement shows an angle of elevation to the top of the building as 43○ . The second
measurement, taken 100 feet closer to the base, yields an angle of elevation of 78○ .
From these measurements, estimate the height of the building. Round to the nearest
foot.

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Example 13.14
The distance between Miami, Florida, and New York City, NY, is 1093 miles. The
distance from New York City to Nashville, Tennessee, is 759 miles. The distance from
Nashville to Miami is 816 miles. What is the measure of each angle between the towns?
Round to one decimal place.

126 2024-2025
Bearing

Example 13.15
Suppose a fishing boat leaves its pier and heads due east. After traveling 30 miles,
there is a report of rough seas, so the captain turns the boat and follows a bearing of
S30○ W for 12 miles. At this time, how far is the boat from its pier? Round to the
nearest tenth of a mile.

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Example 13.16
A ship leaves port at 9:00a.m. and travels N 25○ E at 18 mph. A second ship leaves the
same port at 10:30a.m. and travels S55○ W at 24 mph. At 12:00noon how far apart
are the ships? Round to the nearest mile.

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 Polar Coordinates
So far in mathematics we’ve focused exclusively on rectangular coordinate systems where the
point (x, y) is located x units to the right (or left) the origin and y units above (or below)
of the origin. However, there are many other coordinate systems. One particularly useful
coordinate system is called the Polar Coordinate System.
Polar Coordinates
A polar coordinate system consists of a fixed point O called the pole (or origin), and
a ray called the polar axis. Each point P in the plane is defined by an ordered pair of
the form (r, ✓) where r is the directed distance from the pole to the point P and ✓ is
the angle measured from the Polar Axis.

P (r, ✓)
r

✓
O Polar Axis

• Positive angles have a counterclocwise rotation.

• Negative angles have a clockwise rotation.

• If r > 0, P is located r units from the pole in the direction of ✓.

• If r < 0, P is located �r� units from the pole in the direction ✓ + ⇡ (i.e. opposite
the angle ✓).

• If r = 0, P is the pole.

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Example 14.1
Plot the following points:
−4⇡
A √3, � B √−4, � C √2.5, �
⇡ ⇡
4 6 3

130 2024-2025
Example 14.2
Plot the following points:

A √5, � B √6, � C √−5, �

9⇡ 7⇡ 5⇡
4 6 6

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Example 14.3

Plot the point that has polar coodinates √4, �. Then give two other polar coodrinate
2⇡
3
representations of the point:

(a) One with r < 0.

(b) One with r > 0 and ✓ < 0.

Converting Between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

Consider the following triangle:

r y

✓
x

�
r cos(✓) = x r2 = x2 + y 2 or r = x2 + y 2
r sin(✓) = y tan(✓) =
y
x

132 2024-2025
 To Convert From...

• polar (r, ✓) → rectangular (x, y) use:

r cos(✓) = x and/or r sin(✓) = y

• rectangular (x, y) → polar (r, ✓) use:

�
r2 = x2 + y 2 , r = x2 + y 2 and/or tan(✓) =
y
x
– If the point in rectangular coordinates is on an axis, then ✓ will be
⇡ 3⇡
0, , ⇡, or .
2 2

– If ✓ is not in QI, use tan(↵) = � � to find the reference angle. Use the
y
x
reference and quadrant to find ✓.

Example 14.4
Find the rectangular coordinates for the point whose polar coordinates are given:

a) √−2, �
⇡
6

b) √5, �
2⇡
3

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 Example 14.5
Find the exact polar coordinates with 0 ≤ r and 0 ≤ ✓ < 2⇡:

a) (−2, 0)

b) (−2, 2)

�
c) �−1, − 3�

d) (0, −3)

134 2024-2025
Converting Between Polar and Rectangular Equations
To convert between polar and rectangular equations we’ll use the same relationships.
Example 14.6
Convert the equation to polar form.

a) x = −y

b) x2 + y 2 = 25

�
c) y = x 3

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d) x2 + y 2 − 4x = 0

136 2024-2025
 Example 14.7
Convert the equation to rectangular form.

a) r = 3

b) ✓ =
⇡
3

2024-2025 137
c) r = 4 sin(✓)

d) r =
4
2 cos(✓) + sin(✓)

138 2024-2025
 Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude (size) and a direction.

In a coordinate plane a vector is a line segment with a specified direction. We typically

represent vectors using arrows where the length represents its magnitude and the arrowhead
represents the direction. Sometimes we just use bold type to notate vectors
�→
v = v� = P Q

The vector v� begins at an initial point P and ends at a terminal point Q, and the direction-
ality matters!

The Geometry of Vectors

Although you can move vectors around the xy−plane, the length and direction stay the same.
Regardless of position, if two vectors have the same magnitude and direction then they are
equivalent.

