1 Introduction to Anthropology

1
Introduction to Anthropology
Anthropology:
Holistic Anthropology, Anthropological Why Study Anthropology?
The Four
Interdisciplinary Research, Explanations
Subfields
and the Global
Perspective
Chapter Questions understanding of humanity, from the beginnings of
human societies to the present. This chapter
■ What is unique about the field of anthropology introduces the distinctive approaches used in
as compared with other disciplines? anthropology to achieve these goals.
■ How does the field of anthropology bridge both

the sciences and the humanities? Anthropology: The Four Subfields
The word anthropology is derived from the Greek
■ Why should any student study anthropology?
words anthropo, meaning “human beings” or
“humankind,” and logia, translated as
“knowledge of” or “the study of.” Thus, we can
Listen to the Chapter Audio on define anthropology as the systematic study of
myanthrolab.com humankind. This definition in itself, however,
A
does not distinguish anthropology from other
nthropologist Morton Fried once disciplines. After all, historians, psychologists,
pointed out the similarities between economists, sociolo-
the space travel described in
science fiction and the field of
anthropology (1977). He noted that
when Neil Armstrong
became the first human to set foot on the
moon in July 1969, his step constituted
first contact. To space travelers created
by science fiction writers, first contact
refers to the first meeting between
humans and extraterrestrial beings. To
anthropologists, the phrase refers to
initial encounters between peoples of
different societies. For thousands of
years, peoples throughout the world have
had first contacts with each other. As we
shall see in this chapter, the field of
anthropology includes four major
subdisciplines that seek to understand
different aspects of humanity in much
the same way that future space travelers
might investigate extraterrestrials.
Anthropolo- gists draw upon a variety of
field methods, techniques, and
approaches to conduct their
investigations, which have two major
goals: to understand the uniqueness and
diversity of human behavior and human
societies around the world and to
discover the fundamental similarities
that link human beings throughout the
world in both the past and the present. To
accomplish these goals, anthropologists
undertake systematic case studies of
people living in particular locations, in
the past and present, and use
comparative techniques to assess the
similarities and differences among
societies.
Using these goals as a springboard,
anthropology has
forged distinctive objectives and propelled
research that has broadened our
study humankind in one way or peoples throughout the world. Today,
another. Anthropology stands apart anthropologists do not solely focus their
because it combines four subfields, attention on non-Western cultures, and they
or subdisciplines, that bridge the are just as likely to examine cultural
natural sciences, the social sci- practices in an urban setting in the United
ences, and the humanities. These States as to conduct fieldwork in some far-
four subfields—physical off place. However, anthropologists
anthropology, archaeology, linguistic continue to grapple with the basic
anthropology, and cultural questions of human diversity and similari-
anthropology or ethnology— ties through systematic research within the
constitute a broad approach to the four subfields described below.
study of humanity the world over,
both past and present. Figure 1.1
shows these subfields and the Physical Anthropology
various specializations that make up Physical anthropology
each one. A discussion of these is the branch of
subdisciplines and some of the key anthropology con-
specializations in each follows. cerned with humans as
The subfields of anthropology a biological
initially emerged in Western society species. As such, it
in an attempt to understand non- is the subfield
Western peoples. When Europeans most closely
began exploring and coloniz- ing the related to
world in the fifteenth century, they the natural sciences.
encountered native peoples in the Physi- cal
Americas, Africa, the Middle East, anthropologists
and Asia. European travelers, conduct research in
missionaries, and government two major areas:
officials described these non- hu- man
Western cultures, providing a evolution and
record of their physical modern human
appearances, customs, and beliefs. variation. The
By the nineteenth century, investigation of hu-
anthropology had developed into man evolution
the primary discipline and science pres- ents one of
for understanding these non- the most
Western societies and cultures. tantalizing areas
The major questions that these of
nineteenth-century anthropologists anthropologic
sought to answer dealt with the al
basic differences and similarities of study.
