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Chapter Three
3. Data Representation

Graphic/Image Data Representation

An image could be described as two-dimensional array of points where every
point is allocated its own color. Every such single point is called pixel, short
form of picture element. Image is a collection of these points that are colored
in such a way that they produce meaningful information/data.
Pixel (picture element) contains the color or hue and relative brightness of that
point in the image. The number of pixels in the image determines the resolution
of the image.
 A digital image consists of many picture elements, called pixels.
 The number of pixels determines the quality of the image->image
resolution.
 Higher resolution always yields better quality.
 Bitmap resolution most graphics applications let you create bitmaps up to
300 dots per inch (dpi). Such high resolution is useful for print media, but
on the screen most of the information is lost, since monitors usually display
around 72 to 96 dpi.
 A bit-map representation stores the graphic/image data in the same manner
that the computer monitor contents are stored in video memory.
 Most graphic/image formats incorporate compression because of the large
size of the data.
Types of images
There are two basic formats of computer graphics: bit-maps and vector
graphics. The kind you use determines the tools you choose. Bitmap formats
are the ones used for digital photographs. Vector formats are used only for line
drawings.

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Bit-map images (also called Raster Graphics) They are formed from pixels—a
matrix of dots with different colors. Bitmap images are defined by their
dimension in pixels as well as by the number of colors they represent.
For example, a 640 x 480 image contains 640 pixels and 480 pixels in
horizontal and vertical direction respectively. If you enlarge a small area of a
bit-mapped image, you can clearly see the pixels that are used to create it (to
check this open a picture in flash and change the magnification to 800 by going
into View->magnification->800.)
Each of the small pixels can be a shade of gray or a color. Using 24-bit color,
each pixel can be set to any one of 16 million colors. All digital photographs
and paintings are bit-mapped, and any other kind of image can be saved or
exported into a bitmap format. In fact, when you print any kind of image on a
laser or ink-jet printer, it is first converted by either the computer or printer into
a bitmap form so it can be printed with the dots the printer uses.

To edit or modify bit-mapped images you use a paint program. Bitmap images
are widely used but they suffer from a few unavoidable problems. They must
be printed or displayed at a size determined by the number of pixels in the
image. Bitmap images also have large file sizes that are determined by the
image’s dimensions in pixels and its color depth. To reduce this problem, some
graphic formats such as GIF and JPEG are used to store images in compressed
format.
Vector graphics
They are really just a list of graphical objects such as lines, rectangles, ellipses,
arcs, or curves—called primitives. Draw programs, also called vector graphics
programs, are used to create and edit these vector graphics. These programs
store the primitives as a set of numerical coordinates and mathematical
formulas that specify their shape and position in the image. This format is
widely used by computer-aided design programs to create detailed engineering
and design drawings. It is also used in multimedia when 3D animation is

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desired. Draw programs have a number of advantages over paint-type

programs.
These include:
 Precise control over lines and colors.
 Ability to skew and rotate objects to see them from different angles or
add perspective.
 Ability to scale objects to any size to fit the available space. Vector
graphics always print at the best resolution of the printer you use, no matter
what size you make them.
 Color blends and shadings can be easily changed.
 Text can be wrapped around objects
Monochrome/Bit-Map Images
 Each pixel is stored as a single bit (0 or 1)
 The value of the bit indicates whether it is light or dark
 A 640 x 480 monochrome image requires 37.5 KB of storage.
 Dithering is often used for displaying monochrome images

Monochrome bit-map image

Gray-scale Images
 Each pixel is usually stored as a byte (value between 0 to 255)
 This value indicates the degree of brightness of that point. This brightness
goes from black to white
 A 640 x 480 grayscale image requires over 300 KB of storage.

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Gray-scale bit-map image

8-bit Color Images
 One byte for each pixel
 Supports 256 out of the millions possible, acceptable color quality
 Requires Color Look-Up Tables (LUTs)
 A 640 x 480 8-bit color image requires 307.2 KB of storage (the same as
8-bit greyscale)
Examples: GIF

8-bit Color Image

24-bit Color Images
 Each pixel is represented by three bytes (e.g., RGB)
 Supports 256 x 256 x 256 possible combined colors (16,777,216)
 A 640 x 480 24-bit color image would require 921.6 KB of storage
 Most 24-bit images are 32-bit images,
the extra byte of data for each pixel is used to store an alpha value representing
special effect information.

