Welcome to GGS 102

Physical Geography

Chapter:
Introduction to
Physical Geography

Read pages I-4 to I-

25 along with
reviewing this
PowerPoint.

Plitvice Lake National Park, Croatia

What is “Geography”?
 The direct translation of “geography” is to
“write about Earth” Eratosthenes
 The science of geography studies
relationships between natural environments,
geographic areas, and the biosphere
(including humans). Earth systems science
and spatial analysis are main components.
Asks where and why.
 Geography has two main divisions: physical
and human (also called cultural). This class
is focused on physical geography; however,
human geography is increasingly intertwined
with physical geography.
 From your textbook: “physical geography
can be defined as the spatial analysis of all
of the physical elements, processes, and
systems that make up the environment:
energy, air, water, weather, climate,
landforms, soils, humans, animals, plants,
microorganisms, and Earth itself.”
 Geography is an interdisciplinary
science that has a wide range of
varied subfields and includes
scientists who specialize in natural
hazards, weather, glaciers, climate,
cultures, population, religions,
agriculture, economics, health,
cartography, land use, resources, and
many other specialties. Often
geographers will have secondary
majors such as biology, geology,
physics, anthropology, meteorology,
sociology, history, mathematics,
political science, computer science,
engineering, architecture and others.
 Geographers are employed in
numerous industries and their skills
are applicable in many careers.
Scientific Method

 “The scientific method is the simple,

organized steps leading toward concrete,
objective conclusions about the natural
world.” from your textbook.
 Not all scientists follow exactly the same
steps, but they must be repeatable and
testable.
 Step one includes a thorough review of
existing peer reviewed literature from
reliable sources.
 Hypothesis: a tentative explanation for
the phenomena observed.
 Scientific Theory: a widely accepted
explanation for a phenomenon that is
based on evidence and experimentation
and has withstood the scrutiny of the
scientific community. A scientific theory
is NOT an educated guess, opinion, or
hypothesis.
 Primary Sources Secondary Sources

 Primary sources in the natural sciences are publications  Sources that contain commentary on or a
which provide a full description of original research and discussion about a primary source. Secondary
the results including methodology. Factual, not sources do NOT present original results, they
interpretive. Good sources to use in academic work discuss, critique or comment on or summarize
 Examples: Scholarly article/study published in a peer- original research. Not impartial, biased. Do NOT
reviewed journal or governmental publication to use in academic work or limit usage
 Conference papers  Examples: dictionaries
 Dissertations or theses that have been defended and  Encyclopedias
published  Government policy
 Correspondence, diaries or journals, letters written by  Handbooks
subjects of study, interviews, etc. when doing historical  Law and legislation
or social science research. First hand accounts.  Literature reviews
 Studies or Surveys  Publications discussing moral, ethical or political
 Technical reports aspects
 Peer reviewed guide books or regional studies  Publications analyzing or presenting public
 Peer reviewed and published books response or opinion
 Patents  Newspaper or website editorials, blogs, review
articles
 Books that have not been peer reviewed
textbooks
 Examples: Quality Sources Poor Sources: Do NOT use in Academic Research

 Scholarly peer reviewed scientific journals and  Wikipedia, Youtube videos

books: Annals of the Association of American  Magazine articles (go to the original sources/studies
Geographers, Nature, Remote Sensing, Physical cited)
Geography, Journal of Oceanography etc.  Outdated (over 10 years) studies unless recently peer
 Dissertations and theses, conference papers reviewed and you cite updated information.
 Professional/governmental publications, technical  Editorials or commentaries from news channels,
reports, and websites such as The USGS (United newspapers, radio and television shows etc.
States Geological Survey), AAG (American  Data, graphics, charts, etc. from any source that has not
Association of Geographers), NOAA, NASA, etc. been peer reviewed and published, including books and
 Newspapers if the content is simply giving first hand magazines, websites, newspapers; especially if data is
accounts and data about current events. For not verifiable in primary sources.
example, a historical newspaper chronicling the  Websites/blogs by individuals. Sometimes social media
what, where and when of a disaster. Reuters, NPR, data is considered reliable today such as crowd sourcing
BBC etc. images from natural disasters or catastrophes, but
 In person first hand interviews of experts or study memes, personal statuses, tweets, and random
subjects. comments/opinions are not.
 Census data and other raw data collected by  Second hand information such as summaries of studies
governmental or scientific entities/universities such you have not read yourself, spoken information that is
as NASA, NOAA, NWS, CDC, the USGS etc. relayed by another person (hearsay): “He said, she said
 More info: etc.” Personal accounts (once I saw…) anecdotal.
The Scientific Method at Work
 Human Population Growth
 Agricultural revolution:
~10,000 years ago there was
a shift from a hunter/gather
lifestyle to farming.
 A more reliable food supply
encouraged permanent
settlements and population
growth.
 Growth greatly increased
~1700 with the industrial
revolution.
 Graphic in book had an error,
corrected at right. Population
was below 1 billion until
1927 when it reached 2
billion. Today over 7.7
billion.
 Increasing demand on
resources. Greater impacts on
the planet.
Population Density and Electricity

