SMA 2170 ALGEBRA

SURDS, LOGARITHMS AND INDICES

SURDS
Definition (rattional number): A rattional number is a number that can be expressed in
the form a/b where a and b are integers such that b 6= 0 and the greatest common divisor of a
and b is 1. These include all integers/whole numbers, i.e. {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, · · · },
•
terminating and recurring decimal numbers, for example 0.5 = 1/2, 0.3 = 1/3, etc.
Definition (irrattional number): An irrational number is a real number that is not
√
rational. They are decimal numbers that neither recur nor terminate, for example p where
p is prime, π = 3.142857 · · · , e = 2.71828182845 · · · .
p
Definition (surd): A surd is a number of the form n p/q (where p, q, n are integers) but
which cannot be expressed in the form a/b for any integers a and b, b 6= 0, and gcd(a, b) = 1.
They are irrational.
√ √ p √
Examples of surds are 2, 3 9, 4 1/3. However, 9 = 3/1 is rational and hence not a surd.
p
Similarly, 3 8/27 = 2/3 is not a surd.
Further Examples
√ √3
√
1. 3 216 = 63 = 6; hence 3 216 is not a surd.
√ √ √ √ √
2. 216 = 62 6 = 6 6; hence 216 is a surd.
√ √
3. Express 4 48 in the form p 4 q where p and q are integers and q contains no factors
which are 4th powers of integers.
√ √ √ √
Solution: 4 48 = 4 16 4 3 = 2 4 3.
p √
4. Express 3 81/625 in the form p 3 q for rational numbers p and q, and q contains no factors
which are exact cubes q of rational numbers.
p
3 3
q
q 3

3 3 3
p
Solution: 3 81
/625 = 3 35 5
= 3
5 5
= 3/5 3 3/5.
√ √
5. Express 6 5 in the form k for an integer k.
√ √ √ √ √
Solution: 6 5 = 62 5 = 62 × 5 = 180.
√ √
6. Express 7 4 3 in the form 4 p.
√ √4
√ √ √
Solution: 7 4 3 = 74 4 3 = 4 74 × 3 = 4 7203.
p p
7. Express 8/3 3 5/9 in theqform 3 p/q. q
p p p
Solution: 8/3 3 5/9 = 3 (8/3)3 3 5/9 = 3 (8/3)3 × 5/9 = 3 2560/243.

1
Addition and Multiplication of Surds
In surds, we add like terms (consider the order and the number under the root sign).
Examples
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
1. 6 2 + 3 3 − 3/4 2 + 2/5 3 = (6 − 3/4) 2 + (3 + 2/5) 3 = 21/4 2 + 17/5 3.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
2. 3 5 + 5 2 + 5/2 3 5 + 3/7 2 = (1 + 5/2) 3 5 + (5 + 3/7) 2 = 7/2 3 5 + 38/7 2.
We multiply surds of the same order.
Examples
√ √ √ √
1. 3 5 × 5 3 2 = 5 3 5 × 2 = 5 3 10.
√ √
√ √

2. Simplify 5 2 + 3 3 4 2 − 5 3
Solution:

 √ √  √ √  √  √ √  √  √ √ 
5 2+3 3 4 2−5 3 = 5 2 4 2−5 3 +3 3 4 2−5 3
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
= 20 2 2 − 25 2 3 + 12 3 2 − 15 3 3
√ √
= 40 − 25 6 + 12 6 − 45
√
= −5 − 13 6

Exercise
p p √
Show that 85/21 × 63/136 = 1/4 30.

Rationalizing the Denominator

If fractions are involved with surds, it is appropriate to eliminate the surds from the denom-
inator. The aim here is to work with a rational denominator.
√ √ √ √
If a and b are surds and the denominator is of the form a + b, multiplying the
√ √
numerators and denominator by a − b makes the denominator a − b, which is rational.
√ √ √ √
In this case, a − b is called the conjugate of a + b, and vice versa.
Examples
1. Without tables or calculator, determine √1 correct to 6 decimal places given that
√ 7
7 = 2.6457513.
√ √
Solution: √1 = √1 √7 = 7 = 2.6457513 = 0.377964 (to 6 d.p.)
√ √ 7 7 7 7 7
6+√3
2. Write 6− 3 with a rational denominator.
√
√ √ √ √
√ √
( 6+ 3)(√6+√3) √ √ √
Solution: √6+ √3 = √ √ = 6+3+2 18
= 9+6 2
= 3 + 2 2.
6− 3 ( 6− 3)( 6+ 3) 6−3 3

2
 3. Simplify 3 cos2 45° cos 42° +tan2 60° sin 48° −9 cos 60° cos 42° without tables or calculator.
Solution:
√

Recall : cos 45° = √1 , cos 60° = 12 , tan 60° = 3 and sin 48° = cos 90° − 48° = cos 42° .
2
So,

√ √
3 cos2 45 cos 42 + tan2 60 sin 48 − 9 cos 60 cos 42 = 3 (1/ 2)2 cos 42° + ( 3)2 sin 48°
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

− 9 (1/2) cos 42°

= (3/2 − 9/2) cos 42° + 3 sin 48°
= −3 cos 42° + 3 sin 48°
= −3 cos 42° + 3 cos 42°
= 0.

Exercise
√
2√5−3
1. Simplify 3 5−2
by rationalizing the denominator.
√ √
2. Without using tables or calculator, evaluate √7− √5 correct to 6 d.p. given that
7+ 5
√
35 = 5.9160798.
sin2 315° (1−tan2 210° )
3. Show that (1+cos 120° )(1+tan2 330° ) = 12 without tables or calculator.
3
4. Rationalize the denominator: √3 5−2 . [Hint: use a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )]

LOGARITHMS AND INDICES

Indices
There are three laws of indices related to powers of the same base a.
1. am × an = am+n .
2. am ÷ an = am−n .
3. (am )n = amn .

Rational Indices
Consider a1/n where n is a positive integer. From law 3 above,

n √
a /n = a /n×n = a1 ⇒ a /n =
1 1 1 n
a.

m √ m √ √ √ m
= ( n a) . Also, am/n = (am ) /n = n am . So, n am = ( n a) .
1
Now, am/n = a1/n

3
Example

3
(16) /4 = 16 /4
3
= 23 = 8
1

and

1/4 √
(16) /4 = 163
3 4
= 4096 = 8.

Zero and Negative Indices

Clearly, am ÷ am = 1. But am ÷ am = am−m = a0 . So, a0 = 1.
Now, a0 ÷ an = 1 ÷ an = a1n . But a0 ÷ an = a0−n = a−n . So, a−n = a1n .
Examples
1. Find the value of (27/8) /3 .
−2

 2/3 h i2
Solution: (27/8) /3 = (27/8)−1 = (8/27) /3 = (8/27) /3 = (2/3)2 = 4/9.
−2 2 1

1/2 −1/2
2. Simplify (1+x) −1+x
/2x(1+x)
1
.
Solution: Multiplying the numerator and denominator by 2 (1 + x) /2 ,
1

(1 + x) /2 − 1/2x (1 + x)
1 −1/2
2(1 + x) − x
=
2 (1 + x) /2
3
1+x
2+x
= .
2 (1 + x) /2
3

Exercise
1. Find the value of
(a) 0.04−3/2 [Ans: 125]
−3/2
(b) 84−2/3 [Ans: 1/2]
2. Simplify:
(a) 3n+1 × 9n ÷ 27(2/3)n [Ans: 3n+1]
(b) 9−(1/2)n × 3n+2 × 81−1/4 [Ans: 3]
(c) 6( /2)n × 12n+1 × 27−( /2)n ÷ 32(1/2)n
1 1
[Ans: 12]
(d ) 10(1/3)n × 15(1/2)n × 6(1/6)n ÷ 45(1/3)n [Ans: 10n/2 ]
3. Simplify:
√ 1 1
xy×x /3 ×2y /4
(a) 1
10 9 /12
[Ans: 2]
(x y )
1
−1/2x(1−x) /2 +(1−x) /2
−1
x−2
(b) x 2 [Ans: 2x2 (1−x)1/2
]
1/2x1/2 (1+x)−1/2 −1/2x−1/2 (1+x)1/2 −1
(c) x
[Ans: 2x3/2 (1+x)1/2
]

4
 1/3 1
− /3x(1+x) /3
−2
(1+x) 3+2x
(d ) (1+x)2/3
[Ans: 3(1+x)4/3
]

Logarithms
Logarithm is another word for index or power. Now, let a be a positive real number. If
ax = y, then x is the logarithm of y to base a, written x = loga y.
Examples
1. 23 = 8 =⇒ 3 = log2 8.
2. Let a be a positive real number such that ap = xy for some real numbers p, x, y.
Then x = ap/y =⇒ p/y = loga x.
3. 1251/3 = 5 =⇒ log125 5 = 1/3.
Note: The base for a logarithm can only be a positive real number.
Logarithms base 10 are called common logarithms. In logs base 10, we sometimes suppress
the base, e.g. log10 a = log a.
In advanced mathematics, we have the number e ≃ 2.71828. Logs to base e are called natu-
ral/Napierian logarithms. Logarithm base e of x is usually written ln x, i.e. loge x = ln x.

Laws/Properties of Logarithms
1. loga xy = loga x + loga y for any base a > 0.
Proof : Let loga x = m and loga y = n. Then am = x and an = y.
=⇒ xy = am an = am+n =⇒ loga xy = m + n =⇒ loga xy = loga x + loga y.

2. loga x/y = loga x − loga y for any base a > 0.

Proof : Let loga x = m and loga y = n. Then am = x and an = y.
=⇒ x/y = am/an = am−n =⇒ loga x/y = m − n =⇒ loga x/y = loga x − loga y.

3. loga xp = p loga x for any base a > 0.

Proof : Let loga x = m Then am = x.
=⇒ xp = apm =⇒ loga xp = pm =⇒ loga xp = p loga x.

Additional Laws
For any a > 0,
1. a0 = 1 =⇒ 0 = loga 1.
2. a1 = a =⇒ 1 = loga a.

5
Examples
1. Simplify:
(a) log2 (8 × 16)
(b) log 125
log 25
Solution:
(a) log2 (8 × 16) = log2 8 + log2 16 = 3 + 4 = 7.
3
(b) log 125
log 25
= log log 5
52
= 32 log 5
log 5
= 3/2.
a2 b√3
2. Write log 100 c
in terms of log a, log b and log c.
Solution:

a2 b3
√ = log a2 b3 − log 100c /2
1
log
100 c


= log a2 + log b3 − log 100 + log c /2
1

= 2 log a + 3 log b − 2 − 1/2 log c

3. Solve the equation log5 x + log5 (2x − 3) = 1.

Solution: log5 x + log5 (2x − 3) = log5 x(2x − 3) = 1 =⇒ x(2x − 3) = 51
=⇒ 2x2 − 3x − 5 = 0 =⇒ (x + 1)(2x − 5) = 0 =⇒ x = −1 or x = 5/2.
Since log5 x, or even log5 (2x − 3), does not exist when x = −1, then we have x = 5/2.

Change of Base
Example
Evaluate log7 2.
Solution: Let log7 2 = x. Then, 7x = 2. Introducing logarithm base 10,
log 7x = log 2 =⇒ x log 7 = log 2 =⇒ x = log 2
log 7
= 0.3562 (to 4 d.p.).

Now, if we are required to determine the logarithm of a number t to base u say, where
logarithms to base v are available, let logu t = x. Then ux = t. Introducing log base v on
logv t logv t
both sides, logv ux = logv t which gives x logv u = logv t =⇒ x = logv u
=⇒ logu t = logv u
.

Also, the logarithm, to a base, of a given number, is the reciprocal of the logarithm, to
that given number as base, of the original base, i.e. logu v = log1 u . To show this, from above
v
logv t logv v 1
logu t = log u
and putting t = v, then we have log u v = log u
= log u
.
v v v

6
Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
The term exponent is used interchangeably with the term index. Expressions in which
the variable/unknown is in the index are called exponential functions, e.g. 3x , 4−5x , e1/2x ,
etc. Equations which involve exponential functions are called exponential equations while
equations in which the variable is expressed in logarithmic form (the variable lies inside
a logarithm) are called logarithmic equations. Here, solutions of such equations involve
changing from index to log form or vice versa.
Example
1. Solve for x in 3x = 2.
log 2
Solution: 3x = 2 =⇒ log 3x = log 2 =⇒ x log 3 = log 2 =⇒ x = log 3
≃ 0.6309.
2. If x = log9 5 and y = log3 5, find y in terms of x.
Solution: Take x = log9 5. Introducing logs base 3, we have

log3 5 log3 5 log3 5 y

x = log9 5 = = 2
= =
log3 9 log3 3 2 log3 3 2
So, y = 2x.
1−a
3. If log10 2 = a, show that log8 5 = 3a
.
Solution:

log10 5 log10 (10/2) log10 10 − log10 2 1−a

log8 5 = = 3
= = .
log10 8 log10 2 3 log10 2 3a
4. Solve for x if log3 x + log9 x2 = 6.
2
Solution: log3 x + log9 x2 = 6 =⇒ log3 x + log 3x
log3 9
= 6 =⇒ log3 x + 2 log3 x
2 log3 3
=6
3
=⇒ 2 log3 x = 6 =⇒ log3 x = 3 =⇒ x = 3 = 27.
Exercise
1. Solve for x if (2/3)x = 1/16.  
2 x4
2. Find y in terms of x if log xy = 5 − 2 log x. [Ans: y = 105
]
3. Solve for x if:
(a) 4x − 6(2x ) − 16 = 0
(b) log2 x = logx 16
(c) log2 1 + log4 1/2 = log9 x
(d ) log2 8x3 − logx 8x3 = 8
(e) log3 x − 4 logx 3 + 3 = 0 [Ans: x = 1/81 or x = 3]
4. Given that log 5 = 0.6989700, without using tables or calculator, find correct to 6
decimal places the value of log 40.
 
5. During an earthquake the magnitude of the earthquake is given by M = 3 log EE0
2

7
 where E is the energy released, measured in joules, and E0 = 104.4 joules.
(a) If 8 × 1014 joules of energy is released during an earthquake, what was the

magnitude of the earthquake? [Ans: ≈ 7.002 (to 3 d.p.)]

(b) How much energy will be released in an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.9?
[Ans: 1013.25 joules ]

LINEAR LAWS FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The Law y = kx
Let x and y be variable quantities such that y varies directly as x, i.e. y ∝ x or y = kx for
some constant k. This is the equation of a straight line passing through the origin and with
gradient k. If we plot the two quantities, the graph is a straight line (the law is one of direct
variation). Graphically, k is determined by finding the gradient of the line.
Example
A spiral spring is extended by hanging various loads from it. The amount of extension (E cm)
of the spring for the various loads (N) were observed and recorded as in the table below.

Load (N ) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Extension, E (cm) 0 1.1 2.2 3.4 4.7 5.5
Plot E against N, draw the line of best fit through the points and determine a law connecting
E and N.

8
 Extension E(cm)
6
Q
×
5
×

×
3

×
2

P
1 ×

Load(N)
0 ×
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

5.5−1.1
Gradient of P Q = k = 1.0−0.2
= 5.5. Hence, E = 5.5N.