�→ ��→
A E AB ≡ CD
D
�→ �→
F AB ≡ −EF
C

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Example 15.1
Draw v� from (−3, 1) to (1, 4) and then draw the equivalent vector with initial point
(0.0).

The new vector is called .

How can you determine its terminal point?

What is its length? In vector terminology, this is called .

What is its direction?

140 2024-2025
 Component Form or Position Vector
A vector in standard position has an initial point at the origin. This is called
�→ �→
a position vector. Any vector can be represented by its component form. The
component form for P Q has the same direction and magnitude as P Q and is often
drawn in standard position.
�→
For points P = (x1 , y1 ) and Q = (x2 , y2 ), the component form of P Q = v� can
be found by
v� = �x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 �.

Q
y2 − y1

x2 − x1
P

Magnitude
The magnitude of a vector v is the size of the vector. For two dimensional vectors
we can simply use the pythatgeran theorem to find the magnitude. The magnitude of
v� = �a, b� is �
���
v �� = a2 + b2

Direction of Vector
The direction, ✓, for a vector ai+bj in standard position may be found using a reference
angle, ↵ = tan−1 � �.
b
a

Q I: ✓ = ↵; Q II: ✓ = 180○ − ↵; Q III: ✓ = 180○ + ↵; Q IV: ✓ = 360○ − ↵.

NOTE: ALEKS explains finding ✓ di↵erently than discussed above.

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Example 15.2

a) Given vector v� with initial point (3, 8) and terminal point (−1, 3), find the compo-
nent form of v�.

b) What is the magnitude of v�?

c) What is the direction of v�?

Scalars
A scalar is a real number which only represents a magnitude. Scalars change the
magnitude of a vector. For example, temperature speed and time are scalars. When a
scalar is less than zero, it will reverse the direction of the vector. For a real number k,

v = k�a, b� = �ka, kb�

k�

2�
v

v� −�
v
v�
1
2

Example 15.3
�→
v for v� = P Q if P = (−1, 2) and Q = (4, 6).
Find 3�

142 2024-2025
Vector Addition and Subtraction

Vector Addition and Subtraction

� = �a1 , a2 � and �b = �b1 , b2 � we can perform addition and subtraction
For vectors a
component-wise which allows us to identify

� + �b = �a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 �
a

� − �b = �a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 �
a

Example 15.4
Given r� = �1, −4� and s� = �2, 3� find

a) r� + s� b) −4�
s r + 2�
c) 3� s

Properties of Vectors
If u�, v�, and w� are vectors and c and d are scalars, then

v� + w� = w� + v� (� � + u� = w� + (�
v + w) v + u�)
v� + 0� = v� v ) = �0
v� + (−�
c (� � = c�
v + w) v + cw� (c + d) v� = c�
v + d�
v
(cd) v� = c (d�
v) 1�v = v�
0�v = 0� c(�0) = 0�
��c�
v �� = �c� ���
v ��

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 Vector Addition and Subtraction - Graphic representation

Graphically we can add vectors together by placing a � and �b “tip to tail”. That is,
� at the terminal point of �b.
place the initial point of a

�
a � + �b
a
�b
�b
�
a
�b
c�

�
a

d�
d�
c�

� + �b + c� + d�
�b
a

�
a

� − �b it is better to think of adding the inverted vector −�b onto a

For subtraction, a � “tip
to tail”.

�
a
−�b
−�b
�
a � − �b
a

144 2024-2025
Example 15.5
Sketch w� + v� by placing the intitial point of w� at the terminal point of v�.

w�
v�

Example 15.6
Sketch v� − w� by placing the intitial point of -w� at the terminal point of v�.

v�

w�

2024-2025 145
Example 15.7
Sketch −2�
v in standard position.

v�

Unit Vectors

Unit Vector
A unit vector, u� is a vector with magnitude 1. We typically represent the horizontal
unit vector with the letter i and the vertical unit vector with the letter j,

�i = �1, 0� and �j = �0, 1�.

For a vector v� the unit vector in the direction of v can be found by

v�
u�v =
���
v ��
or use
u�v = �cos ✓, sin ✓�
where ✓ is the direction of v�.

Example 15.8
Find the unit vector in the direction of v� = �5, 4�.

146 2024-2025
 Unit Vector Form
For a vector v� = �a, b� we can write

v� = �a, b� = a�i + b�j.

This is because the a represents the horizontal direction of v� (the horizontal compo-
nent) and b represents the vertical direction of v� (the vertical component).

Discuss with a picture.

Example 15.9
A force, F, of 20 pounds is applied in a direction that makes an angle of 30○ in standard
form. Express F in terms of �i and �j.

Example 15.10

To push a refrigerator up a loading ramp in the direction 3�i + 4�j, a force, F, of 300
pounds is exerted. Write F as a component vector.