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Image Resolution
Image resolution refers to the spacing of pixels in an image and is measured in
pixels per inch, ppi, sometimes called dots per inch, dpi. The higher the
resolution, the more pixels in the image. A printed image that has a low
resolution may look pix-elated or made up of small squares, with jagged edges
and without smoothness.
Image size refers to the physical dimensions of an image. Because the number
of pixels in an image is fixed, increasing the size of an image decreases its
resolution and decreasing its size increases its resolution.
Popular File Formats
Choosing the right file type for your image to save in is of vital importance. If
you are,for example, creating image for web pages, then it should load fast. So
such images should be small size. The other criteria to choose file type is
taking into consideration the quality of the image that is possible using the
chosen file type. You should also be concerned about the portability of the
image. To choose file type:
 resulting size of the image large file size or small
 quality of image possible by the file type
 portability of file across different platforms
The most common formats used on internet are the GIF, JPG, and PNG.
Standard System Independent Formats
GIF
 Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) devised CompuServe, initially for
transmitting graphical images over phone lines via modems.
 Uses the Lempel-Ziv Welch algorithm (a form of Huffman Coding),
modified slightly for image scan line packets (line grouping of pixels).
 LZW compression was patented technology by the UNISYS Corp.
 Limited to only 8-bit (256) color images, suitable for images with few
distinctive colors (e.g., graphics drawing)
 Supports one-dimensional interlacing (downloading gradually in web
browsers. Interlaced images appear gradually while they are downloading.

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They display at a low blurry resolution first and then transition to full
resolution by the time the download is complete.)
 Supports animation—multiple pictures per file (animated GIF)
 GIF format has long been the most popular on the Internet, mainly because
of its small size
 GIFs allow single-bit transparency, which means when you are creating
your image,you can specify one color to be transparent. This allows
background colors to show through the image.
PNG
 stands for Portable Network Graphics
 It is intended as a replacement for GIF in the WWW and image editing
tools.
 GIF uses LZW compression which is patented by Unisys. All use of GIF
may have to pay royalties to Unisys due to the patent.
 PNG uses unpatented zip technology for compression
 One version of PNG, PNG-8, is similar to the GIF format. It can be saved
with a maximum of 256 colours and supports 1-bit transparency. Filesizes
when saved in a capable image editor like FireWorks will be noticeably
smaller than the GIF counterpart, as PNGs save their colour data more
efficiently.
 PNG-24 is another version of PNG, with 24-bit colour support, allowing
ranges of colour to a high colour JPG. However, PNG-24 is in no way a
replacement format for JPG, because it is a loss-less compression format
which results in large filesize.
 Provides transparency using alpha value
 Supports interlacing
 PNG can be animated through the MNG extension of the format, but
browser support is less for this format.
JPEG/JPG
 A standard for photographic image compression
 created by the Joint Photographic Experts Group

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 Intended for encoding and compression of photographs and similar images

 Takes advantage of limitations in the human vision system to achieve high
rates of compression
 Uses complex lossy compression which allows user to set the desired level
of quality (compression). A compression setting of about 60% will result in
the optimum balance of quality and filesize.
 Though JPGs can be interlaced, they do not support animation and
transparency unlike GIF
TIFF
 Tagged Image File Format (TIFF), stores many different types of images
(e.g.,monochrome, grayscale, 8-bit & 24-bit RGB, etc.)
 Uses tags, keywords defining the characteristics of the image that is
included in the file. For example, a picture 320 by 240 pixels would
include a 'width' tag followed by the number '320' and a 'depth' tag
followed by the number '240'.
 Developed by the Aldus Corp. in the 1980’s and later supported by the
Microsoft
 TIFF is a lossless format (when not utilizing the new JPEG tag which
allows for JPEG compression)
 It does not provide any major advantages over JPEG and is not as
user-controllable.
 Do not use TIFF for web images. They produce big files, and more
importantly, most web browsers will not display TIFFs.
System Dependent Formats
Microsoft Windows: BMP
 A system standard graphics file format for Microsoft Windows
 Used in Many PC Graphics programs
 It is capable of storing 24-bit bitmap image
Macintosh: PAINT and PICT
 PAINT was originally used in MacPaint program, initially only for 1-bit
monochrome images.

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 PICT is a file format that was developed by Apple Computer in 1984 as the
native format for Macintosh graphics.
 The PICT format is a meta-format that can be used for both bitmap images
and vector images though it was originally used in MacDraw (a vector
based drawing program) for storing structured graphics
 Still an underlying Mac format (although PDF on OS X)
X-windows: XBM
 Primary graphics format for the X Window system
 Supports 24-bit colour bitmap
 Many public domain graphic editors, e.g., xv
 Used in X Windows for storing icons, pixmaps, backdrops, etc
Digital Audio and MIDI
What is Sound?
Sound is produced by a rapid variation in the average density or pressure of air
molecules above and below the current atmospheric pressure. We perceive
sound as these pressure fluctuations cause our eardrums to vibrate. These
usually minute changes in atmospheric pressure are referred to as sound
pressure and the fluctuations in pressure as sound waves. Sound waves are
produced by a vibrating body, be it a guitar string, loudspeaker cone or jet
engine. The vibrating sound source causes a disturbance to the surrounding air
molecules, causing them bounce off each other with a force proportional to the
disturbance. The back and forth oscillation of pressure produces a sound
waves.
Source — Generates Sound
 Air Pressure changes
 Electrical —Microphone produces electric signal
 Acoustic — Direct Pressure Variations
Destination — Receives Sound
 Electrical — Loud Speaker
 Ears — Responds to pressure hear sound