The Laws y = k/x and y = kx2

If y ∝ 1/x, i.e. y = k/x or y ∝ x2 , i.e. y = kx2 , we do not obtain a straight line by plotting y
against x.
(i ) In y = k/x, i.e. y = k · 1/x, plotting y against 1/x gives a straight line.
(ii ) In y = kx2 , i.e. y = k · x2 , plotting y against x2 gives a straight line.
Example
The following set of values of x and y are found experimentally.

x 2 3 5 8 12
y 24 16 9.6 6 4
By plotting y against 1/x show that y varies inversely as x, and calculate the value of k, the
constant of proportion. Use your graph to find the value of y when x = 4 and x when y = 20.

y 24 16 9.6 6 4
1/x 1/2 1/3 1/5 1/8 1/12

1/x 0.500 0.333 0.200 0.125 0.083

9
 y
25
+

20

+
15

10 +

+
5
+

1/x
0 +
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

The graph is a straight line passing through the origin. Hence, y ∝ 1/x or y = k.1/x.
24−0
Gradient k of the line = 0.5−0 = 48. Hence y = 48/x.
(i ) x = 4 ⇒ 1/x = 1/4 = 0.25; in the graph, when 1/x = 0.25, y = 12.
(ii ) when y = 20, 1/x = 0.415 ⇒ x ≃ 21.6.

The Law y = mx + k
Let y = mx+ c where c 6= 0. Then y is partly constant and partly varying as x. The equation
y = mx + c is linear and does not pass through the origin. In this case m is the gradient of
the line and c the y-intercept.
Example
The force (F ) needed to move load (N) by a machine is determined by the law F = aN + b,
where a, b are constants. In one such experiment, the following results were obtained.

Load (N ) 1 2 3 4 5
Force (F ) 4 4.8 5.5 6.65 7.2
Plot F against N and draw the straight line which fits these points as closely as possible and
use it to find the law connecting F and N.

10
 8.0 Force(F)
7.5 Q
×
7.0
×
6.5
6.0
5.5 ×
5.0
×
4.5
P
4.0 ×
3.5
+
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Load(N)
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

Gradient of P Q = 7.2−4
5−1
= 0.8. Hence, a = 0.8. On the other hand, b is the y-intercept;
hence b ≈ 3.25. Therefore, F = 0.8N + 3.25.

Laws Which are not Linear

Laws involving powers of a variable, for instance y = k/x, i.e. y = kx−1 , or y = kx2 are not
always represented by a straight line.

11
y

Figure 1: Graph of y = k/x

Figure 2: Graph of y = kx2

12
Recall : A non-linear relationship connecting two variables may often be considered in such
a way that it involves a linear relationship. For example, in the case of y = k/x we plot y
against 1/x (instead of x), and in y = kx2 , we plot y aginst x2 (and not x).

(a) The Law y = axn + b

For the function y = axn where n is known, we plot y against xn where the resulting graph
is a straight line through the origin. For the function y = axn + b we plot y against xn to
obtain a straight line but not through the origin.
Note: The graph in such cases does not show the relationship between y and x but it helps
to find the values of a and b.
Example
Two variables x and y are thought to be connected by a non-linear law involving two con-
stants. The following values of x and y are known. Plot y against x2 and find the law
connecting the variables.

x 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

y −9.5 −8.0 −5.5 −2.0 2.5 8.0
Let the general equation be y = ax2 + b.

x2 0.25 1.00 2.25 4.00 6.25 9.00

y −9.5 −8.0 −5.5 −2.0 2.5 8.0
Plotting y against x2 , the graph is a straight line.

13
 y
10

8 +

+
2

Q
+ x2
2 4 6 8 10

−2 P +

−4

+
−6

−8 +
+
−10

From the graph, y-intercept ≈ −10 = b. The coefficient a of x2 is the gradient of the line.
Take two points P and Q on the line so that the gradient of P Q = 0−(−2)
5−4
= 2. Therefore,
the law connecting y and x is y = 2x2 − 10.

(b) The Law y = axn Using Logarithms

The equation y = axn where a and n are unknown constants (but in (a) above the power
of x was known) can be reduced to a linear equation by using logarithms. If y = axn , then
log y = log a + log xn ⇒ log y = n log x + log a. Now, writing log y as v, log x as u and
log a as c, we have v = nu + c which is the equation of a straight line with gradient n.
Example
The fall of a stone (s metres) in t seconds from rest is given by the law s = atn , corresponding
values of s and t being those given in the table below. Find graphically, the values of a and
n.

t 1 1.5 2 2.5
s 16 36 64 100

14
Considering s = atn where a and n are unknown constants, log s = n log t + log a. Writing
log s as y, log t as x and log a as c, we have y = nx + c, a straight line of gradient n.

x = log t 0 0.176 0.301 0.398

y = log s 1.204 1.556 1.806 2.000
Plot y against x.

y
2.4

2.2
Q
2.0 ×
1.8 ×
1.6 ×
P
1.4 +
1.2 ×

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
x
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

2−1.4
The graph is a straight line. For two points P and Q on the line, gradient of P Q = 0.4−0.1
= 2.
Hence, n = 2. On the other hand, y-intercept = 1.2. Thus, log a = 1.2 ⇒ a = 15.85 ≃ 16
(to 2 s.f.). Therefore, s = 16t2 .

15
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS, FUNCTIONS AND INEQUALITIES
Definition: The function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c where a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function or
a polynomial of degree 2 in x.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Definition: A quadratic equation is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b,
and c are real numbers and a 6= 0. The quadratic expression is of degree 2 in this case.

Solutions of Quadratic Equations

There are four methods of solving quadratic equations, namely
(a) factorization
(b) completing the square
(c) quadratic formula
(d ) use of graphs

(a) Factorization
This method involves expressing the quadratic function under consideration as a product of
two linear factors (polynomials of degree 1) and then solving for the unknowns.
Example
Solve 2x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 by factorization method.
Solution: We find a and b such that ab = −6 and a + b = −5. So, a = −6, b = 1.
Rewriting the equation 2x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 gives 2x2 − 6x + x − 3 = 0 and factorizing, we have
2x(x − 3) + 1(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ (2x + 1)(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ 2x + 1 = 0 or x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = −1/2
or x = 3.
In the case of the preceeding example, 2x+1 and x−3 are called (linear ) factors of 2x2 −5x−3
while x = −1/2 and x = 3 are called roots/zeros of 2x2 −5x−3 or solutions of 2x2 −5x−3 = 0.

(b) Completing the Square

Consider the expansion of (x + a)2 for a real number a, i.e. (x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2 . For all
such expansions, the constant term is the square of half the coefficient of x. This forms the
basis for the solution of quadratic equations by completing the square method.
Example
1. Solve the equation 5x2 − 6x − 2 = 0 by completing the square.
Solution: Dividing through by 5 to have x2 − 6/5x − 2/5 = 0 and rewrite this equation
to get x2 − 6/5x = 2/5. Complete the square by adding [1/2(−6/5)]2 = (−3/5)2 to both sides
so that x2 − 6/5x + (−3/5)2 = 2/5 + (−3/5)2 = 19/25. Next, factorize the left hand side to get

16
 √
(x − 3/5)2 = 19/25. Taking squareroots on both sides we obtain x − 3/5 = ± 19
5
, and
√ √ √
3 19 3+ 19 3− 19
rewriting we have x = 5
± 5
so that x = 5
or x = 5
.

2. Solve the equation x2 − 8x + 11 = 0 by completing the square.

Solution: Rewriting x2 − 8x + 11 = 0 gives x2 − 8x = −11. Completing the square we
have x2 −8x+(−4)2 = −11+(−4)2 . Factorizing gives (x−4)2 = 5 and taking squareroots
√ √ √
on both sides gives x − 4 = ± 5 and on rewriting we get x = 4 ± 5 so that x = 4 + 5
√
or x = 4 − 5.

(c) Quadratic Formula

The quadratic formula is the most convenient way of solving equations which cannot be
solved by factorization.
Let ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, and c are real numbers and a 6= 0. Solving this equation by
completing the square method:

ax2 + bx + c = 0 =⇒ x2 + b/ax + c/a = 0 =⇒ x2 + b/ax = −c/a

b2 c b2 − 4ac
=⇒ x2 + b/ax + (b/2a)2 = (b/2a)2 − c/a+ =⇒ (x + b/2a)2 = − =
4a2 a 4a2

r √ √
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac −b ± b2 − 4ac
=⇒ x + =± =⇒ x = − ± =⇒ x = .
2a 4a2 2a 2a 2a
√
−b± b2 −4ac
In this case, x = 2a
is called the quadratic formula.
2
The expression b − 4ac in the quadratic formula is called the discriminant of the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0. The nature of the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 depend on the discriminant:
(i ) If b2 − 4ac > 0, then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two real and distinct roots.
(ii ) If b2 − 4ac = 0, then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two equal real roots.
(iii ) If b2 − 4ac < 0, then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two complex roots (the roots are not real).
Example
Giving your answer correct to 2 d.p., solve 2x2 − 6x − 3 = 0.
Solution: In this case a = 2, b =√
−6 and c = −3. Substituting these values into the formula
√ √ √ √
2 −(−6)± (−6)2 −4(2)(−3)
x = −b± 2ab −4ac gives x = 2(2)
= 6± 60
4
so that x = 3+ 15
2
or x = 3− 15
2
.
Therfore, x = 3.44 or x = −0.44 (to 2 d.p.).

17
 (d ) Graphical Method
The method has low degree of accuracy since it involves some approximations.
Example
Draw the graph of y = x2 with −3 ≤ x ≤ 3. Hence, use the graph to:
√
(a) find 5 (to 2 d.p.).
(b) solve the equations
(i ) x2 − x − 1 = 0
(ii ) 4x2 + x − 1 = 0
Solution: The table of values is

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y
9

f
2

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2

−1

−2

18
 √ √
(a) from the line y = 5 and the graph of y = x2 , x = ± y = ± 5 ≃ ±2.24 (to 2 d.p.).
(b) (i ) x2 − x − 1 = 0 =⇒ x2 = x + 1 = y. The x-coordinates at the intersection of the
graphs of y = x2 and y = x + 1 are the required roots. These are x = 1.62,
x = −0.62 (to 2 d.p.).
(ii ) 4x2 + x − 1 = 0 =⇒ x2 = −1/4x + 1/4. The x-coordinate at the intersection of
the graphs of y = x2 and y = −1/4x + 1/4, i.e. x = 0.39 and x = −0.64 are the
required roots.
Exercise
1. Solve each of the following equations.
1 5
(a) x+1 = 1 − 2x−4 [Ans: x = −1/2, x = 5]
3
(b) x + 3 + x−1 = 4−x
x−1
. [Ans: x = −4]
2. Solve each of the following equations.
(a) x2 − 100 = 0 [Ans: x = −10, x = 10]
√ √
(b) 25y 2−3 = 0 [Ans: x = − 53 , x = 53 ]
√ √
(c) (2t − 9)2 = 5 [Ans: t = 29 − 25 , t = 92 + 2
5
]
3. Solve each of the following equations.
√
(a) z − 9 z + 14 = 0 [Ans: z = 4, z = 49]
(b) 2x10 − x5 − 4 = 0 [Ans: x ≈ 1.11014, t ≈ −1.03473]
4. Use completing the square to solve each of the following quadratic equations.
√ √
(a) x2 −6x + 1 = 0 [Ans: x = 3 + 8, x = 3 − 8]
(b) 3x2 −2x−1 = 0 [Ans: x = − 31 , x = 1]
5. Draw the graph of y = 2x2 − 12x + 19 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 5. Hence, use the graph to find the
roots of the equations.
(a) x2 − 6x + 6 = 0 [Ans: x ≃ 1.3, x ≃ 4.7]
2
(b) 4x − 25x + 28 = 0. [Ans: x ≃ 1.45, x ≃ 4.8]

Roots of Quadratic Equations

Consider the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. Then, on rewriting

x2 + b/ax + c/a = 0 ...............(1)

Now, suppose α and β are the roots of equation (1). Then x = α or x = β so that x − α = 0
or x − β = 0. Hence, (x − α) (x − β) = 0 so that x2 − αx − βx + αβ = 0, and on rewriting
we have

19
 =⇒ x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0 ...............(2)

Comparing equations (1) and (2) we have −(α + β) = b/a =⇒ (α + β) = −b/a and αβ = c/a.
Remark : If we are required to write down an equation whose roots are known, then the
required equation is given by x2 −(sum of roots)x+(product of roots)= 0.
Examples
1. Write down the sum and product of the roots of 3x2 − 2x − 7 = 0.
Solution: If the roots of the equation are α and β, then α + β = − (−2/3) = 2/3 and
αβ = −7/3.
2. Express each of the following in terms of α + β and αβ:
(a) α2 + β 2
(b) (α − β)2
(c) α3 + β 3
Solution:
(a) α2 and β 2 occur in the expansion of (α + β)2 . But (α + β)2 = α2 + 2αβ + β 2 . So,
on rewriting we have α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ.
(b) (α − β)2 = α2 − 2αβ + β 2 = (α2 + β 2 ) − 2αβ. But α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ, from
 
part (a) above. So, (α − β)2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ − 2αβ = (α + β)2 − 4αβ.
(c) α3 and β 3 occur in the expansion of (α + β)3 . But

(α + β)3 = α3 + 3α2 β + 3αβ 2 + β 3 = α3 + β 3 + 3αβ (α + β) .

=⇒ α3 + β 3 = (α + β)3 − 3αβ (α + β) .

3. The roots of the equation 3x2 + 4x − 5 = 0 are α and β. Find the equation with integral
coefficients whose roots are:
(a) 1/α and 1/β
(b) α2 and β 2
(c) α + 1 and β + 1
(d ) α2 β and αβ 2
Solution: In this case α + β = −4/3 and αβ=−5/3.
−4/3
1
(a) Here, α1 + β1 = α+β
αβ
= − /3
5 = 4/5 and 1
α β
1
= αβ = −3/5. So, x2 − 4/5x − 3/5 = 0,
and on rewriting we obtain 5x2 − 4x − 3 = 0, which is the required equation.
(b) In this case, we have α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ = (−4/3)2 − 2 (−5/3) = 46/9 and
α2 β 2 = (αβ)2 = (−5/3)2 = 25/9. So, x2 − 46/9x + 25/9 = 0 and on rewriting we obtain

20
 9x2 − 46x + 25 = 0 as the required equation.
(c) The sum of the roots is (α + 1) + (β + 1) = (α + β) + 2 = −4/3 + 2 = 2/3 while the
product is (α + 1) (β + 1) = αβ + (α + β) + 1 = −4/3 − 5/3 + 1 = −2. So, we have
x2 − 2/3x − 2 = 0, and 3x2 − 2x − 6 = 0 is the required equation.
(d ) In this case, the sum of the roots is (α2 β + αβ 2 ) = αβ (α + β) = (−5/3) (−4/3) = 20/9
while the product is (α2 β) (αβ 2 ) = (αβ)3 = (−5/3)3 = −125/27. Therefore, we have
x2 − 20/9x − 125/27 = 0 so that 27x2 − 60x − 125 = 0 is the required equation.
Exercise
1. Find the sums and products of the roots of the following equations:
(a) y(y + 1) = 2y + 5
1
(b) 1t + t+1 = 12
2. Find the equations, with integral coefficients, the sums and products of whose roots
are respectively:
(a) −2.5, −1.6
(b) −1/3, 1/36.
3. If the roots of the equation 3x2 − 5x + 1 = 0 are α and β, find the equation with
integral coefficients whose roots are:
(a) α3 β and αβ 3
(b) α12 β and αβ1 2
2 2
(c) αβ and βα
(d ) α + 1 and β + 1
(e) α − 2 and β − 2
4. The roots of the equation x2 + 6x + q = 0 are α and α − 1. Find the value of q.
5. Find the equation, with integral coefficients, whose roots are the squares of the roots
of the equation 2x2 + 5x − 6 = 0.
6. The roots of the equation x2 − px + 8 = 0 are α and α + 2. Find two possible values
of p.
7. The roots of the equation x2 + 2px + q = 0 difffer by 2. Show that p2 = 1 + q.
8. Prove that, if the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is 1,
then b2 = 2ac + a2 .
9. Prove that, if one root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is twice the other, then
2b2 = 9ac.
10. Prove that, if the sum of the reciprocals of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
is 1, then b + c = 0.