2024-2025 147
 Relating Component Form with Direction and Magnitude
Given a vector in standard position, its direction angle ✓ is measured counterclockwise
from the positive x−axis over the interval 0 ≤ ✓ < 2⇡ or 0○ ≤ ✓ < 360○ .

v�
���
v �� sin(✓)

✓
���
v �� cos(✓)

�
���
v �� = a2 + b 2 tan(✓) =
b
a
a = ���
v �� cos ✓ b = ���
v �� sin ✓

v� = �a, b� = ����
v �� cos ✓, ���
v �� sin ✓� v� = a�i + b�j

Example 15.11

Write the vector v� in the form a�i + b�j where v� has ���
v �� = 10 and direction angle ✓ =
3⇡
.
4

Example 15.12

Find the magnitude and direction angle for s� = 7�i − 3�j. Round to 1 decimal place.

148 2024-2025
 Example 15.13
Suppose an object is positioned at the origin. A force F1 of magnitude 50 newtons
(N) acts on the object at an angle of 236○ , with the positive x−axis. A force F2 of
magnitude 35 acts on the object at an angle of 288○ , with the positive x−axis. Let
F = F1 + F2 be the resultant force.

288○
236○
x

F2
F1

Find the following:

a) F = F1 + F2 , the resultant force.

b) The direction angle of F.

c) The magnitude of F.

2024-2025 149
Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors gives as a way to determine if two vectors are

• parallell to each other,

• orthogonal (perpendicular) to each other,

• and a way to measure the angle between them.

Dot Product
For two vectors v� = a1�i + b1�j and w� = a2�i + b2�j, the dot product, v� ● w,
� is

v� ● w� = a1 a2 + b1 b2 .

Dot Product Properties:

v �� = v� ● v�
• ���
2

• v� ● w� = w� ● v�

• u� ● (� � = u� ● v� + u� ● w�
v + w)

• v� ● �0 = 0.
�

Example 15.14

For each of the following, find the dot product v� ● w� for v� = 2�i − 3�j and w� = 5�i + 3�j

150 2024-2025
 Angle between vectors
The vectors v�, w,
� and the angle between those vectors are related by the equation,
v� ● w�
cos(✓) =
��� �
v �� ⋅ ��w��

Example 15.15

Find the angle between v� = −2�i + 3�j and w� = 3�i + �j. Round to the nearest tenth of a
degree.

Parallel and Orthogonal Vectors

Parallel: Two vectors v� and w� are parellel if one is the scalar multiple of the
other. That is v� = ↵w� for some real number ↵. We can also identify
that v� and w� are parallel if the angle ✓ between v� and w� is ✓ = 0 or ✓ = ⇡.

Orthogonal: Two vectors v� and w� are orthogonal if v� ● w� = 0 or the angle ✓ between

v� and w� is ✓ = .
⇡
2

Discussion:

2024-2025 151
Example 15.16
Determine if the vectors are orthogonal, parallel, or neither

a) u� = 4�i − �j and w� =
1� �
i + 2j.
1
3 6

b) u� = 4�i − 5�j and w� = 2�i − �j.

5
2

152 2024-2025
Vector Projections and Work

Vector Projections
Suppose we have two vectors v� and w� with the same initial point. We can decompose
v� into two vectors v� = v�1 + v�2 where,
v� ● w�
• v�1 = projw (�
v) = � � w� is parallel to w,
�
� 2
��w��
• v�2 = v� − v�1 is orthogonal to w.
�

� and v�2 “the vector projection of v�

We call v�1 “the vector projecion of v� onto w”
�
orthogonal to w.

Example 15.17

For v� = �i + 3�j and w� = �i + �j

a) Find the vector projection of v� onto w.

�

b) Find the vector projection of v� orthogonal to w.

�

2024-2025 153
 Work
Suppose there is a constant force F� acting on an object at an angle ✓ to the direction
of motion, and the force F� moves that object from point A to point B. Then the
�→
work done by F� equals the amount of force in the direction of AB multiplied by the
distance from point A to point B. We can write this as,
�→
�→
� �� ��AB�� = ● AB �→ �→ �→
��proj�→ �� �� = ●
F
�→
F AB�� AB�� F AB.
��AB��
AB 2

�→
In other words,
W ork = F� ● AB
To compute work:

1. Write F� as a component vector

�→
2. Write AB as a component vector

3. Compute the dot product.

Example 15.18
A force of 85 N is applied to move an object 20m horizontally. If the force is directed
44○ upward from the horizontal, find the work done in moving the object.

154 2024-2025
Example 15.19
Find the work done by a force, F (in lbs) in moving an object in a straight line from
point A to point B given: A(2, 5) and B(12, 9) with F� = 3�i + 2�j

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