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How to Record and Play Digital Audio

In order to play digital audio (i.e. WAVE file), you need a card with a Digital
to Analog Converter (DAC) circuitry on it. Most sound cards have both an
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) and a DAC so that the card can both record
and play digital audio. This DAC is attached to the Line Out jack of your audio
card, and converts the digital audio values back into the original analog audio.
This analog audio can then be routed to a mixer, or speakers, or headphones so
that you can hear the recreation of what was originally recorded. Playback
process is almost an exact reverse of the recording process.

First, to record digital audio, you need a card which has an Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC) circuitry. The ADC is attached to the Line In (and Mic In)
jack of your audio card, and converts the incoming analog audio to a digital
signal. Your computer software can store the digitized audio on your hard drive,
visually display on the computer's monitor, mathematically manipulate in order
to add effects, or process the sound, etc. While the incoming analog audio is
being recorded, the ADC is creates many digital values in its conversion to a
digital audio representation of what is being recorded. These values must be
stored for later playback.
Digitizing Sound
 Microphone produces analog signal
 Computers understands only discrete(digital) entities
This creates a need to convert Analog audio to Digital audio — specialized
hardware This is also known as sampling
Common Audio Formats
There are two basic types of audio files: the traditional discrete audio file that
you can save to a hard drive or other digital storage medium, and the streaming
audio file that you listen to as it downloads in real time from a network/internet
server to your computer.
Discrete Audio File Formats
Common discrete audio file formats include WAV, AIF, AU and MP3. A fifth

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format, called MIDI is actually not a file format for storing digital audio, but a
system of instructions for creating electronic music.
WAV
The WAV format is the standard audio file format for Microsoft Windows
applications,and is the default file type produced when conducting digital
recording within Windows. It supports a variety of bit resolutions, sample rates,
and channels of audio. This format is very popular upon IBM PC (clone)
platforms, and is widely used as a basic format for saving and modifying digital
audio data.
AIF/AIFF
The Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) is the standard audio format
employed by computers using the Apple Macintosh operating system. Like the
WAV format, it supports a variety of bit resolutions, sample rates, and channels
of audio and is widely used in software programs used to create and modify
digital audio.
AU
The AU file format is a compressed audio file format developed by Sun
Microsystems and popular in the UNIX world. It is also the standard audio file
format for the Java programming language. Only supports 8-bit depth thus
cannot provide CD-quality sound.
MP3
MP3 stands for Motion Picture Experts Group, Audio Layer 3 Compression.
MP3 files provide near-CD-quality sound but are only about 1/10th as large as
a standard audio CD file. Because MP3 files are small, they can easily be
transferred across the Internet and played on any multimedia computer with
MP3 player software.
MIDI/MID
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface), is not a file format for storing or
transmitting recorded sounds, but rather a set of instructions used to play
electronic music on devices such as synthesizers. MIDI files are very small

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compared to recorded audio file formats. However, the quality and range of
MIDI tones is limited
Streaming Audio File Formats
Streaming is a network technique for transferring data from a server to client in
a format that can be continuously read and processed by the client computer.
Using this method, the client computer can start playing the initial elements of
large time-based audio or video files before the entire file is downloaded. As
the Internet grows, streaming technologies are becoming an increasingly
important way to deliver timebased audio and video data.
For streaming to work, the client side has to receive the data and continuously
‘feed’ it to the ‘player’ application. If the client receives the data more quickly
than required, it has to temporarily store or ‘buffer’ the excess for later play.
On the other hand, if the data doesn't arrive quickly enough, the audio or video
presentation will be interrupted.
There are three primary streaming formats that support audio files: Real
Network’s RealAudio (RA, RM), Microsoft’s Advanced Streaming Format
(ASF) and its audio subset called Windows Media Audio 7 (WMA) and
Apple’s QuickTime 4.0+ (MOV).
RA/RM
For audio data on the Internet, the de facto standard is Real Network’s
RealAudio (.RA) compressed streaming audio format. These files require a
RealPlayer program or browser plug-in. The latest versions of Real Networks’
server and player software can handle multiple encodings of a single file,
allowing the quality of transmission to vary with the available bandwidth.
Webcast radio broadcast of both talk and music frequently uses RealAudio.
Streaming audio can also be provided in conjunction with video as a combined
Real Media (RM) file.
ASF
Microsoft’s Advanced Streaming Format (ASF) is similar to designed to Real
Network’s Real Media format, in that it provides a common definition for
internet streaming media and can accommodate not only synchronized audio,