21
Quadratic Functions
Recall : The function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c where a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function or a
polynomial of degree 2 in x.
Using the method of completing the square, the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c can be written in
the form
f (x) = a (x − p)2 + q ....................(1).

as follows:

ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + b/ax + c/a


= a x2 + b/ax + (b/2a)2 + c/a − (b/2a)2
 
2 4ac − b2
= a (x + /2a) +
b
4a2
4ac − b2
= a [x − (−b/2a)]2 +
4a
4ac−b2
where p = −b/2a and q = 4a
.
In this case, q is either the minimum or maximum value of the function depending on the
value of a. If a > 0 (positive), then q is the minimum value, and if a < 0 (negative), then q
is the maximum value.

The Graph of y = ax2 + bx + c

The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola. The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and
downward if a < 0. From equation (1), f (p) = q. Thus, (p, q) is a minimum point of f (x)
when a > 0

22
 y
x=p f (x)

y=q

and (p, q) is a maximum point of f (x) when a < 0.

y x=p

y=q

f (x)

The line of symmetry of f (x) is x = p = −b/2a (the value of x for which f (x) minimum or
maximum, depending on the value of a).
The x-intercepts are the values of x at the points where f (x) cuts the x-axis. These occur
when f (x) = 0, i.e. ax2 + bx + c = 0. These values can only be real if b2 − 4ac ≥ 0.

23
The y-intercept is the value of y at the point where f (x) cuts the y-axis. To obtain this value
we put x = 0.
The graph of f (x) = a (x − p)2 + q is that of y = x2 shifted horizontally p units, stretched
by a factor of a, then shifted vertically q units.
Example
Determine the line of symmetry, minimum or maximum point and value, x- and y-intercepts
of f (x). Hence, sketch the curve of f (x).
(a) f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 5
(b) f (x) = 2 − 3x − 4x2
Solution: In each case, write f (x) in the form f (x) = a (x − p)2 + q.
(a)
 
2x2 + 3x − 5 = 2 x2 + 3/2x − 5/2


= 2 x2 + 3/2x + (3/4)2 − (3/4)2 − 5/2
 
= 2 (x + 3/4)2 − 49/16
= 2 [x − (−3/4)]2 − 49/8.

In this case, p = −3/4 and q = −49/8. Since a = 2 > 0, then (p, q) = (−3/4, −49/8) is the
minimum point and −49/8 is the minimum value of f (x). The line of symmetry is x = −3/4.
For the y-intercept, x = 0; this is f (0) = 2(0)2 + 3(0) − 5 = −5. So, the curve cuts
the y-axis at the point (0, −5). For the x-intercepts, y = 0 so that 2x2 + 3x − 5 = 0
√
⇒ x = −3± 4 9+40 = −3±7 4
⇒ x = 1 or x = −5/2. Thus, the curve cuts the x-axis at the
points ( /2, 0) and (1, 0).
−5

x = − 34
2
f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 5
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
y= − 49
8
−6

−7

24
 (b)

 
2 − 3x − 4x2 = −4 x2 + 3/4x − 1/2


= −4 x2 + 3/4x + (3/8)2 − (3/8)2 − 1/2
 
= −4 (x + 3/8)2 − 41/64

= −4 [x − (−3/8)]2 + 41/16.

In this case, p = −3/8 and q = 41/16. Since a = −4 < 0, then (p, q) = (−3/8, 41/16) is the
maximum point and 41/16 is the maximum value of f (x). The line of symmetry is x = −3/8.
For the y-intercept, x = 0. So, f (0) = 2 − 3(0) − 4(0)2 = 2 is the y-intercept. Thus, the curve
cuts the y-axis at the point (0, 2). For the x-intercepts, y = 0 so that −4x2 − 3x + 2 = 0
√ √
⇒ x = 3± −8 9+32
= 3±−841 ⇒ x = 0.4 or x = −1.2 (to 1 d.p.). Thus, the curve cuts the
x-axis at the points (−1.2, 0) and (0.4, 0).

x = − 83 y

41
y= 16 2

x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−2

−4

−6

−8

f (x) = 2 − 3x − 4x2
−10

25
Exercise
1. Find the line of symmetry, maximum or minimum point and value, x- and y-intercepts
of f (x), and then sketch the curve of f (x).
(a) f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1
(b) f (x) = x2 + x + 1/4
(c) f (x) = −3x2 + 3x − 6
(d ) f (x) = 2 − 2x − x2
2. Find the area and dimensions of the largest rectangular field that can be enclosed with
3000 m of fence, and from the dimensions of the field, conclude about the shape of the

field.
3. The area of a rectangle is 114.4 m2 and the length is 14 m longer than the width. Find
the length and width of the rectangle.
4. A driver drove 100 km and then increased the speed by 30 km/h for the following 200 km.
If the second part took 1 hour less than the first part, what was the average speed?

5. A projectile is launched from a tower into the air with an initial velocity of 48 feet per
second. Its height, h, in feet, above the ground is modeled by the quadratic function
h = −16t2 + v0 t + 64 where t is the time, in second, since the projectile was launched
and v0 is the initial velocity.

(a) How long was the projectile in the air?

(b) When did it reach its maximum height?
(c) What was its maximum height?
6. A ball is shot into the air from the edge of a building 50 feet above the ground. Its

initial velocity is 20 feet per second. The equation h = −16t2 + 20t + 50 can be used
to model the height of the ball after t seconds. About how long does it take for the ball
to hit the ground?

26
QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
If b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be solved for real values. Let the roots be
α and β with β > α. Then ax2 + bx + c = a (x − α) (x − β).

a<0 a>0
x−α x−β (x − α) (x − β) a (x − α) (x − β) a (x − α) (x − β)
x<α −ve −ve +ve −ve +ve
α<x<β +ve −ve −ve +ve −ve
β<x +ve +ve +ve −ve +ve
For a > 0, ax2 +bx+c > 0 when x < α and when x > β, and ax2 +bx+c < 0 when α < x < β.
On the other hand, for a < 0, ax2 + bx + c > 0 when α < x < β, and ax2 + bx + c < 0 when
x < α and when x > β.
Sketches of quadratic functions can also be used to solve quadratic inequalities.
Example
1. Solve 2x2 + 5x − 3 > 0.
Solution: The roots of the equation 2x2 + 5x − 3 = 0 are α = −3 and β = 1/2.
In this case, a = 2 > 0, and 2x2 + 5x − 3 = 2 (x + 3) (x − 1/2).

x+3 x − 1/2 2 (x + 3) (x − 1/2)

x < −3 −ve −ve +ve
−3 < x < 1/2 +ve −ve −ve
1/2 <x +ve +ve +ve
Thus, 2 (x + 3) (x − 1/2) > 0 when x < −3 and when x > 1/2.
Graphically,
y
f (x) = 2x2 + 5x − 3
3

1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

27
 From the sketch above f (x) > 0 if x < −3 and if x > 1/2.
2. Find the set of values for which 1 + 2x − 3x2 < 0.
Solution: The roots of the equation 1 + 2x − 3x2 = 0 are α = −1/3 and β = 1.
Therfore, 1 + 2x − 3x2 = −3 (x + 1/3) (x − 1).

x + 1/3 x−1 −3 (x + 1/3) (x − 1)

x < −1/3 −ve −ve −ve
−1/3 < x < 1 +ve −ve +ve
1<x +ve +ve −ve
Thus, 1 + 2x − 3x2 < 0 when x < −1/3 and when x > 1.
Graphically,
y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2

−1

−2

−3

−4
f (x) = 1 + 2x − 3x2

Exercise
1. Solve each of the inequalities:
(a) x2 − 5x ≥ −6 [Ans: −∞ < x ≤ 2 and 3 ≤ x < ∞]
(b) x2 − 10 < 3x [Ans: −2 < x < 5]
(c) 2x2 + 5x ≤ 3
(d ) 1 + 2x − 3x2 ≥ 0
(e) 6 + x > 12x2
2. Determine the values of k for which the equation x2 + 2(k + 1)x + 2(k + 5) = 0 has real
roots. [Ans: k ≥ 3 or k ≤ −3]

28
FACTORIZABLE POLYNOMIALS
Definition: A polynomial in x and with real coefficients is a mathematical expression of the
n
P
form an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = ai xi where ai ∈ R. The ai are
i=0
called the coefficients of the polynomial, and x is called an indeterminate. Polynomials with
integer or rational or complex coefficients are similarly defined. If an 6= 0, the polynomial
is said to have degree n and the term an xn is called the leading term with an the leading
coefficient, while a0 is called the constant term. If the leading coefficient of the polynomial

is 1, then the polynomial is said to be monic. Polynomials in x are denoted by symbols such
as a(x), b(x), f (x), g(x), and so on.
Real numbers are considered as polynomials, called constant polynomials. The nonzero con-
stant polynomials have degree 0. However, the costant polynomial 0 does not have a degree

since no power of x appears with nonzero coefficient.

Long Division of Polynomials

When a polynomial f (x) is divided by a polynomial g(x), we obtain a quotient q(x) and a
remainder R. This is analogous to division of two integers in arithmetic operations.

q(x)←−quotient
divisor −→g(x) f (x)←−dividend
························
··················
············
R ←−remainder
The degree of the remainder R is less than that of the divisor g(x). When dividing poly-
nomials, it is necessary that the divisor and dividend be ordered by descending powers of
x. Additionally, any missing powers of x between the the leading term (the term in highest
power of x) and the constant term should be filled in with a 0 (provide zero placeholders for
the missing powers of x). For example, a polynomial such as 7x + 5x3 + 8 should be rewritten
as 5x3 + 0x2 + 7x + 8.

29
Example
Divide
(a) f (x) = 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 by
(i ) g(x) = x − 1
(ii ) g(x) = x2 − 2
(b) f (x) = 4x3 − x + 2 by g(x) = 3x + 2
Solution:
(a) (i )

3x2 + 5x + 6
x−1 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1
3x3 − 3x2
5x2 + x
5x2 − 5x
6x − 1
6x − 6
5
Thus, the quotient is 3x2 + 5x + 6 and the remainder is 5. In this case, we can write
f (x) as 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 = (x − 1)(3x2 + 5x + 6) + 5.
Note: In the example above, deg(remainder)< deg(divisor).

(ii )

3x + 2
2 3
x −2 3x + 2x2 + x − 1
3x3 − 6x
2x2 + 7x
2x2 − 4
7x + 3
So, the quotient is 3x + 2 and the remainder is 7x + 3. In this case, we can write f (x)
as 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 = (x2 − 2)(3x + 2) + (7x + 3).

30
 (b)

4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27

3x + 2 4x3 − x + 2
4x3 + 8/3x2

−8/3x2 − x
−8/3x2 − 16/9x

7/9x + 2
7/9x + 14/27

40/27

Hence, the quotient is 4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27 and the remainder is 40/27. Therefore, we have
4x3 − x + 2 = (3x + 2)(4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27) + 40/27.

Synthetic Division of Polynomials

Long division of polynomials may sometimes involve many steps and this can be quite cum-

bersome. Synthetic division is a shorthand method of dividing polynomials for the special
case where the divisor is a linear polynomial whose leading coefficient is 1 (a first degree
monic polynomial), i.e. the divisor is a polynomial of the form x–k for a constant k. In
synthetic division, only the coefficients are used in the division process.

Steps Involved in Synthetic Division of Polynomials

Step 1 : Write the divisor in x − k form, and the dividend in descending degrees of x.

Step 2 : Write the problem in synthetic division form: write k for the divisor and the
coefficients of the dividend for the dividend.
Step 3 : Bring the leading coefficient down to the solution row.
Step 4 : Multiply the leading coefficient by k and write the product in the next column.

Step 5 : Write the sum of the terms of the second column in the solution row.
Step 6 : Multiply the result by k and write the product in the next column.
Step 7 : Repeat steps 5 and 6 for the remaining columns.
Step 8 : Use the numbers in the solution row to write the quotient. The number in the

31
 last column is the remainder and has degree 0, the next number from the right
has degree 1, the next number from the right has degree 2, and so on.

Example
Use synthetic division to divide:
(a) 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 by x − 1.
(b) −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 − 6 by x + 2.
Solution:
Set up the synthetic division by writing k = 1 for the divisor, and the coefficients of the
dividend for the dividend

1 3 2 1 −1

← Solution row

Bring down the leading coeficient 3 to the solution row and multiply the leading coefficient

by k. Write the result in the second row second column

1 3 2 1 −1
⇓ 3
3

Add the numbers in the second column and multiply the resulting number by k. Write

the result in the second row third column

1 3 2 1 −1

3 5
3 5

Add the numbers in the third column and multiply the resulting number by k. Write the
result in the second row fourth column and add the numbers in the fourth column.

1 3 2 1 −1
3 5 6

3 5 6 5

32
 Therefore, the quotient is 3x2 + 5x + 6 and the remainder is 5.
(b) Rewrite −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 − 6 as −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 + 0x − 6. Write the divisor in

the form x − k, i.e. x + 2 = x − (−2) so that k = −2. Now, perform synthetic division

−2 −9 10 7 0 −6

18 −56 98 −196
−9 28 −49 98 −202

Therefore, the quotient is −9x3 + 28x2 − 49x + 98 and the remainder is −202.
Note: The synthetic division algorithm can be extended to division by polynomials of any
degree.
Exercise
1. Divide:
(a) x3 − 2x + 4 by x − 1
(b) 2x3 − x2 + 2 by x − 3
(c) x4 − 3x3 + 5x by 2x + 1
(d ) 9x5 − 5x2 + 2 by 3x2 + 2
2. The area of a rectangle is given by 3x3 + 14x2 − 23x + 6. The width of the rectangle is
given by x + 6. Find an expression for the length of the rectangle. [Ans: 3x2 −4x + 1]

3. The volume of a rectangular solid is given by the polynomial 3x4 − 3x3 − 33x2 + 54x.
The length of the solid is given by 3x and the width is given by x–2. Find the height
of the solid.

Theorem (Remainder Theorem): If a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − a, the

remainder is f (a) [f (a) is free of x, i.e. f (a) is a constant].
Proof : Let R be the remainder when f (x) is divided by x − a for a constant a. Then
f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + R. Putting x = a, we get f (a) = 0q(a) + R so that R = f (a).

Corollary: If a polynomial f (x) is divided by px + q where p 6= 0, the remainder is f (−q/p).