human societies and cultures and Research has
with the physical variation found in now traced the
gists, and scholars in many other fields African origins Hominid skull in burial.
systematically of
2
Chapter 1 ■ Introduction to Anthropology 1
Biological Anthropology
Prehistoric Forensic
Archaeology
Anthropology
Historical Paleoanthropology
Archaeology Classical
Human
Archaeology
Anatomy Demographic
Human Taxonomy
Archaeology
Paleopatho
Bib
Ethology Population
Cultural Resource
Genetics Human
Management
Ecology
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
ARCHAEOL
CULTURAL LINGUISTIC ANTH

ANTHROPOLOGY
ETHNOLOGY
Structural
Ecological Linguistics
Anthropology HistoricalAnthropology
Demographic Linguistics Phonology Morphology Comparative
Economic Anthropology Syntax Ethnosemantics
Social Anthropology CognitiveLegal
Political Anthropology Linguistics
Anthro
APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY
Forensic Anthropology Cultural Resource Management Ap
Figure 1.1 The four core subfields of anthropology and applied anthropology. Also included are some of the various
specializations within each of the subfields which are discussed in this text. Many of these specializations overlap with one
another in the actual studies carried out by anthropologists.
humanity back over 6 million years. tools and activ-

Fieldwork in other world areas has traced ity areas to learn
the expansion of early human ancestors about the
throughout the world. Much of the evidence behavior of
for human origins consists of fossils, the early human
fragmentary remains of bones and living ancestors.
materials preserved from earlier periods. O the r
The study of human evolution through physical
analysis of fossils is called anthropologists
paleoanthropology (the prefix paleo explore
means “old” or “prehistoric”).
Paleoanthropologists use a variety of
scientific techniques to date,
classify, and compare fossil
bones to determine the links
between modern humans
and their biological ances-
tors. These
paleoanthropologists
may work closely with
archaeologists when
studying ancient
2 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction to Anthropology
human evolution through primatology, the
study of primates. Primates are mammals
that belong to the same overall biological
classification as humans and, therefore, share
similar physical characteristics and a close
evolutionary relationship with us. Many
primatologists observe primates such as
chimpanzees, gorillas, gibbons, and
orangutans in their natural habitats to
ascertain the similarities and differences
between these other primates and humans.
These observations of living primates may
provide insight into the behaviors of early
human ancestors. Another group of physical
anthropologists focuses their research on
the range of physical variation within and
among different modern human populations.
These anthropologists study human
variation by measuring physical
characteristics—such as body size,
variation in blood types, or differences in
skin color—or various genetic traits. Their
research aims at explaining why such
variation occurs, as well as documenting the
differences in human populations. Skeletal
structure is also the focus of
anthropological research. Human osteology
is the particular area of specialization
within physical anthropology
Anthropologists at Work
JOHN HAWKS: become possible to expand our
Physical (or Biological) knowledge of evolution beyond the John Hawks
Anthropologist skeletal record, finding signs from
the immune system, digestion, and
J
ohn Hawks is an anthropolo- pigmentation, to traits like hearing context. My scientific work hasn’t
gist who works on the border and ultimately, the brain itself. been limited to genetics and
between paleoanthropology Hawks is probably most widely fossils. Lately, I have become
and genetics. He got his start teach- known for his blog, which is visited more and more interested in the
ing evolution in his home state of by several thousand readers every problems of cultural transmission
Kansas, followed by doctoral train- day. Describing new research from and information theory. This is
ing and teaching in Michigan, Utah, an expert’s perspective, he has part of my “first principles”
and his current home, the University shown the power of public outreach approach to problems in
of Wisconsin. He studies the relation- as an element of the scientific prehistory—I think that we have to
ships between the genes of living and process. This element of his work has build an account of the origins of
ancient people, to discover the ways made him a leader in the “open culture that is based in the
that natural selection has affected science” move- ment, trying to simplest rules of information
them. In 2007, Hawks and coworkers expand public acces- sibility to transfer.