 China and India account for 38% of the

world’s population
 Individuals in more developed countries
have a much greater impact on the planet
per capita (impact per person).
 U.S. and Canada: population 5% of total,
produce 25% of the world’s gross domestic
product, but uses 2 times the energy per
capita of Europeans, more than 7 times of
that of Latin Americans, 10 times that of
Asians, and 20 times that of Africans.
 This is not “sustainable”. Sustainability is
the ability to continue a defined activity
over the long term in a way that minimizes
adverse impacts on the environment.
 Physical geographers are concerned with
sustainability and the impacts of resource
depletion and pollution on the environment.
Earth Systems Science

 System: Any set of ordered

interrelated components and their
attributes, linked by flows of energy and
matter, distinct from the surrounding
environment outside the system.
 Earth Systems Science: an
interdisciplinary field of science that
applies systems science to the Earth. It
considers interactions and feedbacks
between the Earth’s subsystems:
atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere,
geosphere, pedosphere, lithosphere,
biosphere, and how humans affect and
are affected by them. Earth systems
scientists assume a holistic view and
treat Earth as an integrated system in
order to determine changes in state,
fluxes of energy and matter between
subsystems, and sustainability.
Earth’s Main Systems or
Spheres

 Earth Systems Science

recognizes 4 main open
systems that interact with
each other: lithosphere,
atmosphere, biosphere, and
hydrosphere.
 Abiotic (nonliving):
lithosphere, atmosphere, and
the hydrosphere
 Biotic (living): biosphere
Feedbacks

 Feedbacks are
outputs of the
system that affects
the system in some
way.
 Positive feedback
Enhancement or
amplification of an
effect by its own
influence on the
process that gives
rise to it. Increase
 Negative feedback
Diminution or
counteraction of an
effect by its own
influence on the
process giving rise Example of a positive feedback: melting of the sea ice causes additional warming
to it. Decrease because more solar energy is absorbed, the warming increases.
System Equilibrium

 Steady-state
remains balanced
over time
 Dynamic a
changing trend over
time
 Threshold a
tipping point;
system can no
longer maintain its
character and shifts
abruptly to a new
operation level.

The meander on the bottom left of the image has a meander cutoff. This occurred because
a threshold was reached during a flood; the flow was too great to go around the large
meander, so it cut directly through to the other side. The meander will become separated
and form an oxbow lake and the channel with continue to meander again over time.
Earth’s Dimension and Shape
 Oblate Spheroid
 Equatorial bulge due to
centrifugal force.
 Polar circumference ~40,008
km (24,860 miles)
 Equatorial circumference
~40,075 km (24,902 miles), 67
km (42 miles) more.
 Geoid: The equipotential
surface of the Earth's gravity
field which best fits global
mean sea level. A surface which
defines zero elevation. There is
more than 1 geoid in use. More
info:
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/fa
cts/geoid.html
Above: From NASA: “The well-lit coasts of Spain, France and Italy. This oblique nighttime view of Western
Europe and the well-lit coasts (from left) of Spain, France and Italy was taken from the International Space
Station as it orbited 256 miles above the Mediterranean Sea.” You can see the thickness of the atmosphere (blue-
white light) above the Earth’s curvature. Live feed from Space Station: https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/HDEV/
Pythagoras and Eratosthenes

 Greek mathematician Pythagoras (580-500 BCE)

determined that Earth was a sphere.
 Eratosthenes (276-194 BCE) calculated the
circumference of the Earth by comparing the angle
of the sun at noon at two different locations (to the
right).
 Sir Isaac Newton: Earth’s rapid rotation produced
an equatorial bulge due to centrifugal force.
 Satellites have confirmed Earth’s oblate shape and
size.
Geographic Coordinates
 Lines of latitude and longitude create a reference grid on the Earth
 Consist of degrees, minutes, and seconds. There are 60” (seconds) in each
minute and 60’ (minutes) in each degree.
 Latitude measures angular degrees north or south of the equator towards
the poles. The equator is 0° (degrees), the north pole is 90° north while
the south pole is 90° south. Lines of equal latitude are called parallels.
 Longitude measures angular degrees east or west of the prime meridian
located in Greenwich, England. 0°-180° in both directions for a total of
360°. Lines of equal longitude are called meridians.
Earth’s Reference Grid

 Used to locate specific locations on Earth by

coordinates (longitude and latitude)
 Internationally accepted
 Eratosthenes created the first (known) world map
with a rectangular grid system (~200 BCE)
 Meridians are perpendicular (90°) to parallels
 The prime meridian (0° longitude) runs through
the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England.
 Meridians converge at the poles; therefore, actual
ground distance varies between meridians. The
largest distance between meridians occurs at the
equator, the least at the poles.
 At the equator 1° of longitude equals ~69.17
miles (111.32 km). Where the meridians converge
it is ~0 miles (0 km). Distance between degrees of
latitude is relatively constant between ~68-69
miles (110-111 km) because equal lines of latitude
are parallel.
 Geographic Zones by Latitude

 These zones will be referred to in later chapters.