Proof : Suppose R is the remainder when the polynomial f (x) is divided by px + q. Then
f (x) = (px + q)h(x) + R. Putting x = −q/p, we get f (−q/p) = [p(−q/p) + q]h(−q/p) + R = 0 + R
so that R = f (−q/p).

33
Example
Find the remainder when x5 − 4x3 + 2x + 3 is divided by
(a) x − 1
(b) x + 2
(c) 2x − 1
Solution: Let f (x) = x5 − 4x3 + 2x + 3. Then,
(a) the remainder when f (x) is divided by x − 1 is f (1) = (1)5 − 4(1)3 + 2(1) + 3 = 2.
(b) the remainder when f (x) is divided by x + 2 is

f (−2) = (−2)5 − 4(−2)3 + 2(−2) + 3 = −1.

(c) the remainder when f (x) is divided by 2x − 1 is

f [− (−1/2)] = f (1/2) = (1/2)5 − 4(1/2)3 + 2(1/2) + 3 = 113/32.

Exercise
Find the remainder when
(a) x3 − 2x2 + 5x + 8 is divided by x − 2
(b) x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 is divided by x + 2
(c) 4x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 2 is divided by
(i ) 2x + 3
(ii ) −2x + 3
(iii ) −2x − 3
(iv ) x

Theorem (Factor Theorem): Let f (x) be a polynomial. Then x − a is a factor of

f (x) if and only if there is no remainder on division, i.e. if and only if f (a) = 0.

Example
1. Factorize x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8 completely.
Solution: We use trial and error method together with the factor theorem.
Let f (x) = x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8. The factors of 8 are ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8. Now,
f (1) = 1 − 3 + 4 − 8 = −6 6= 0 ⇒ x − 1 is not a factor of f (x);
f (2) = 16 − 24 + 16 − 8 = 0 ⇒ x − 2 is a factor of f (x).

34
 2 1 −3 4 0 −8
2 −2 4 8
1 −1 2 4 0

So, f (x) = (x − 2)(x3 − x2 + 2x + 4).

Next, we factorize f1 (x) = x3 − x2 + 2x + 4. The factors of 4 are ±1, ±2, ±4.
f1 (2) = 8 − 4 + 4 + 4 6= 0 =⇒x − 2 is not a factor of f1 (x);
f1 (−1) = −1 − 1 − 2 + 4 = 0 =⇒x + 1 is a factor of f1 (x).

−1 1 −1 2 4
−1 2 −4
1 −2 4 0

So, f1 (x) = (x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 4).

Now, x2 − 2x + 4 has no linear factors. Therefore,

x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8 = (x − 2)(x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 4).

2. Solve the equation x3 − 7x − 6 = 0.

Solution: Let f (x) = x3 − 7x − 6. The factors of 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6.
f (1) = 1 − 7 − 6 6= 0 =⇒ x − 1 is not a factor of f (x);
f (−1) = −1 + 7 − 6 = 0 =⇒ x + 1 is a factor of f (x);
f (−2) = −8 + 14 − 6 = 0 =⇒ x + 2 is a factor of f (x);
f (3) = 27 − 21 − 6 = 0 =⇒ x − 3 is a factor of f (x).
Therefore, x3 − 7x − 6 = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) = 0 =⇒ x = −1 or x = −2 or x = 3.
3. A polynomial f (x) has remainder 9 when divided by x − 3 and remainder −5 when
divided by 2x + 1. Find the remainder when divided by (x − 3)(2x + 1).
Solution: The divisor (x − 3)(2x + 1) is of degree 2. So, the remainder R is of
degree 1 or 0. Let R = ax + b (a = 0 if R is of degree 0 and a 6= 0 if R is of degree
1). Thus, f (x) = (x − 3)(2x + 1)q(x) + (ax + b). For x = 3, f (3) = 3a + b = 9 and for
x = −1/2, f (−1/2) = −1/2a + b = −5. Solving the two equations simultaneously we get
a = 4, b = −3. So, R = 4x − 3.

35
Exercise
1. Solve the equations:
(a) 5x3 − 5x2 − 10x = 0 [Ans: x = −1, x = 0, x = 2]
(b) 3x3 + x2 − 5x + 2 = 0
(c) x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 − 5x − 6 = 0
(d ) 2x3 + 11x2 + 17x + 6 = 0
2. When the expression x5 + 4x2 + ax + b is divided by x2 − 1, the remainder is 2x + 3.
Find the values of a and b.
3. A cubic polynomial ax3 + bx + 6 is divisible by x + 2. It leaves a remainder −3 when
divided by x − 1. Determine the values of a and b and factorize the polynomial
completely.
4. The expression ax2 + bx + c is divisible by x − 1, has remainder 2 when divided by
x + 1, and has remainder 8 when divided by x − 2. Find the values of a, b, c.
5. A polynomial x3 + ax2 + bx + c has x − 1 and x + 1 as factors. It leaves a remainder
of 12 when divided by x − 2. Find the values of a, b, c.

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

PERMUTATIONS
A permutation is an arrangement of a number of objects in a particular order.
Suppose k independent choices are to be made where there are r1 possibilities for the first
choice, r2 for the second choice, and so on. Then, the total number of choices is r1 ×r2 ×· · ·×rk .
Example
In how many ways can letters A, B, C be arranged in three consecutive positions?
Solution:

1st Position 2nd Position 3rd Position

B C
A
C B
A C
B
C A
A B
C
B A
1st position 2nd position 3rd position
3 × 2 × 1 = 6 ways
The six permuatations are A B C, A C B, B A C, B C A, C A B, C B A.

36
If we have A, B, and C, we can have A, B or C in the first position. Therefore, there are
three distinct ways of filling the first position. Once the first position is filled two letters
remain and any of them can be used in the second position. So, for each of the 3 ways of
filling the first position we have two ways of filling the second position. The third position
can be filled in any one way. Thus, the total number of arrangements is 3 × 2 × 1 = 6.
Similarly, if there are four distinct objects, there are 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 ways of arranging
them in four positions.
Each arrangement in the above example is a permutation.

The Factorial Notation

Definition: The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects is

n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1

which is denoted by n! and read “n factorial ”.

Example: 2! = 2 × 1, 3! = 3 × 2 × 1, 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1, 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1.

By convention,
0! = 1 is the number of ways of arranging zero objects;
1! = 1 is the number of ways of arranging one object.

Example:
1. Evaluate:
9!
(a) 2!7!
6!
(b) (3!) 2

(c) 6!2!
8!
Solution:
9!
(a) 2!7!
= 9×8×7!
2!7!
= 9×8
2×1
= 36
6! 6×5×4×3! 6×5×4
(b) (3!)2
= 3!×3! = 3×2×1 = 20
6!2! 6!2! 2×1 1
(c) 8!
= 8×7×6! = 8×7
= 28

37
 2. Write 40 × 39 × 38 × 37 in factorial notation.
Solution:

40 × 39 × 38 × 37 × 36 × 35 × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1
40 × 39 × 38 × 37 =
36 × 35 × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1
40!
=
36!

3. How many arrangements are there for 2 objects chosen from 4 distinct objects?
Solution: There are 4 ways of filling the first position. Once the first position is
filled, 3 objects remain, i.e. there are 3 ways of filling the second position. Therefore,
the number of arrangements of 2 objects chosen from 4 different objects is 4 × 3 = 12.
4! 4!
But, 4 × 3 = 2!
= (4−2)!
.

5! 5!
In the same way, 5 × 4 = 3!
= (5−2)!
= 20 is the number of arrangements of 2 objects
from 5 distinct objects.

5! 5!
Also, 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 where 5 × 4 × 3 = 2!
= (5−3)!
is the number of arrangements of 3
objects from 5 distinct objects.

Definition: The number of permutations/arrangements of r objects chosen from n distinct

objects is given by
1st 2nd 3rd (r − 1)th r th position
n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ··· × (n − r + 2) × (n − r + 1)

n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × (n − r + 2) × (n − r + 1) × (n − r) × (n − r − 1) × · · · × 2 × 1
=
(n − r) × (n − r − 1) × · · · × 2 × 1
n!
=
(n − r)!

n!
Now, we have n Pr or n Pr = (n−r)!
read “n permutation r”.

38
Example:
1. In a lottery a total of thousand tickets were sold. Determine the number of ways of
obtaining winners of the first, second and third prizes if three tickets are drawn one
after the other.
Solution:
1000!
There 1000 P3 = (1000−3)! = 1000!
997!
= 1000 × 999 × 998 = 997, 002, 000 ways.
2. Five letter words are formed from letters of the word INCOMPUTABLE. How
many of these words have no repeated letters?
Solution:
12 12! 12!
There are P5 = (12−5)!
= 7!
= 95, 040 words.

Now, in some cases, objects to be arranged may not be distinct as some may be alike.

Example:
Find how many different arrangements of 12 letters can be obtained from the letters of the
word SPEEDOMETERS.
Solution: If the 12 letters were all different, there could be 12! different arrangements. In
any of these arrangements the S’s can be arranged in 2! = 2 ways without altering the ap-
pearance of the letters in the arrangement. Similarly, the E’s can be arranged in 4! = 24
ways without altering the appearance of the letters in an arrangement. This in turn implies
that in any arrangement, there can be 2! × 4! = 48 arrangements without altering the ap-
pearance of the letters in the arrangement. Since the two S’s and four E’s are alike, there
12!
are 2!4!
= 9, 979, 200 arrangements.

In general, if we have n objects of which r1 of the first kind are alike, r2 of the second kind
are alike, · · · , rk of the k th kind are alike, then the total number of distinct permutations is
n!
r1 !r2 !···rk !
.

Exercise:
Determine the number of permutations of the letters of the word:
(a) ASSIGNMENT
(b) ASSASSINATION
(c) MISSISSIPPI
(d ) FUNDAMENTALISM
(e) INTERCOMMUNICATION

39
Example:
How many even numbers, greater than 50, 000, can be formed using the digits 0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
(a) without repetitions.
(b) if repetitions are allowed.
Solution:
The number can have either 5 or 6 digits, cannot begin with 0, and can only end with an
even digit.
(a) If there is no repetition, the problem is split up into four parts
(i ) Numbers with 5 digits, the TTh digit being even

TTh Th H T U
1 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 2 = 48 possibilities
(ii ) Numbers with 5 digits, the TTh digit being odd

TTh Th H T U
2 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 3 = 144 possibilities
(iii ) Numbers with 6 digits, the HTh digit being even

HTh TTh Th H T U
2 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 2 = 96 possibilities
(iv ) Numbers with 6 digits, the HTh digit being odd

HTh TTh Th H T U
3 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 3 = 216 possibilities
Therefore, there are 48 + 144 + 96 + 216 = 504 possible numbers.
(b) If repetition is allowed, we have two cases
(i ) Numbers with 5 digits

TTh Th H T U
3 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 3 = 1944 possibilities
(ii ) Numbers with 6 digits

HTh TTh Th H T U
5 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 3 = 19440 possibilities

40
 So, there are 1944 + 19440 = 21384 possible numbers.
Exercise:
1. In how many ways can five different books be arranged on a shelf?
2. In how many ways can 8 people be seated at a round table?
3. How many arrangements can be made of three letters chosen from the word NEAT if
the first letter is a vowel and each arrangement contains distinct lettters? [Ans: 12]
4. How many even numbers greater than 2,000 can be formed with the digits 1, 2, 4, 8 if
each digit can be used only once in each number? [Ans: 12]
5. Determine how many odd numbers, greater than 500,000, can be made from the digits
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
(a) without repetitions.
(b) if repetitions are allowed.

COMBINATIONS
In permutations, the order in which objects are chosen is important. However, in some cases,
the order of selection is irrelevant. When the selection of objects is made with no regard
being paid to order, it is refered to as a combination. Thus, A B C, A C B, B A C are
different permutations but they are the same combination of letters.

Example:
How many committees of 3 persons can be made from 5 persons: A, B, C, D and E?
Solution:

ABC BCD CDE

ABD BCE
AB E BDE
AC D
AC E
ADE
There are 10 different committees/combinations of 3 persons chosen from 5 (on the other
hand, there are 5 P3 = 60 permutations of 3 objects from 5 distinct objects).

In general, the number of combinations/selections of r objects from n available objects can

be found as follows:

41
 n!
• there are (n−r)!
permutations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects,
• but each combination of r objects can be arranged in r! ways; therefore,

the number of permutations = r!×(the number of combinations), i.e.

n!
(n−r)!
= r!×(the number of combinations),

n!
• so, the total number of combinations/selections is (n−r)!r!
written as

 
n  n  n!
Cr or n Cr or   = (n−r)!r!
.
r

Note: n Cr = n Cn−r .

Example:
1. Five policemen are to be selected for duty from a force of 20. In how many ways can
this be done?
20! 20!
Solution: There are 20 C5 = (20−5)!5! = 15!5! = 15, 504 ways.
2. A mixed hockey team containing 5 men and 6 women is to be chosen from 7 men and
9 women. In how many ways can this be done?
Solution: In this case, 5 men can be chosen from 7 men in 7 C5 ways and 6 women
can be chosen from 9 women in 9 C6 ways. For each of the 7 C5 ways of selecting men,
there are 9 C6 ways of selecting women. Therefore, the total number of ways of selecting
the team is 7 C5 × 9 C6 = 21 × 84 = 1764 ways.
3. A JKUAT student wants to invite 8 friends but there is only room for 4 of them. In
how many ways can the four to be invited be chosen if two of the eight are twins and
must not be seperated?
Solution: There are two cases:
(a) the twins are invited
(b) the twins are not invited.
In this case,
(a) if the twins are invited, then choose 2 out of the remaining 6 in 6 C2 = 15 ways.
(b) if the twins are left out, then choose 4 out of the remaining 6 in 6 C4 = 15 ways.
Therefore, the total number of ways is 15 + 15 = 30.

42
Exercise:
1. A committee of six is to be formed from nine women and three men. In how many
ways can the members be chosen so as to include at least one man? [Ans: 840]
2. A committee of ten is to be chosen from nine men and six women. In how many ways
can it be formed if at least four women are to be in the committee? [Ans: 2142]
3. Nine people are going to travel in two taxis. The larger has five seats, and the smaller
has four. In how many ways can the party be split? [Ans: 126]

BINOMIAL THEOREM
A binomial is a sum or difference of two terms, for instance x + y, 2a − 3b, etc. are binomials.
Pascal’s Triangle
Consider the following expressions:

(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)1 = a + b
(a + b)2 = 2
a + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Writing the coefficients of the binomial series expansions in a triangular array gives

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
• • • • • • • • • • •
This triangular array is called the Pascal’s triangle.

43
Example:
1. Expand (2x + 3y)3 in descending powers of x.
Solution: From the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are 1, 3, 3, 1. Therefore,

(2x + 3y)3 = (2x)3 + 3 (2x)2 (3y) + 3 (2x) (3y)2 + (3y)3

= 8x3 + 36x2 y + 54xy 2 + 27y 3.

2. Obtain the expansion of (2x − 1/2)4 in descending powers of x.

Solution: From the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. Therefore,

(2x − 1/2)4 = (2x)4 + 4 (2x)3 (−1/2) + 6 (2x)2 (−1/2)2 + 4 (2x) (−1/2)3 + (−1/2)4
= 16x4 − 16x3 + 6x2 − x + 1/16.