scanned the genome, finding scientific research and open access
evidence for widespread selection to scientific data. On his blog, Hawks Hawks welcomes everyone who is
on new advantageous mutations writes: interested in human evolution based
during the last 40,000 years (Hawks on a scientific approach to go to his
et al. 2007). The breadth of this blog at http://johnhawks.net/weblog/
What does it mean to be a
selection across the genome hawks/hawks.html.
paleoan- thropologist? To use
indicated that human evolution
evidence from the fossil record, we
actually accelerated, as larger
must be trained in human Explore the Concept on
populations and new agricultural sub-
anatomy— especially bone myanthrolab.com
sistence exerted strong pressures on
anatomy, or osteology. We have to
ancient people. Far from slowing
know the anatomical com-
down our evolution, culture had
parisons between humans and
created new opportunities for
other primates, and the way these
adaptive change in the human
anatomies relate to habitual be-
population.
haviors. The social and ecological
Now, Hawks is busy examin-
behaviors of primates vary exten-
ing the Neandertal genome. The
sively in response to their unique
availability of genetic evidence from
ecological circumstances. Under-
ancient bones has transformed the
standing the relationship of anatomy,
way we study these ancient people.
behavior, and environment gives
By comparing Neandertal genes with
us a way to interpret ancient fossils
humans and chimpanzees, it will
and place them in their
environmental
dealing with the study of the human light on why human populations vary.
skeleton. Such studies have wide-ranging Physical anthropologists have also shed light on
applications, from the identifica- tion of general questions about humanity such as the
murder victims from fragmentary skeletal propensity of violence in human societies. Physical
remains to the design of ergonomic anthropologist Philip Walker has conducted in-
airplane cockpits. Physical anthropologists depth research on human
are also interested in evaluating how
disparate physical characteristics reflect
evolutionary adaptations to different
environmental conditions, thus shedding
skeletal materials from various
periods of prehistory that attempts
to answer general questions about
the preva- lence of violence in past
societies (2001). Walker finds that
human skeletal remains with
traumatic injuries such as
embedded flint arrow points in the
vertebrate or cut marks on cranial
skulls and other archaeological
materials from the past suggest
that both violence and canni- balism
has been pervasive since the
beginning of human prehistory.
Although the prehistoric data
indicates that there were periods of
peace, Walker’s data based on an
enormous amount of skeletal data
indicates that warfare and violence
were frequent (2001:590). The data
indicates
that the frequency of prehistoric

human violence is associated with
climatic changes in the past that Although anthropologists study the distinctive features of different
cultures, they also recognize the fundamental similarities among people
resulted in crop failures or other
throughout the world.
scarci- ties (2001:591). On the other
hand, Walker’s data suggests that
prehistoric peoples did not engage in
child abuse or the “child-battering
syndrome” known from contemporary
societies (2001:591). Another recent
study in physical anthropology by
Tiffany A. Tung who has been
examining cranial trauma and other
skeletal injuries indicates that there
was wide-spread violence and warfare
in the Peruvian Andes during the time
period of 650−1000 A.D. (2007).
During this period, the skeletal
evidence demonstrates that
prehistoric warfare and violence
increased with the expansion of the
Wari Empire in the Peruvian Andes
region, a general trend documented
by Tung in various agricultural state
empires throughout the world
(2007). Thus, the research in physical
anthropology has provided deep
insights into the patterns of human
violence that help us understand our
condition in the contemporary era.
An increasingly important area
of research
for some physical anthropologists is
genetics, the study of the biological
“blueprints” that dictate the
inheritance of physical
characteristics. Genet- ics research
examines a wide variety of questions.