 Climate zones and atmospheric/oceanic circulation patterns are influenced by latitudinal location
 Weather patterns are also latitudinally influenced due to distribution of solar insolation
 Human cultures are influenced by their geographic locations
Global Time
 Globally accepted time system is necessary for travel
and trade.
 Based on Earth’s rotation. Earth rotates 360° once every
~24 hours, earth rotates ~15° every hour. At equator:
1037.5 miles/hour!
 1884: prime meridian selected as the official standard for
time. (GMT) Greenwich Mean Time.
 24 equally spaced meridians were selected to serve as
time zones, 7.5° on each side of meridian.
 Some countries/regions use a modified system such as
China; China only has one time zone.
 1972 slight modifications were made and UTC is now
the standard (Coordinated Universal Time)
 International Date Line (IDL): where the day changes,
opposite the prime meridian near the 180th meridian,
avoids splitting political areas.
 If you travel west over the IDL add one day, east
subtract one day no matter time. Because Earth rotates
east.
 Daylight savings time, spring forward 1hour, fall back 1
hour. To extend daylight. 2nd Sunday in March and 1st
Maps and Cartography

 Cartography is the science and art of map

making. Cartographers are scientists/artists
who make maps. Usually geographers.
 Maps are made for many different purposes in
many different scales.
 A small scale map shows less detail, it is more
zoomed out. Ex. 1:500,000
 A large scale map shows more detail, it is more
zoomed in to the features. Ex. 1:24,000
 Scale is a ratio, X units measured on map = X
units on the ground. Ex.: 1:24,000 means every
one inch on the map is equal to 24,000 inches on
the ground. Because scale is a ratio, it applies to
all units of measure: inches, centimeters, etc. the
ratio remains the same.
 Scale can be a representative fraction: 1:24,000
or written scale 1 inch equals 2000 feet, or
drawn as a graphic or bar scale as shown to the
right. If you reproduced the map at a larger scale
use the graphic scale if on same page.
Map Projections
 Because the earth is an oblate sphere, all
2D maps have some distortion depending
on how they are projected. A globe is the
most realistic representation: area &
shape
 2D maps can preserve area or shape or
direction/distance but not all 3.
 Large scale maps have less distortion,
distortion increases as scale decreases.
 Equal area projections preserve areas
(size) of landmasses but distort the shape:
 True shape projections preserve the
shapes of landmasses but distort their
size: conformal projections.
 Mercator projection is a commonly used true shape projection, but mid and high latitude landmasses are shown
much larger than they actually are in size. Such as Greenland.
 Equal area projections such as Eckert IV distort shape, the landmasses look stretched as you get closer to the
map edges. Creates different scales on the same map.
 Compromise projections such as Robinson and Miller cylindrical distorts both shape & area but to lesser extent.
 https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~dbertuca/maps/cat/map-projections.html
Types of Maps
 Many different types of maps are created and used daily.
 Topographic maps show topography and elevation by
using contour lines.
 Flood maps show areas at risk of flooding.
 Geologic maps show rock layers, geologic features,
mineral resources and hydrologic features.
 Weather and climate maps show atmospheric features,
temperature and climate data.
Modern Tools Used in Geosciences

 Satellites and computers have greatly advanced the field

of geoscience.
 GPS Global Positioning Systems uses satellites to
provide precise locations and information about changes
in the surface of the Earth such as movement of plates and
deformation of the crust. GPS is also used to track
migrating animals. 4 satellites are required for
triangulation of location.
 Remote Sensing is the science of obtaining information
without being in direct contact with the subject of
observation. Satellites, airplanes, ships, cars, and even the
international space station are used as platforms for
sensors.
 Passive remote sensing measures energy reflected or
radiated passively. This includes visible light and heat.
 Active remote sensing provides energy that is directed at a
subject and measures the energy that is reflected back to
the sensor. This includes LiDAR, sonar and radar.
LiDAR

 LiDAR uses pulses of visible light directed at an

object or surface. 160,000 pulses can be sent per
second.
 The light is reflected back to the sensor after
reaching the surface, travel time is recorded and
used to determine distance from the sensor.
 LiDAR data contains an enormous amount of
points called a point cloud.
 LiDAR data is returned in different waves called
returns. This allows 3D images to be made.
 Returns can be filtered to remove vegetation, forest
canopy, buildings, and other features. This
produces a bare earth surface which is used to
produce digital elevation models (DEM). If all
passes are included you can produce a digital
surface model (DSM) which is a 3D model of the
surface and its features and structures. DSMs are
being made of entire cities today. Archaeologists
use LiDAR to search for lost cities under dense
forest canopies.
GIS: Geographic Information System
 GIS: A computer based data processing tool that combines
spatial data with attribute data that allows for spatial analysis of
the data.
 Most widely used is ESRI ArcGIS
 Can be combined with other computer models to produce visual
products representative of the data.
 Many layers with different types of data can be combined into
one map.