Exercise:
Use the Pascal’s triangle to expand:
(a) (1 − x)3
(b) (x + 1/x)4
(c) (2x − 1)5
(d ) (x − y)7
Theorem (Binomial Theorem):
If n is a positive integer,

! ! ! !
n n n n
(a + b)n = an + an−1 b + an−2 b2 + · · · + an−r br
0 1 2 r
! !
n n
+···+ abn−1 + bn
n−1 n
n
!
X n
= an−k bk
k=0
k

(the expansion is a finite series with n + 1 terms) !

n
In the statement of the theorem, the term containing an−k bk is an−k bk = n Ck an−k bk .
k

44
Example:
1. Find the coefficients of x10 in the expansion of (2x − 3)14 .
Solution:
! ! !
14 14 14
(2x − 3)14 = (2x)14 + (2x)13 (−3) + · · · + (2x)10 (−3)4 + · · ·
0 1 4
! !
14 14
The term in x10 is (2x)10 (−3)4 . So, the required coefficient is 210 34 .
4 4
1

10
2. Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of 1 + 2
x in ascending powers of x.
10
Hence, find the value of (1.005) , correct to four decimal places.
Solution:

 10 ! !  ! 2 ! 3
1 10 10 1 10 1 10 1
1+ x = + x + x + x +···
2 0 1 2 2 2 3 2
45 2
= 1 + 5x + x + 15x3 + · · ·
4

10
Now, (1.005)10 = (1 + 0.005)10 and comparing with 1 + 21 x we have 21 x = 0.005 so

10
that x = 0.01. Substituting this value of in the expansion of 1 + 21 x ,

45
(1 + 0.005)10 = 1 + 5 (0.01) + (0.01)2 + 15 (0.01)3 + · · ·
4
= 1 + 0.05 + 0.001125 + 0.000015 + · · ·
= 1.0511

(to 4 d.p.)
8
3. Obtain the expansion of (1 + x − 2x2 ) as far as the term in x3 .
Solution:

8 
8
1 + x − 2x2 = 1 + x − 2x2
! ! !
8
8
2 8
3
=1+ x − 2x2 + x − 2x2 + x − 2x2 + · · ·
1 2 3




= 1 + 8 x − 2x2 + 28 x2 − 4x3 + · · · + 56 x3 + · · ·
= 1 + 8x + 12x2 − 56x3 + · · ·

45
 50
4. Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of (2x2 − 1/x2 ) .
50
Solution: The general term in the expansion of (2x2 − 1/x2 ) is
! ! !
50
50−k 50 x100−2k 50
2x2 (−1/x2 )k = 250−k (−1)k = 250−k (−1)k x100−4k .
k k x2k k

For the term in x, we have x1 = x100−4k so that 100 − 4k = 1 and this gives k = 99/4.
Since k is not a whole number, the expansion does not have a term in x.
Exercise:
1. Write down the coefficients of the terms indicated in the expansions of the following:
(a) (1 + x)16 , 3rd term
(b) (3 + 2x)6 , 4th term
(c) (2 − x)20 , 18th term
(d ) (2 + 3/2x)8 , 5th term
2. Use binomial theorem to find the values of
(a) (1.01)10 , to 3 d.p.
(b) (2.001)10 , to 6 s.f.
(c) (0.997)12 , to 3 d.p.
(d ) (1.998)8 , to 2 d.p.
3. Expand the following as far as the term in x3 :
3
(a) (1 + x + x2 )
6
(b) (1 + 2x − x2 )
7
(c) (2 + x − 2x2 )
4
(d ) (3 − 2x + x2 )
4. Find the ratio of the term in x7 to the term in x8 in the expansion of (3x + 2/3)17 .
8
[Ans: 45x ]

Binomial Theorem for any Index

For any rational number n (where n is not a positive integer), the binomial theorem is given
by

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x +···
2! 3!
provided −1 < x < 1, i.e. |x| < 1.

46
Note: This expansion holds only for (1 + x)n but not for (a + x)n if a 6= 1. In the latter
case express (a + x)n = [a (1 + x/a)]n = an (1 + x/a)n and expand the expression in terms of
x/a. Since the expansion holds only for certain values of x, this set of values must be stated.

Example:
1. Expand the following in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3 stating the
values of x for which the expansion is valid:
(a) (1 + x) /3
1

(b) (1 − 4x)−3
(c) (3 − x)−2
Solution:
(a)

1 1/3(−2/3) 1/3(−2/3)(−5/3)
(1 + x) /3 = 1 + x +
1
x2 + x3 + · · ·
3 2! 3!
1 1 2 5
=1+ x− x + x3 + · · ·
3 9 81

provided −1 < x < 1 or |x| < 1.

(b)

(−3)(−4) (−3)(−4)(−5)
(1 − 4x)−3 = 1 + (−3)(−4x) + (−4x)2 + (−4x)3 + · · ·
2! 3!
2 3
= 1 + 12x + 96x + 640x + · · ·

provided −1 < −4x < 1, i.e. −1/4 < x < 1/4.

(c)

(3 − x)−2 = 3−2 (1 − x/3)−2

 
−2 (−2)(−3) 2 (−2)(−3)(−4) 3
=3 1 + (−2)(−x/3) + (−x/3) + (−x/3) + · · ·
2! 3!
 
2 1 2 4 3
= 1/9 1 + x + x + x + · · ·
3 3 27
1 2 1 2 4 3
= + x+ x + x +···
9 27 27 243

where −1 < −x/3 < 1, i.e. −3 < x < 3.

47
 4
2. Expand (1+4x)(1−2x)
as far as the term in x3 stating the range of values of x for which
the expansion is valid.
4 4 −1
Solution: (1+4x)(1−2x) = 1+2x−8x2
= 4 (1 + 2x − 8x2 ) . Let y = 2x − 8x2 . Then,

−1
4 1 + 2x − 8x2 = 4 (1 + y)−1


= 4 1 − y + y2 − y3 + · · ·
h

2
3 i
= 4 1 − 2x − 8x2 + 2x − 8x2 − 2x − 8x2 + · · ·


= 4 1 − 2x + 8x2 + 4x2 − 32x3 + 64x4 − 8x3 + · · ·
= 4 − 8x + 48x2 − 160x3 + · · ·

We expanded 4 (1 + 4x)−1 (1 − 2x)−1 . So, the expansion is valid when −1 < 4x < 1
and −1 < −2x < 1, i.e. when −1/4 < x < 1/4 and −1/2 < x < 1/2. This is so when
−1/4 < x < 1/4.
3. Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 − 8x) /2 in ascending powers of x.
1

√
Hence, substitute x = 1/100 and obtain the value of 23 correct to 5 significant figures.
Solution:

(1/2)(−1/2) (1/2)(−1/2)(−3/2)
(1 − 8x) /2 = 1 + 1/2(−8x) +
1
(−8x)2 + (−8x)3 + · · ·
2! 3!
= 1 − 4x − 8x2 − 32x3 + · · ·

where −1 < −8x < 1, i.e. −1/8 < x < 1/8.

Now, substituting x = 1/100 in the expansion of (1 − 8x) /2 ,
1

(1 − 8/100) /2 = 1 − 4/100 − 8/1002 − 32/1003 = 0.959168

1

92

1/2 √  √ 
⇒ = 23 √ 4 = 0.959168
100 100

√
⇒ 23 = 5 (0.959168) = 4.79584 = 4.7958 (to 5 s.f.).

48
Exercise:
Expand the following in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3 :
(a) (1 − 3x) /2 x+2
−1
(d ) (1+x) 2

√
√ 1 1+2x
(b) 2+x2
(e) 1−x

q
1+x √1−x
(c) 1−x
(f ) 1+x

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Definition: A sequence is a set of numbers in a defined order with a rule for obtaining each
of the numbers. The elements of a sequence are called terms of the sequence where the nth
term is denoted by un .
Example:
1. 5, 10, 15, 20, · · · (positive integer multiples of 5 with general term 5r, r is a positive
integer)
2. 1, −3, 9, −27, · · · (powers of −3 with general term (−3)k , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · , i.e. k is a
non-negative integer)
3. 27, 64, 125, 216, · · · (cubes of consecutive integers in ascending order starting with 33 ,
having general term a3 , a = 3, 4, 5, 6, · · · )
Definition: A sequence that is made up of a finite number of terms is called a finite sequence;
otherwise, it is callled an infinite sequence.
Example:
1. The sequence 10, 20, 30, · · · , 100 is finite (with 10 terms).
2. The sequence 10, 20, 30, · · · is infinite (has infinitely many terms).
Definition: A series is obtained by adding the terms of a sequence. A finite series is one
that corresponds to a finite sequence while an infinite series is one that corresponds to an
infinite sequence.
Example:
10
P 10
P
1. 10 + 20 + 30 + · · · + 100 = 10k and 33 + 43 + 53 + · · · + 103 = r 3 are finite series.
k=1 r=3
∞
P
2. 1 + 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + · · · = (1/4)k is an infinite series (note that k has no upper
k=0
limit in this case).

49
Arithmetic Progression (AP)
Definition: An arithmetic progression (AP) is a sequence in which successive terms differ
by a constant number. In this case, the constant number is called the common difference
(cd). If an AP has its first term a and its common differnce d, then its nth term is given by
un = a + (n − 1)d.
Example:
1. Determine the first six terms of the AP whose first term is 18 and common difference
is −5.
Solution: In this case a = 18, d = −5. Thus,

u1 = a = 18, u2 = a + d = 18 + (−5) = 13, u3 = a + 2d = 18 + 2(−5) = 8,

u4 = a + 3d = 18 + 3(−5) = 3, u5 = a + 4d = 18 + 4(−5) = −2,

u6 = a + 5d = 18 + 5(−5) = −7.

2. Determine the 4th , 12th and nth terms of the AP whose first term is 19 and common
difference is 6.
Solution: In this case a = 19, d = 6. Hence,

u4 = a + 3d = 19 + 3(6) = 37, u12 = a + 11d = 19 + 11(6) = 85,

un = a + (n − 1)d = 19 + 6(n − 1) = 13 + 6n.

The Sum of an AP
To find the sum of any AP whose first term, cd, and the number of terms to be added are
all known, the method of first principles can be used.
Example:
Add up the integers from 1 to 100.
Solution:
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + 98 + 99 + 100
100 + 99 + 98 + · · · + 3 + 2 + 1
101 + 101 + 101 + ··· + 101 + 101 + 101 = 101 × 100
= 10100
10100
Therefore, 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 98 + 99 + 100 = 2
= 5050.

50
A general AP whose first term is a, whose common difference is d, and with n terms is given
as a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, · · · , a + (n − 2)d, a + (n − 1)d. The method used in the example
above can be used to determine a formula for the sum Sn of the n terms of the AP as follows:
Sn = a + [a + d] + [a + 2d] + ··· + [a + (n − 2)d] + [a + (n − 1)d]

Sn = [a + (n − 1)d] + [a + (n − 2)d] + [a + (n − 3)d] + ··· + [a + d] + a

2Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d] + ··· + [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d] = n [2a + (n − 1)d]

Therefore, Sn = n
2
[2a + (n − 1)d].
Example:
1. The fourth term of an AP is 13 and the seventh term is 22. Determine:
(a) the common difference.
(b) the value of n if the nth term is 100.
(c) the value of m if the sum to m terms of the AP is 175.
Solution:
a + 3d = 13
(a) In this case we have . Solving simultaneously gives a = 4, d = 3 so
a + 6d = 22
that cd = 3.
(b) Now, un = 4 + 3(n − 1) = 100. So, n = 33.
(c) We have Sm = m2 [2 (4) + 3 (m − 1)] = 175 so that m [8 + 3m − 3] = 350. On
rewriting this becomes 3m2 + 5m − 350 = 0. Factoring the quadratic function
we get (3m + 35) (m − 10) = 0 so that m = −35/3 or m = 10. Since m must be a

positive integer, then m = 10.

2. The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by Sn = 2n(n + 6). Find the fifth term
of the series and show that the terms are in AP.
Solution: In this case S4 = u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 = 2(4)(4 + 6) = 80; on the other hand,
S5 = S4 + u5 = 2(5)(5 + 6) = 110. So, u5 = S5 − S4 = 110 − 80 = 30.
Now,
Sn = u1 + u2 + · · · + un = 2n(n + 6)

and

Sn−1 = u1 + u2 + · · · + un−1 = 2(n − 1) [(n − 1) + 6] = 2(n − 1)(n + 5).

So,
un = Sn − Sn−1 = 2n(n + 6) − 2(n − 1)(n + 5) = 4n + 10.

Accordingly,
un−1 = 4(n − 1) + 10 = 4n + 6.

51
 Hence, d = un − un−1 = (4n + 10) − (4n + 6) = 4. Since 4 is the common difference
regardless of the value of n, then the terms of the series form an AP.
Exercise:
1. Find the sum of an AP of 10 terms whose first term is 7 and whose last term is 10.
Pn
2. Show that the terms of log 5r are in AP and hence find the sum of the first twenty
r=1
terms of the series and also the least value of n for which the sum to n terms exceeds
400. [Ans: S20 ≃ 146.78, n = 34]
3. Find the difference between the sums of the first ten terms of the APs whose first terms
are 12 and 8, and whose common differences are respectively 2 and 3.
4. The first term of an AP is −12, and the last term is 40. If the sum of the progression
is 196, find the number of terms and the common difference.
5. Find the sum of the odd numbers between 100 and 200.
6. Find the sum of the even numbers, divisible by three, lying between 400 and 500.
7. The twenty-first term of an AP is 5 21 , and the sum of the first twenty-one terms is 94 21 .
Find the first term, the common difference and the sum of the first thirty terms.
8. In an AP, the thirteenth term is 27, and the seventh term is three times the second
term. Find the first term, the common difference and sum of the first ten terms.

Geometric Progression (GP)

Definition: A geometric progression (GP) is a sequence in which each term is a constant
times the previous term. In this case, the constant multiplying factor is called the common
ratio.
In general, if a GP has its first term a and common ratio r, then the nth term is given by
un = ar n−1 . Thus, a GP having n terms is given as a, ar, ar 2 , · · · , ar n−1 .
Example: 36, 12, 4, 4/3, 4/9, 4/27, · · · is a GP with a = 36 and r = 1/3.

The Sum of a GP
To find the sum of any GP whose first term, common ratio, and the number of terms to be
added are all known, the method of first principles can be used.

52
Example:
A GP has first term 3 and common ratio 1/2. Find the sum of the first eight terms, S8 .
Solution:

1



1 2


1 7
S8 = 3 + 3 2
+ 3 2
+ ··· + 3 2
1 1



1 2


1 7


1 8
S
2 8
= 3 2
+ 3 2
+ ··· + 3 2
+ 3 2


1 8
S8 − 21 S8 = 3 − 3 2
h
i
1 1 8
So, 2 S8 = 3 1 − 2 . Therefore, S8 = 6 (255/256) = 765/128.