It has, for example, been important in
identify- ing the genetic sources of
some diseases, such as sickle cell
anemia, cystic fibrosis, and Tay-Sachs
disease. A new example of genetics
research on a modern population is
that conducted by physical
anthropologist Cynthia Beall in the
Himala- yan Mountains of Tibet. Beall
and her team did detailed
genealogical and historical interviews
with thousands of women between
the ages of
20 and 60 who had moved and were oxygen levels that were 10 per- cent
adapting to new environmental conditions higher than normal. Beall and her team
at the altitude of 4,000 meters at low found that the children of these women
oxygen levels. Ruling out such factors as were much more likely to survive to the
age, ill- ness, and smoking, the team found age of 15 or older; the group’s average
that one group of these women had blood for childhood death was .04. In contrast,
the low-oxygen group of women had an on calculating the genetic distance among
average of 2.5 children die during modern humans, thus providing a means of
childhood. Thus, Beall and her team found inferring rates of evolution and the
that the gene or genes that determine high- evolutionary relationships within the
oxygen blood count for women gave species. An important project run by
survival and adaptive capacities in this high genetic paleoan- thropologist Spencer Wells
mountain altitude (Beall, Song, Elston, and is helping to illuminate the migrations of
Goldstein 2004). This anthropological humans throughout the world. Wells is the
research has demonstrated a case of director of the Genographic Project,
natural selection and human evolution that sponsored by the National Geographic
is occurring presently within a particular Society and IBM. The Genographic Project
environment. is gathering samples of DNA from
Genetics has also become an populations throughout the world to trace
increasingly impor- human evolution. Wells is a pioneer in this
tant complement to paleoanthropological form of genetic paleoanthropology. He has
research. Through the study of the genetic developed an international network of
makeup of modern humans, physical leading anthropologists in genetics,
anthropologists have been working linguistics, archaeology, paleoanthropology,
and cultural anthropology to assist in this
project. Labs analyzing DNA have been
established in different regions of the world
by the Genographic Project. As DNA is
transmitted from parents to offspring, most
of the genetic material is recombined and
mutated. However, some mutated DNA
remains fairly stable over the course of
generations. This stable mutated DNA can
serve as “genetic markers” that are
passed on to each
generation and create populations with tedious research. Archaeologists often spend hours
distinctive sets of DNA. These genetic sorting through ancient trash piles, or middens, to
markers can serve to distinguish ancient discover how members of past societies ate their
lineages of DNA. By following the meals, what tools they used in their households and
pathways of these genetic markers, genetic in their work, and what beliefs gave meaning to
paleoanthropologists such as Wells can their lives. They collect and carefully analyze the
blend archaeology, prehistoric, and broken frag- ments of pottery, stone, glass, and
linguistic data with paleoanthropological other materials. It may take them months or even
data to trace human evolution. years to fully complete the study of an excavation.
The Genographic Project traces both Unlike fictional archaeologists, who experience
mitochondrial DNA (passed from mother to glorified adventures, real-world archaeologists
offspring in long lineages of maternal descent) thrive on the intellectually challenging adventure
and the Y chromosome (passed from father of systematic, scientific research that enlarges our
to son). These data have helped provide understanding of the past.
independent evidence for the African There are many more areas of specialization within ar-
origins of the modern human species and chaeology that reflect the geographic area, topic, or
human ancestors. This evidence will be time
discussed in later chapters on the evolution
of modern humans. Individuals can join the
project and submit samples of their own
DNA to trace their genetic linkage to
ancient populations at https://genographic.
nationalgeographic.com.
Archaeology
Archaeology, the
branch of anthropology
that examines the
material traces of past
societies, informs us
about the cul-
ture of those societies
—the shared way of
life of a group of
people that includes
their values, beliefs,
and norms. However,
as we will see below
some archaeologists
do research in
contemporary societies.
Artifacts, the mate-
rial products of former
societies, provide
clues to the past.
Some archaeological sites
reveal spectacular jewelry
like that found by the
movie character Indiana
Jones
or the treasures of a pharaoh’s tomb. Most
artifacts, however, are not so spectacular.