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but also video and other multimedia elements, all while supporting multiple
bandwidths within a single media file. Also like Real Network’s Real Media
format, Microsoft’s ASF requires a program or browser plug-in.
The pure audio file format used in Windows Media Technologies is Windows
Media Audio 7 (WMA files). Like MP3 files, WMA audio files use
sophisticated audio compression to reduce file size. Unlike MP3 files, however,
WMA files can function as either discrete or streaming data and can provide a
security mechanism to prevent unauthorized use.
MOV
Apple QuickTime movies (MOV files) can be created without a video channel
and used as a sound-only format. Since version 4.0, Quicklime provides true
streaming capability.
QuickTime also accepts different audio sample rates, bit depths, and offers full
functionality in both Windows as well as the Mac OS. Popular audio file
formats are:
o au (Unix)
o aiff (MAC)
o wav (PC)
o mp3
MIDI
MIDI stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface.
Definition of MIDI:
 MIDI is a protocol that enables computer, synthesizers, keyboards, and
other musical device to communicate with each other. This protocol is a
language that allows interworking between instruments from different
manufacturers by providing a link that is capable of transmitting and
receiving digital data. MIDI transmits only
commands, it does not transmit an audio signal.
 It was created in 1982.
Components of a MIDI System
Synthesizer:

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• It is a sound generator (various pitch, loudness, tone color).

• A good (musician’s) synthesizer often has a microprocessor, keyboard,
control panels, memory, etc.
Sequencer:
 It can be a stand-alone unit or a software program for a personal computer.
(It used to be a storage server for MIDI data. Nowadays it is more a
software music editor on the computer.)
 It has one or more MIDI INs and MIDI OUTs
Basic MIDI Concepts
Track:
 Track in sequencer is used to organize the recordings.
 Tracks can be turned on or off on recording or playing back.
Channel:
 MIDI channels are used to separate information in a MIDI system.
 There are 16 MIDI channels in one cable.
 Channel numbers are coded into each MIDI message.
Timbre:
 The quality of the sound, e.g., flute sound, cello sound, etc.
 Multitimbral – capable of playing many different sounds at the same
time (e.g., piano, brass, drums, etc.)
Pitch:
 The Musical note that the instrument plays
Voice:
 Voice is the portion of the synthesizer that produces sound.
 Synthesizers can have many (12, 20, 24, 36, etc.) voices.
 Each voice works independently and simultaneously to produce sounds
of Different timbre and pitch.
Patch:
 The control settings that define a particular timbre
Hardware Aspects of MIDI
MIDI connectors:

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Three 5-pin ports found on the back of every MIDI unit

MIDI IN: the connector via which the device receives all MIDI data.
MIDI OUT: the connector through which the device transmits all the MIDI
data it generates itself.
MIDI THROUGH: the connector by which the device echoes the data receives
from MIDI IN.
MIDI Messages
MIDI messages are used by MIDI devices to communicate with each other.
MIDI messages are very low bandwidth:
• Note on Command
– Which Key is pressed?
– Which MIDI Channel (what sound to play)
– 3 Hexadecimal Numbers
• Note off Command Similar
• Other command (program change) configure sounds to be played
Advantages:
 Because MIDI is a digital signal, it's very easy to interface electronic
instruments to computers, and then do manipulations on the MIDI data on
the computer with software. For example, software can store MIDI
messages to the computer's disk drive. Also, the software can playback
MIDI messages upon all 16 channels with the same rhythms as the human
who originally caused the instrument(s) to generate those messages.
How is MIDI file Different from a WAV or MP3 Files?
A MIDI file stores MIDI messages. These messages are commands that tell a
musical device what to do in order to make music. For example, there is a
MIDI message that tells a device to play a particular note. There is another
MIDI message that tells a device to change its current "sound" to a particular
patch or instrument. Etc.
The MIDI file also stores timestamps, and other information that a sequencer
needs to play some "musical performance" by transmitting all of the MIDI
messages in the file to all MIDI devices. In other words, a MIDI file contains

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hundreds (to thousands) of instructions that tell one or more sound modules
(either external ones connected to your sequencer's MIDI Out, or sound
modules built into your computer's sound card) how to reproduce every single,
individual note and nuance of a musical performance.
A WAVE and MP3 files store a digital audio waveform. This data is played
back by a device with a Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) such as computer
sound card's DAC.
There are no timestamps, or other information concerning musical rhythms or
tempo stored in a WAVE or MP3 files. There is only digital audio data.

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