We now use the method used in the example above to determine a formula for the sum to n
terms of a GP a, ar, ar 2 , · · · , ar n−1 as follows:

Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ··· + ar n−1
rSn = ar + ar 2 + ··· + ar n−1 + ar n
Sn − rSn = a − ar n

a(1−r n )
Hence, Sn (1 − r) = a (1 − r n ). Therefore, Sn = 1−r
, r 6= 1. If r > 1, then we write
n −1)
Sn = a(rr−1 .
Example:
1. In a GP, the sum of the second and third terms is 6, while the sum of the third and
fourth terms is −12. Find the first term, the common ratio and the sum of the first

ten terms.
Solution:
Let the first term be a and let the common ratio be r. Then,

ar + ar 2 = 6 ar (1 + r) = 6 ar(1+r) 6 1
⇒ ⇒ ar 2 (1+r)
= −12 ⇒ r
= − 12 ⇒ r = −2.
ar 2 + ar 3 = −12 ar 2 (1 + r) = −12
Substituting r = −2 in ar (1 + r) = 6 we get a(−2) (−1) = 6 so that a = 3.
3[1−(−2)10 ]
Now, S10 = 1−(−2) = 1 − (−2)10 = −1023.
2. Determine the smallest number of terms of the GP 8, 24, 72, · · · whose sum exceeds
6, 000, 000.
n
Solution: In this case, a = 8, r = 3. So, Sn = 8(33−1
−1)
= 4 (3n − 1). We now solve the
equation 4 (3n − 1) = 6000000. Dividing through by 4 gives 3n − 1 = 1500000 which
becomes 3n = 1500001 on rewriting. Introducing logarithms base 10 on both sides and

53
 log 1500001
solving for n, we have n = log 3
= 12.94 (to 4 s.f.). Therefore, for the sum of the
GP to exceed 6000000, then the smallest value of n is 13.
Exercise:
1. The fourth term of a GP is −6 and the seventh term is 48. Find the first three terms
of the progression.
2. Find the difference between the sums to ten terms of the AP and GP whose first two
terms are −2 and 4.

3. In a GP, the sum of the second and third terms is 9, and the seventh term is eight
times the fourth. Find the first term, the common ratio, and the fifth term.

Some Applications
Example:
1. A ball is dropped from a height of 9 m. It hits the ground and bounces to a height of
6 m. It continues to bounce up and down. On each bounce it rises 2/3 of the height of

the previous bounce. How far has the ball travelled (both up and down) when it hits
the ground for the seventh time?
Solution: The ball originally drops 9 m and when it hits the ground for the seventh
time, it has completed six bounces. So, the total distance travelled is

12 [1 − (2/3)6 ]
9 + 2/3(9)(2) + (2/3)2 (9)(2) + (2/3)3 (9)(2) + · · · + (2/3)6 (9)(2) = 9 +
| {z } 1 − 2/3
a=2/3(9)(2)=12, r=2/3

= 9 + 36 (1 − 64/729)
= 41.84 m

to (2 d.p.).
2. A customer makes a single deposit of Sh. 16,000 in an account which pays a compound
interest at a rate of 6% p.a. Determine:
(a) how much the investment is worth after 12 years.
(b) after how many years the investment will be worth three times its initial value.
Solution:
6
(a) Value after 1 year: 16000 + 100
(16000) = 16000 (1.06)
6
2 years: 16000 (1.06) + 100 [16000 (1.06)] = 16000 (1.06)2
 
3 years: 16000 (1.06)2 + 100
6
16000 (1.06)2 = 16000 (1.06)3
This pattern shows that the investment after n years will be

54
 6 n


Sh. 16000 (1.06)n = 16000 1 + 100
.

So, after 12 years, the investment will be Sh.16000 (1.06)12 = 32195 (to the
nearest shilling).
(b) We determine the value of n (in years) for which 16000 (1.06)n = 3 (16000). Dividing
through by 16000 we get (1.06)n = 3 so that n = log 3
log 1.06
≃ 18.85 (to 2 d.p.). Hence,
n = 19 (complete) years.

In such problems as in Example 2 above, the formula for the amount (value) A of a
single investment (principal amount) P at a rate of r% per annum (per unit time) is


r n
A = P 1 + 100 . This formula will be used in all cases where the value of an item appre-
ciates/depreciates at a constant rate per unit time. However, in the case of depreciation r
will be negative.
Exercise:
1. A customer deposits Sh. 10,000 on 1st January every year for four years. How much is
the investment worth at the end of the four years if it attracts a compound interest of

12% p.a.? [Ans: Sh. 53,528 correct to the nearst Sh.]

2. A single deposit of Sh. 150,000 is invested for four years at a compound interest.
Determine the rate at which the investment will be Sh. 182,326. [Ans: 5%]
3. The initial value of a car Sh. 3,000,000. It depreciates at a rate of 14% p.a. Determine
after how many complete years the car will be worth Sh. 1,000,000. [Ans: 8 years]
4. Sh. 100,000 was invested on 1st January 2010. An additional Sh. 6,000 was added to
the investment at the beginning of each subsequent year. If the investment earns a
compound interest of 8% p.a., calculate the value of the investment on 31st December
2020. [Ans: Sh. 327,037]

Convergence of a Geometric Series

If Sn is the sum of the first n terms of any series, and if lim Sn exits and is finite, the series
n→∞
Sn is said to converge (or the series is convergent). In this case the sum to infinity is given
by S = S∞ = lim Sn . If the series does not converge, i.e. lim Sn = ±∞, then it is said to
n→∞ n→∞
diverge (or the series is divergent).

55
 n
Any AP where d > 0 will diverge to lim [2a + (n − 1) d] = ∞; on the other hand, if d < 0,
n→∞ 2
the AP diverges to lim n [2a + (n − 1) d] = −∞.
n→∞ 2

a(1−r n )
Recall that for a general GP a, ar, ar 2 , · · · , the sum to n terms is Sn = 1−r
. If −1 < r < 1,
n
i.e. |r| < 1, then lim r n = 0. So, lim a(1−r ) a
= 1−r . If |r| > 1, then lim |r|n = ∞ and the
n→∞ n→∞ 1−r n→∞
a
series diverges. So, provided −1 < r < 1, i.e. |r| < 1, a GP converges to the sum 1−r .
Example:
1. Consider the problem of the ball in Example 1 above. Find the distance covered by the
ball before coming to rest.
Solution: Theoretically, the ball bounces up and down indefinitely (practically, the
ball comes to rest after a finite number of bounces). So, the distance travelled before
coming to rest is

12
9 + 2/3(9)(2) + (2/3)2 (9)(2) + (2/3)3 (9)(2) + · · · = 9 +
1 − 2/3
= 9 + 36
= 45 m.

2. The fifth term of a convergent GP is the arithmetic mean of the preceeding two terms.
Find the common ratio given that the common ratio and the first term are non-zero,
and if the first term is 12, find the sum to infinity.
Solution: Let the series be a + ar + ar 2 + · · · . Then, u5 = ar 4 = 1/2(ar 2 + ar 3 ) so
that 2ar 4 = ar 2 + ar 3 . Dividing through by ar 2 and rewriting gives 2r 2 − r − 1 = 0,
which gives r = −1/2 or r = 1. Since the series is convergent, then r = −1/2. Now, for
12
a = 12, and r = −1/2, then S = 1−(−1/2)
= 8.
••
3. Express 0.45 as a fraction.
Solution:

•• 45 45 45
0.45 = 0.454545 · · · = + + +··· .
100 10000 1000000
45 1
This is a GP with a = 100
and r = 100
. So,

•• 45/100 45 100 5
0.45 = S∞ = = × = .
1 − 1/100 100 99 11

56
Exercise:
1. Write down the sums of the first n terms and the sums to infinity of the series:
3 3 3 3
(a) 10 + 100 + 1000 + 10000 +··· [Ans: 1/3]
(b) 0.5 + 0.05 + 0.005 + 0.0005 · · · [Ans: 5/9]
2. Express the following recurring decimals as rational numbers:
•
(a) 0.07 [Ans: 7/90]
•
(b) 0.8 [Ans: 8/9]
•
(c) 3.2 [Ans: 3 92 ]
•
1
(d ) 1.004 [Ans: 1 225 ]
••
(e) 2.960 [Ans: 2 317
330
]
3. Find the common ratio of a GP whose sum to infinity is three times the first term.
[Ans: 2/3]
4. The second term of a GP is 24 and its sum to infinity is 100. Find the two possible
values of the common ratio and the corresponding first terms. [Ans: 2/3, 60; 3/5, 40]

Growth and Decay

Exponential Functions

An exponential function is a nonlinear function of the form y = abx , where a 6= 0, b 6= 1,

and b > 0. The y-intercept is a in this case and is obtained by putting x = 0. As the

independent variable x changes by a constant amount, the dependent variable y is multiplied

by a constant factor (the y-values change by a factor of b as x increases by 1), which means
consecutive y-values form a constant ratio.
Example:
The function represented by the table

x 0 1 2 3

y 4 8 16 32

is an exponential function since as x increases by 1, y is multiplied by 2. The function is

y = 4 (2x ) in this case. On the other hand, the function represented by the table

x 0 1 2 3

y 2 4 12 48

57
is not exponential since as x increases by 1, y is not multiplied by a constant factor.

Exponential Growth and Decay

Definition: Exponential growth occurs when a quantity increases by the same factor over

equal intervals of time. A function of the form y = a(1 + r)t , where a > 0 and r > 0, is an
exponential growth function. In this case y = final amount, a = initial amount, r = rate of
growth (in decimal form), 1 + r = growth factor (where 1 + r > 1), t = time. Note that the
function is of the form y = abx , where b is replaced by 1 + r and x is replaced by t.

Definition: Exponential decay occurs when a quantity decreases by the same factor over
equal intervals of time. A function of the form y = a(1 − r)t , where a > 0 and 0 < r < 1, is
an exponential decay function. In this case y = final amount, a = initial amount, r = rate
of decay (in decimal form), 1 − r = decay factor (where 1 − r < 1), t = time. Similarly, the
function is of the form y = abx , where b is replaced by 1 − r and x is replaced by t.

Example:
1. Consider the table below.

x 0 1 2 3

y 5 10 20 40

As x increases by 1, y is multiplied by 2. So, the table represents an exponential

growth function.
2. Consider the table below.

x 0 1 2 3

y 270 90 30 10

As x increases by 1, y is multiplied by 1/3. So, the table represents an exponential

decay function.

58
3. Determine whether each function represents exponential growth or exponential decay,
and hence find the percent rate of change.

(a) y = 5(1.07)t
(b) f (t) = 0.2(0.98)t
Solution:
(a) The function is of the form y = a(1 + r)t , where 1 + r > 1. So it represents
exponential growth. In this case the growth factor is 1 + r = 1.07 so that r = 0.07.
Therefore, the rate of growth is 7%.
(b) The function is of the form y = a(1 − r)t , where 1 − r < 1. So it represents

exponential decay. In this case the decay factor is 1 − r = 0.98 so that r = 0.02.
Therefore, the rate of decay is 2%.
4. The inaugural attendance of an annual music festival is 150,000. The attendance y
increases by 8% each year.

(a) Write an exponential growth function that represents the attendance after t years.
(b) How many people will attend the festival in the fifth year? Round your answer to
the nearest thousand.
Solution:
(a) The initial amount is 150000, and the rate of growth is 8%, or 0.08. The exponential
growth function is

y = a(1 + r)t

= 150000(1 + 0.08)t

= 150000(1.08)t.

Therefore, the festival attendance is represented by y = 150000(1.08)t.

(b) During the first year t = 0 and during the fifth year t = 4. So, in the fifth year, we
have y = 150000(1.08)4 ≈ 204073. Therefore, about 204,000 people will attend the

59
 festival in the fifth year.
Exercise:

A website has 500,000 members in 2020. The number y of members increases by 15% each
year.
(a) Write an exponential growth function that represents the website membership t years
after 2020.

(b) How many members will there be in 2026? Round your answer to the nearest ten
thousand.

Compound Interest

Compound interest is the interest earned on the principal and on previously earned interest.
Exponential growth functions are used in real-life situations involving compound interest.
Although interest earned is expressed as an annual rate, the interest is usually compounded

more frequently than once per year. So, the formula y = a(1 + r)t must be modified for
compound interest problems. The balance A of an account earning compound interest is
A = P (1 + nr )nt where P = principal (initial amount), r = annual interest rate (in decimal
form), t = time (in years), n = number of times interest is compounded per year. For interest

compounded yearly, you can substitute 1 for n in the formula to get A = P (1 + r)t .
Example:
1. A customer invests $100, 000 in an account that earns interest at a rate of 7.5% for 54
months. Determine how much money will be in the account if:

(a) interest is compounded quarterly.

(b) interest is compounded monthly.
Solution:
7.5 54
In this case P = 100000, r = 100
= 0.075 and t = 12
= 4.5.
(a) If the interest is compounded quarterly, then it is compounded 4 times a year.
So, after 54 months we then have,

60
  r nt
A=P 1+
n
 4(4.5)
0.075
= 100000 1 +
4
= 100000 (1.01875)18

≈ $139706.69.

(b) If the interest is compounded monthly, then it is compounded 12 times a year.

Hence after 54 months we then have,

 r nt
A=P 1+
n
 12(4.5)
0.075
= 100000 1 +
12
= 100000 (1.00625)54

≈ $139996.84.

From (a) and (b) above, compounding interest more times per year yields more money.
2. A deposit of $2500 is made into an account that earns interest at a rate of 12%. The

target is to have $4000 in the account after some time. How long should the money be
kept in the account if interest is compounded 6 times a year?
Solution:
12
In this case A = 4000, P = 2500, and r = = 0.12. If interest is compounded 6 times
100

6t
a year, we have the equation 4000 = 2500 1 + 0.12
6
. This simplifies to 1.6 = (1.02)6t
so that ln 1.6 = ln (1.02)6t . Rewriting the equation we get ln 1.6 = 6t ln (1.02) so that
ln 1.6
t= 6 ln 1.02
= 3.956 years. Therefore, the amount should be kept in the account for 3.956
years to reach $4000.

61
Continuous Growth and Decay

In real-life there are many quantities where the growth/decay process is continuous. In such
cases the growth/decay process is governed (at least for a short time period) by the function,
Q = Q0 ekt where Q0 > 0 is the amount initially present at t = 0, and k is a non-zero constant.
If k is positive, then the function will grow without bound and is therefore an exponential

growth function. On the other hand, if k is negative, the function will die down to zero
and is therefore an exponential decay function. Interest compounded continuously as well
as short term population growth is often modeled by the exponential growth function, while
the decay of a radioactive element is governed by the exponential decay function.

Example:
1. In Example 1 above, if interest is compounded continuously, then after 54 months we
will have,

A = P ert

= 100000e(0.075)(4.5)

= 100000 (1.401439608)

≈ $140143.96.

2. In Example 2 above, if interest is compounded continuously, we have 4000 = 2500e0.12t

which simplifies to 1.6 = e0.12t . Taking natural logarithm on both sides of the equation
ln 1.6
we have ln 1.6 = ln e0.12t so that ln 1.6 = 0.12t. Hence, t = 0.12
= 3.917 (to 3 d.p.).
Therefore, the amount should be kept in the account for 3.917 years to get $4000.
3. The growth of a colony of bacteria is given by the equation, Q = Q0 e0.195t . If there are
initially 500 bacteria present and t is given in hours determine each of the following.
(a) How many bacteria are there after a half of a day?

(b) How long will it take before there are 10000 bacteria in the colony?

62
 Solution:
The equation for this starting number of bacteria is Q = 500e0.195t
(a) To obtain the number of bacteria after half of a day, we use t = 12 since t is in
hours. In this case we have Q = 500e0.195(12) = 500 (10.38123656) ≈ 5190.618. So,
after half of a day there are 5190 of the bacteria present.
(b) In this case we solve the exponential equation 10000 = 500e0.195t . Simplifying the

equation we get 20 = e0.195t . Taking natural logarithms we have ln 20 = ln e0.195t

ln 20
so that ln 20 = 0.195t. Hence, t = 0.195
= 15.3627. Therefore, it takes about 15.4
hours to reach 10000 bacteria.
4. Carbon 14 dating works by measuring the amount of Carbon 14 (a radioactive element)
that is in a fossil. All living things have a constant level of Carbon 14 in them and
once they die it starts to decay according to the formula, Q = Q0 e−0.000124t where t
is in years and Q0 is the amount of Carbon 14 present at death. Suppose that there

are 100 milligrams of Carbon 14 present at death.

(a) How much Carbon 14 will there be after 1000 years?
(b) How long will it take for half of the Carbon 14 to decay?
Solution:
(a) Taking Q0 = 100 gives the equation Q = 100e−0.000124t . Taking t = 1000 we get
Q = 100e−0.000124(1000) = 100 (0.88337984) = 88.337984 milligrams. So, there are
approximately 88.338 milligrams left after 1000 years.

(b) To determine how long it will take until there is 50 milligrams of the Carbon 14
left, we need to solve the equation 50 = 100e−0.000124t . Dividing through by 100
and then taking natural logarithms on both sides we have ln 0.5 = ln e−0.000124t
ln 0.5
so that ln 0.5 = −0.000124t. Hence, t = −0.000124
= 5589.896617. Therefore, it will

take 5589.897 years for half of the Carbon 14 to decay. This number is called the
half-life of Carbon 14.

63
Approximations of Real Numbers by Decimals

Decimal expansions of real numbers are very important in appications of mathematics. Irra-
tional numbers such as

π = 3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197169399375 · · · ,

e = 2.71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995957 · · · ,

and
√
2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785697 · · ·

have infinite decimal expansions that do not recur (they have no repeating blocks) and cannot
be written as fractions. To find such number on the number line, we use approximations.
In a similar manner, approximations can be applied to recurring decimals and overlong
terminating decimals.

There are many ways of approximating real number by decimals; these include sequence of
truncations and sequence of approximations.

Sequence of Truncations

Consider the infinite decimal expansion of a real number α. If we truncate this expansion
at 1 place, 2 places, 3 places, ..., the result is a sequence of rational numbers (terminating

decimals) converging to α. For example, the sequence of truncations to π is

3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, 3.14159, 3.141592, 3.1415926, 3.14159265, · · ·

or
31 314 3141 31415 314159 3141592 31415926 314159265
, , , , , , , ,··· .
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000

64
Sequence of Approximations

To approximate the real number to a given number of decimal places, we truncate it one
place more and then round in the usual way. For example, the sequence of approximations
to π is
3.1, 3.14, 3.142, 3.1416, 3.14159, 3.141593, 3.1415927, 3.14159265, · · ·

or
31 314 3142 31416 314159 3141593 31415927 314159265
, , , , , , , ,··· .
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000
In either method, the infinite decimal expansion of an irrational number α gives us a sequence
of rational numbers that give better and better approximations to α. The sequence converges
to α in its limit, i.e. the terms of the sequence get closer and closer to α and we can get
arbitrarily close to α by going far enough down the sequence.

PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Suppose there is a mathematical statement involving the positive integer n and that:
(i ) the statement is true for n = 1;
(ii ) if the statement is true for n = k for a positive integer k, then the statement is true
for n = k + 1.
Then the statement is true for every positive integer n.

Steps in Applying the Principle of Mathematical Induction

Step 1 : Prove that the statement is true for n = 1. This is called the basis step.
Step 2 : Let k be a positive integer. Assume that the given statement is true for n = k.
Use this assumption to prove that the statement is true for n = k + 1. This is

called the inductive step.

The assumption that the given statement is true for n = k in the inductive step is called
the induction hypothesis.

65
Examples:
1. Use mathematical induction to prove that for every positive integer n the sum of the
first n positive integers is n(n+1)
2
.
Solution: We show that 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n+1)
2
.
For n = 1, 1(1+1)
2
= 1 and hence the statement is true for n = 1.
Now suppose the statement is true for n = k where k is a positive integer, i.e.

k(k + 1)
1+2+3+···+k = .
2
(k+1)[(k+1)+1]
For n = k + 1, we need to show that 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (k + 1) = 2
. In this
case,

1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (k + 1) = (1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + k) + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
= + (k + 1)
2
k(k + 1) + 2 (k + 1)
=
2
(k + 1) (k + 2)
=
2
(k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1]
=
2

and so true for n = k + 1.

Since the statement is true for n = 1 and true for n = k + 1 whenever true for n = k,
then by the principle of mathematical induction, the statement is true for all positive

integers n.
2. Prove that for each positive integer n, 4 is a factor of 7n − 3n .
Solution: When n = 1, 71 − 31 = 4 = 4(1). So, the statement is true for n = 1.
Now, suppose true for n = k for a positive integer k, i.e. 7k − 3k = 4t for some integer
t. We show that 4 is a factor of 7k+1 − 3k+1 , i.e. the statement is true for n = k + 1.
In this case,

7k+1 − 3k+1 = 7k+1 − 7(3k ) + 7(3k ) − 3k+1

= 7(7k − 3k ) + 3k (7 − 3)
= 7(4t) + 3k (4)
= 4(7t + 3k )

66
 where 7t + 3k is an integer. So, true for n = k + 1 whenever true for n = k.
Therefore, the statement is true for all positive integers n.
3. Show that 9n − 1 is even for every positive integers n.
Solution: For n = 1, 91 − 1 = 8 = 2(4). So, true for n = 1.
Suppose true for n = k for a positive integer k, i.e. 9k − 1 = 2p where p is an integer.
For n = k + 1, 9k+1 − 1 = 9k+1 − 9 + 9 − 1 = 9(9k − 1) + 8 = 9(2p) + 2(4) = 2 (9p + 4)
where 9p + 4 is an integer. So, true for n = k + 1 if true for n = k.
Therefore, the statement is true for all integers n ≥ 1.
4. Prove that 2n > n for every positive integer n.
Solution: When n = 1, 21 > 1, which is true.
Suppose the statement is true for n = k, i.e. 2k > k for some positive integer k.
Now, we need to show that it is true for n = k + 1, i.e. 2k+1 > k + 1. From the inductive
hypothesis, 2k > k ⇒ 2(2k ) > 2k ⇒ 2k+1 > 2k. Since k ≥ 1, then k + k ≥ k + 1
⇒ 2k ≥ k + 1. Hence, 2k+1 > 2k ≥ k + 1 ⇒ 2k+1 > k + 1. So, the statement is true
for n = k + 1 whenever true for n = k. Therefore, by the principle of mathematical
induction, the statement is true for all positive integers n.
a(1−r n )
5. Prove by induction that if r 6= 1, then a + ar + ar 2 + · · · + ar n−1 = 1−r
.
Proof : When n = 1, a(1−r)
1−r
= a, hence true for n = 1.
a(1−r k )
Suppose true for n = k for a positive integer k, i.e. a + ar + ar 2 + · · · + ar k−1 = 1−r
.
We use this assumption to show that it is true for n = k + 1, i.e.

2 ka 1 − r k+1
a + ar + ar + · · · + ar = .
1−r

Now,

67


a + ar + ar 2 + · · · + ar k = a + ar + ar 2 + · · · + ar k−1 + ar k


a 1 − rk
= + ar k
1−r

a 1 − r k + ar k (1 − r)
=
1−r
a − ar k + ar k − ar k+1
=
1−r
k+1
a − ar
=
1−r

a 1 − r k+1
= .
1−r

So, true for n = k + 1 if true for n = k. Therefore, the statement is true for all positive
integer n.
Exercise:
Use mathematical induction to prove that:
1. the sum of the first n even natural numbers is n (n + 1).
2. the sum of the first n positive odd numbers is n2 .
1
3. the sum of the squares of the first n positive integers is 6n (n + 1) (2n + 1).
2 1
4. 12 + 32 + 52 + · · · + (2n − 1) = 3n (4n2 − 1) for each positive integer n.
5. 8n − 1 is divisible by 7 for all positive integers n.
6. 2 is a factor of n2 + 5n for every positive integer n.
7. n3 − n is divisible by 3 for all integers n ≥ 1.
8. 22n − 1 is a multiple of 3 for all integers n > 0.
9. 3 divides 22n+1 + 1 for each natural number n.
n
P
10. i (i + 1) = n(n+1)(n+2)
3
for every positive integer n .
i=1
1 1 1 1 n(n+3)
11. 1(2)(3)
+ 2(3)(4)
+ 3(4)(5)
+···+ n(n+1)(n+2)
= 4(n+1)(n+2)
for every integer n ≥ 1.
n
12. for a non-zero real number a > −1, then (1 + a) > 1 + na for every integer n ≥ 2.

68
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Consider the quadratic equation x2 +1 = 0. Then x2 = −1. Hence x2 +1 = 0 has no real roots.
To solve an equation of this type, we need another category of numbers called imaginary
√
numbers. We take i = −1, where i is an imaginary number. This can be extended to the
√ p √ √
square roots of other negative numbers, for example −25 = 25(−1) = 25 −1 = ±5i.

Non-Real Roots of Quadratic Equations

√
−b± b2 −4ac
Recall that if ax2 +bx+c = 0 is a quadratic equation, then x = 2a
and if b2 −4ac < 0,
then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has non-real roots.
Example:
Solve the equation:
(a) x2 + 2x + 5 = 0
(b) 2x2 + 3x + 5 = 0
Solution:

(a) x2 + 2x + 5 = 0
√ √ √
−2± 22 −4(1)(5) −2± 4−20 −2± −16 −2±4i
⇒ x= 2(1)
= 2
= 2
= 2
= −1 ± 2i
⇒ x = −1 + 2i or x = −1 − 2i.
(b) 2x2 + 3x + 5 = 0
√ √ √ √
−3± 32 −4(2)(5) −3± 9−40 −3± −31 −3± 31i
⇒ x= 2(2)
= 4
= 4
= 4
√ √ √ √
−3+ 31i −3− 31i
⇒ x= 4
or x = 4
, i.e. x = 4 + 4 i or x = −3
−3 31
4
− 31
4
i.
Exercise:
Solve the following equations:
(a) x2 + x + 1 = 0
(b) 4x2 + 4x + 5 = 0
(c) x2 − 4x + 29 = 0
(d ) 4z 2 + 49 = 0 [Ans: z = − 27 i, z = 27 i]
(e) (3x + 10)2 + 81 = 0 [Ans: x = − 10 3
+ 3i, x = − 10
3
− 3i]
√ √
(f ) t4 − 4 = 0 [Ans: t = ± 2, t = ± 2i]
√ √
2
(g) 2x + 6x + 7 = 0 [Ans: x = − 23 − 25 i, x = − 32 + 25 i]

69
Definition: The general form of a complex number z is x + iy, where x and y are real
√
numbers, and i is the imaginary unit such that i = −1 or i2 = −1. The numbers x and y
are, respectively, called the real and imaginary parts of z and this is written as x = Re(z)
and y = Im(z).
For example, if z = 2 + 7i, then Re(z) = 2 and Im(z) = 7.
Definition: Let z = x + iy be a complex number. Then the complex number x − iy, denoted
by z is called the complex conjugate of z.
−1
For example, if z = 3 + 2i, then z = 3 − 2i, and if z = 2
− 23 i, then z = −1
2
+ 32 i.

Algebra of Complex Numbers

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 . Then

(a) Addition: z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i (y1 + y2 )

(b) Subtraction: z1 − z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 − x2 ) + i (y1 − y2 )

(c) Mutliplication:

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) (x2 + iy2 )

= x1 x2 + ix1 y2 + ix2 y1 + i2 y1 y2

= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i (x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) .

In particular,

z1 z1 = (x1 + iy1 ) (x1 − iy1 )

= x21 − ix1 y1 + ix1 y1 − i2 y12

= x21 + y12 ,

which is a real number.

70
 (d ) Division:

z1 z1 z2
=
z2 z2 z2
(x1 + iy1 ) (x2 − iy2 )
=
(x2 + iy2 ) (x2 − iy2 )
x1 x2 − ix1 y2 + ix2 y1 − i2 y1 y2
=
x22 − ix2 y2 + ix2 y2 − i2 y22
(x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i (x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
=
x22 + y22
(x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) i (x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= + .
x22 + y22 x22 + y22

Example:
√
Let z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 2 + 3i. Find:
(a) z1 + z2
(b) z1 − z2

(c) z1 z2
z1
(d ) z2

Solution:
√
√

(a) z1 + z2 = (1 + i) + 2 + 3i = 3 + 1 + 3 i
√
√

(b) z1 − z2 = (1 + i) − 2 + 3i = −1 + 1 − 3 i
√
√ √ √
√

(c) z1 z2 = (1 + i) 2 + 3i = 2 + 3i + 2i − 3 = 2 − 3 + 2 + 3 i
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
(1+i)(2− 3i) (2+ 3)+(2− 3)i
(d ) zz21 = zz21 zz22 = 2+√3i 2−√3i = 4−2 2−√3i+2i+
√ 3 = = 2+ 3
+ 2− 3
i.
( )( ) 3i+2 3i+3 7 7 7

Exercise:

1. Simplify:
(a) (2 + i) (3 − 4i)
(b) (5 + 4i) (−7 − i)
(c) (3 − i) (4 − i)
(d ) (2 − i)2

71
2. Express with real denominator:
1−i
(a) 1+i
3i−2
(b) 1+2i
1
(c) (1−i)2
4i
(d ) 4+i

3. Find the real and imaginary parts of:

(a) (1 − i)3
3+2i
(b) 4−i
2 3
(c) 3+i
+ 2+i

Equal Complex Numbers

If z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 , then z1 = z2 if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

Example:
Solve for x and y if:
(a) 3 + 4i = (x + iy) (1 + i)

(b) 3x + 2iy − 7 − 5i = xi − 5y
x+iy
(c) 2+i
= 5−i
Solution:
x − y = 3
(a) 3+4i = (x + iy) (1 + i) = x+ix+iy−y = (x − y)+i (x + y). Hence,
x + y = 4
⇒ x= 7/2, y= 1/2.

3x + 5y = 7
(b) Rewriting the equation gives (3x + 5y)+i (−x + 2y) = 7+5i. Thus,
−x + 2y = 5
⇒ x = −1, y = 2.
x+iy
(c) 2+i
= 5 − i implies x + iy = (5 − i) (2 + i) = 10 + 5i − 2i + 1 = 11 + 3i
⇒ x = 11, y = 3.

72
Exercise:
Solve for x and y:
2+5i
(a) 1−i
= x + iy
(b) (x + iy)2 = 3 + 4i
(c) 2x − 3iy + 4ix − 2y − 5 + 10i = x + y + 2 − (y − x + 3) i

Argand Diagram

Recall that for a complex number z = x + iy, x and y are both real numbers. Thus, x + iy

can be represented by the ordered pair (x, y). This suggests that z can be represented by
a point in the xy-plane, also called the z-plane or complex plane. This is called an Argand
diagram. On an Argand diagram real numbers are represented on the x-axis and imaginary
numbers on the y-axis. Thus, the complex number z = 2 + 5i can be represented on the

complex plane by the point P (2, 5).

Im(z)
6

P (2, 5)
b
5

Re(z)
−2 −1 1 2 3 4

−1

−2

73
Vector Representation of Complex Numbers

A complex number x + iy can also be thought of as a directed line segment (vector) from
the origin to point (x, y) in the z-plane, or also, any other vector obtained by translating
this vector parallel to itself. Therefore, the vector from point A(x1 , y1 ) to point B(x2 , y2 )
has an x-component x2 − x1 and y-component y2 − y1 , and represents the complex number

z = (x2 − x1 ) + i (y2 − y1 ).

Im(z)

b B(x2 , y2 )

b
A(x1 , y1 )

Re(z)

Example:
−→ −−→
In the diagram below, vectors OA and DE represent the complex number 5 + 3i.

Im(z)
5
E(3, 4)
b
4
A(5, 3)
b
3

b
D(−2, 1) 1

b
Re(z)
O
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2

74
Modulus and Argument

Let P represent the complex number z = x + iy. Then P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y).

b
P (x, y)

r
y

θ
x

By Pythagora’s theorem,
p
r 2 = x2 + y 2 ⇒ r = x2 + y 2 .
Also,
cos θ = xr ,

sin θ = yr , and
tan θ = xy .
Definition: Given any complex number z = x + iy, then the modulus of z, denoted by
p
|z|, is defined by |z| = x2 + y 2 . Also, an argument of z, denoted by arg z, is defined by
arg z = tan−1 (y/x).
There is an infinite set of angles whose tangent is y/x; so, there is also an infinite set of
argumnets for x+iy. To determine z uniquely, we choose θ from the interval θ0 ≤ θ < θ0 +2π,
where θ0 is any fixed angle in radians. For example, the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π corresponds to
θ0 = 0. The fixed interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π is called the principal range of arg z; accordingly, the
value of arg z that lies in the principal range of arg z is called the principal value of arg z.

75
Now,
x
cos θ = r
⇒ x = r cos θ

and
y
sin θ = r
⇒ y = r sin θ.
Thus, a non-zero complex number z = x + iy can also be written as
z = x + iy = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ) .................(*)

In this case, (*) is called the polar form of the complex number z. The polar coordinates of
z are (r, θ) where θ is the principal value of arg z.
Example:
1. Let z = 2 − 2i. Find |z|, arg z and the polar form of z.
Solution:
In this case we have the figure below.

b
(2, −2)

p √
The modulus of z is r = |z| = 22 + (−2)2 = 2 2, and the principal value of arg z


is tan−1 −22
= tan−1 (−1) = 360◦ − 45◦ = 315◦ = 47 π. Therefore, arg z = 74 π ± 2nπ,
√

n = 0, 1, 2, · · · . So, the polar form is z = 2 2 cos 74 π + i sin 74 π .

76
 2. Let z = −i. Find |z|, arg z and the polar form of z.
Solution:
In this case z = 0 + (−1)i. We have the diagram below.

b (0, −1)

p
Now, r = |z| = 02 + (−1)2 = 1, and the principal value of arg z is 270◦ = 23 π.

Therefore, arg z = 32 π ± 2nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, · · · . So, the polar form is z = cos 32 π + i sin 23 π.

Products and Quotients

We can use polar form to multiply complex numbers. Suppose z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and
z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ). Then,

77
 z1 z2 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) · r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

= r1 r2 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

= r1 r2 cos θ1 cos θ2 + i cos θ1 sin θ2 + i sin θ1 cos θ2 + i2 sin θ1 sin θ2

= r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i (cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )]

= r1 r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 )] .

Thus, θ1 + θ2 is the principal argument of z1 z2 . Hence, arg (z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 . Also,
|z1 z2 | = r1 r2 = |z1 ||z2 |.
Since multiplication and division are inverse operations, it can be deduced that

z1 r1
= [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )] .
z2 r2
 
z1 z1 r1 |z1 |
Therefore, arg z2
= θ1 − θ2 = arg z1 − arg z2 , and | z2
|= r2
= |z2 |
.
Example:
√ √
1. If z1 = − 12 + 2
3
i and z2 = 1 + 3i, find:
(a) |z1 z2 |

(b) arg (z1 z2 )

 
(c) arg zz21
Solution: r q

2  √ 2 √
2
(a) In this case |z1 | = − 12 + 2
3
= 1 and |z2 | = (1)2 + 3 = 2. Thus,
|z1 z2 | = |z1 | · |z2 | = 1 · 2 = 2.
Now,
√ 
3/2 √

arg z1 = tan−1 −1/2
= tan−1 − 3 = 180◦ − 60◦ = 120◦ = 23 π

and
√ 
3
√

arg z2 = tan−1 1
= tan−1 3 = 60◦ = π3 .
Therfore,
(b) arg (z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 = 32 π + π
3
= π.

78
  
z1
(c) arg z2
= arg z1 − arg z2 = 23 π − π
3
= π
3
Exercise:
1. Express in polar form:
√

(a) √1+i [Ans: 2 5
cos 12 5
π + i sin 12 π ]
3−i 2
3+4i 5
(b) [Ans: 13
5−12i
(cos 120.5◦ + i sin 120.5◦)]
√
√

(c) −1 + 3i (1 + i) [Ans: 2 2 cos 11 12
π + i sin 11
12
π ]

Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers

Let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) and let z1 = z2 = z. Then,

z 2 = r 2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ).
In general, if z1 = z2 = · · · = zn = z,

z n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ)...................(1)

If |z| = r = 1, then Equation (1) above becomes
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.
Theorem (De Moivre’s Theorem): Let θ be any angle and let n be any integer. Then
(cos θ ± i sin θ)n = cos nθ ± i sin nθ.
If n is a negative integer, then
(cos θ ± i sin θ)−n = cos (−nθ) ± i sin (−nθ).

Proof : We use mathematical induction for the case (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.
If n = 1,
LHS = (cos θ + i sin θ)1 = cos θ + i sin θ
and
RHS = cos 1 (θ) + i sin 1 (θ) = cos θ + i sin θ.

Hence, the result is true for n = 1.

Now, suppose that the result holds for some integer n = k. Then
(cos θ + i sin θ)k = cos kθ + i sin kθ.

79
For n = k + 1,

(cos θ + i sin θ)k+1 = (cos θ + i sin θ)k (cos θ + i sin θ)

= (cos kθ + i sin kθ) (cos θ + i sin θ)

= cos kθ cos θ + i cos kθ sin θ + i sin kθ cos θ − sin kθ sin θ

= (cos kθ cos θ − sin kθ sin θ) + i (cos kθ sin θ + sin kθ cos θ)

= cos (kθ + θ) + i sin (kθ + θ)

= cos (k + 1) θ + i sin (k + 1) θ.

So, the result is true for n = k + 1 if true for n = k. Therefore, by the principle of
mathematical induction it holds for any positive integer n.
Example:
1. Use De Moivre’s theorem to evaluate:
√
5
(a) 4 + 4 3i
 √ 10
(b) 1+ √3i
1− 3i
Solution: q
√ √ √
2
(a) We first write 4 + 4 3i in polar form. In this case |4 + 4 3i| = 42 + 4 3 = 8
√
 √ 
−1 4 3 π
√ π π


and arg 4 + 4 3i = tan 4
= 3
so that 4 + 4 3i = 8 cos 3
+ i sin 3
.
By De Moivre’s theorem,

 √ 5  π π 5
4 + 4 3i = 85 cos + i sin
 3 3 
5 5
= 85 cos π + i sin π
3 3
√ !
1 3
= 85 − i .
2 2

√ √
(b) Let z1 = 1 + 3i and z2 = 1 − 3i. Then |z1 | = 2 and |z2 | = 2. So, | zz21 | = |z 1|
|z2 |
= 1.
√
√

Now, arg z1 = tan−1 3 = π3 and arg z2 = tan−1 − 3 = 2π − π3 = 35 π. So,

80
  
z1 π
arg z2
= arg z1 − arg z2 = 3
− 53 π = − 34 π ≡ 23 π. Therefore,

√ !10
1 + 3i z1
√ = | |10 [cos (arg z1 − arg z2 ) + i sin (arg z1 − arg z2 )]10
1 − 3i z2
 10
2 2
= cos π + i sin π
3 3
20 20
= cos π + i sin π
3 √ 3
1 3
=− + i
2 2

3 tan θ−tan3 θ
2. By using the De Moivre’s theorem show that tan 3θ = 1−3 tan2 θ
.
Solution:
sin 3θ
By definition, tan 3θ = cos 3θ
. By De Moivre’s theorem,

cos 3θ + i sin 3θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)3

= cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ − i sin3 θ

= cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ + i 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ

Equating real and imaginary parts we have

cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ

and

sin 3θ = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ

so that

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 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ
tan 3θ =
cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ
3 cos2 θ sin θ sin3 θ
cos3 θ
− cos 3θ
= cos3 θ 2
− 3 coscosθ 3sin
cos3 θ θ
θ

3 tan θ − tan3 θ
=
1 − 3 tan2 θ

sin 5θ
3. Use the De Moivre’s theorem show that sin θ
= 16 cos4 θ − 12 cos2 θ + 1
Solution:
By De Moivre’s theorem,

cos 5θ + i sin 5θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)5

= cos5 θ + 5i cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ

− 10i cos2 θ sin3 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ + i sin5 θ

= cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ


+ i 5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ

Equating real and imaginary parts we have

cos 5θ = cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ

and

sin 5θ = 5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ

so that

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 sin 5θ 5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ
=
sin θ sin θ
5 cos θ sin θ 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ sin5 θ
4
= − +
sin θ sin θ sin θ
= 5 cos4 θ − 10 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ


2
= 5 cos4 θ − 10 cos2 θ 1 − cos2 θ + 1 − cos2 θ

= 5 cos4 θ − 10 cos2 θ + 10 cos4 θ + 1 − 2 cos2 θ + cos4 θ

= 16 cos4 θ − 12 cos2 θ + 1

Exercise:
1. Simplify:
(a) (cos θ + i sin θ)2 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ)
cos 3θ+i sin 3θ
(b) (cos θ+i sin θ)2

(c) (cos 2θ − i sin 2θ)5

(d ) (cos θ + i sin θ)2 (cos φ + i sin φ)5
2. Use De Moivre’s theorem to show that:
4 tan θ−4 tan3 θ
(a) tan 4θ = 1−6 tan2 θ+tan4 θ
.
5 tan θ−10 tan3 θ+tan5 θ
(b) tan 5θ = 1−10 tan2 θ+5 tan4 θ
.
(c) cos 5θ = 16 cos5 θ − 20 cos3 θ + 5 cos θ

Roots

Definition: A complex number z is said to be the nth root of the complex number z0 if
z n = z0 . Let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) and z0 = r0 (cos θ0 + i sin θ0 ). Then z n = z0 implies that

r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ) = r0 (cos θ0 + i sin θ0 ).

1/n
Since | cos Φ + i sin Φ| = 1 for all Φ, then r n = r0 so that r = r0 , and nθ = θ0 + 2πk for
θ0 +2πk
k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · so that θ = n
for k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · . Therefore,

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 1/n  θ0 +2πk

θ0 +2πk


z = r0 cos n
+ i sin n
, k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · .

Note: There are n distinct roots to be determined, the rest are merely repeated.
Example:
1. Find the values of z for which z 5 + 32 = 0.
Solution:
z 5 + 32 = 0 ⇒ z 5 = −32 + 0i = z0 , where r0 = |z0 | = 32 and arg z0 = 180◦ = π.
In polar form, z0 = 32 [cos (π + 2πk) + i sin (π + 2πk)], k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · .

Now,

1/5
z = z0

= 32 /5 [cos (π + 2πk) + i sin (π + 2πk)] /5

1 1

    
π + 2πk π + 2πk
= 2 cos + i sin
5 5

where k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · .

Therefore, the distinct values of z are

 
w0 = 2 cos π5 + i sin π5 , k = 0
 
w1 = 2 cos 35 π + i sin 53 π , k = 1
w2 = 2 [cos π + i sin π], k = 2
 
w3 = 2 cos 57 π + i sin 57 π , k = 3
 
w4 = 2 cos 95 π + i sin 59 π , k = 4
√ √
2. Find all the fourth roots of − 2 + i 2 .
Solution:
√ √
Let z0 = − 2 + i 2. Then
q √
2 √
2
r0 = |z0 | = − 2 + 2 =2

and
 √ 
arg z0 = tan −1 √2 = tan−1 (−1) = 34 π.
− 2

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 Thus,

    
3 3
z0 = 2 cos π + 2πk + i sin π + 2πk
4 4
    
3π + 8πk 3π + 8πk
= 2 cos + i sin
4 4

where k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · .

Now,

1/3
z = z0
    1/3
1/3 3π + 8πk 3π + 8πk
=2 cos + i sin
4 4
    
1/3 3π + 8πk 3π + 8πk
=2 cos + i sin
12 12

where k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · ·

Therefore, the three roots are

 
w0 = 21/3 cos π4 + i sin π4 , k = 0
 
w1 = 21/3 cos 11
12
π + i sin 11
12
π ,k=1
 
w2 = 21/3 cos 19
12
π + i sin 19
12
π ,k=2


1+i 1/6
3. Evaluate 1−i .
Solution:
Let z0 = 1+i
1−i
= (1+i)(1+i)
(1−i)(1+i)
= 2i2 = i = 0 + i. Then, r0 = |z0 | = 1 and arg z0 = π2 . So,

π  π 
z0 = cos + 2πk + i sin + 2πk
2  2 
π + 4πk π + 4πk
= cos + i sin
2 2

85
 where k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · . Hence,

1/6
z = z0
    1/6
π + 4πk π + 4πk
= cos + i sin
2 2
   
π + 4πk π + 4πk
= cos + i sin
12 12

where k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · .

Therefore, the distinct sixth roots are
π π
w0 = cos 12 + i sin 12 ,k=0
5 5
w1 = cos 12 π + i sin 12 π, k = 1

w2 = cos 34 π + i sin 43 π, k = 2
w3 = cos 13
12
π + i sin 13
12
π, k = 3
w4 = cos 17
12
π + i sin 17
12
π, k = 4
w5 = cos 74 π + i sin 47 π, k = 5

4. Solve for z if z 3 = 1 and hence factorize z 3 − 1.

Solution:
Let z0 = 1 = 1 + 0i. Then, r0 = |z0 | = 1 and arg z0 = 0 so that

z0 = cos (0 + 2πk) + i sin (0 + 2πk)

= cos 2πk + i sin 2πk

where k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · .

Hence,

1/3
z = z0

= [cos 2πk + i sin 2πk] /3

1

2 2
= cos πk + i sin πk
3 3

86
 where k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · .
The roots of z 3 − 1 = 0 are

w0 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1, k = 0
√
w1 = cos 23 π + i sin 32 π = − 21 + i 2
3
, k=1
√
w2 = cos 43 π + i sin 34 π = − 21 − i 23 , k=2
 √  √ 
Now, z 3 − 1 = (z − w0 ) (z − w1 ) (z − w2 ) = (z − 1) z + 12 − i 23 z + 21 + i 23 .

Exercise:
1. Find the value of z which satisfy z 2 + 1 = 0, hence factorize z 2 + 1.
2. Find the cube roots of −1.
3. Solve the equation z 4 = 16.
4. Find all the cube roots of −1 + i.

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