Despite the popular image of archaeology
as an adventurous, even romantic pursuit, it
usually consists of methodical, time-
consuming, and— sometimes—somewhat
period on which the archaeologist the distinctive equipment,
works (see Figure 1.1). One more methods, and procedures
contemporary development in the needed to excavate
field of archaeology is called under water.
ethnoarchaeology. One new interesting
Ethnoarchaeology is the study of approach used in
material artifacts of the past along archaeology employs the
with the observation of modern GIS (Geographical
peoples who have knowledge of the Information Sys- tems), a tool
use and sym- bolic meaning of those that was adopted by geolo-
artifacts. Frances Hayashida has gists and environmental
been conducting scientists as well as physical
ethnoarchaeological research in the anthropologists. Archaeolo-
coastal areas of Peru regarding the gists can use the GIS systems linked to
production and consumption of an- satellites to help locate specific
cient maize beer called chicha and transportation routes used by peoples and
this tradition carried on in modern their animals in the past as well as many
breweries (2008). This other patterns (Tripcevich 2010).
ethnoarchaeological research In another novel approach, still other
involves the study of the archaeologists have turned their attention
contemporary chicha production to the very recent past. For example, in
along with the investigation of how 1972, William L. Rathje began a study of
prehistoric indigenous peoples were modern garbage as an assignment for the
providing inputs of labor, raw students in his intro- ductory anthropology
materials, and the different class. Even he was surprised at the number
technologies in their development of of people who took an interest in the
breweries in different areas of findings. A careful study of garbage
coastal Peru. This provides insights about modern society
ethnoarchaeological research that cannot be ferreted out in any other
involves in-depth observations and way. Whereas questionnaires and
interviews with modern peoples in interviews depend upon the coopera- tion
order to understand what has been and interpretation of respondents, garbage
re- provides an unbiased physical record of
tained from the past regarding chicha human activity. Rathje’s “garbology project”
production. is still in progress and, combined with
There are many other information from respondents, offers a
fields of archaeology as unique look at patterns of waste
indicated in Figure 1.1. management, consumption, and alcohol use
For example, some in contemporary U.S. society (Rathje and
specializations in Ritenbaugh 1984).
archaeology include
industrial
archaeologists, biblical
archaeologists, medieval
and post-
medieval
archaeologists,
and Islamic
archaeologists.
Underwater
archaeologists
work on a vari-
ety of places and
time periods
throughout the
world; they are dis-
tinguished from
other
archaeologists by
languages to discern the historical links

Archaeologist digging at a site.
Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistics, the study of language, has a
long history that dovetails with the
discipline of philosophy, but is also one of
the integral subfields of anthropology.
Linguistic anthropology focuses on the
relationship between language and
culture, how language is used within
society, and how the human brain acquires
and uses language. Linguistic
anthropologists seek to discover the
ways in which languages are different from
one another, as well as how they are
similar to one another. Two wide- ranging
areas of research in linguistic anthropology
are structural linguistics and historical
linguistics.
Structural linguistics explores how
language works. Structural linguists
compare grammatical patterns or other
linguistic elements to learn how
contemporary languages mirror and differ
from one another. Structural linguistics has
also uncovered some intriguing relation-
ships between language and thought
patterns among different groups of people.
Do people who speak different languages
with different grammatical structures think
and perceive the world differently from
each other? Do native Chinese speakers
think or view the world and life experi-
ences differently from native English
speakers? Structural linguists are
attempting to answer this type of question.
Linguistic anthropologists also examine
the connections between language and
social behavior in different cultures. This
specialty is called sociolinguistics. Socio-
linguists are interested both in how
language is used to define social groups
and in how belonging to particular groups
leads to specialized kinds of language use.
In Thailand, for example, there are thirteen
forms of the pro- noun I. One form is used
with equals, other forms come into play
with people of higher status, and some
forms are used when males address
females (Scupin 1988).
Another area of research that has
interested linguistic anthropologists is
historical linguistics. Historical
linguistics concentrates on the
comparison and classification of different
10 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction to
among languages.
Anthropology By examining and
analyzing grammatical structures and
sounds of languages, researchers are able to
discover rules for how languages change over
time, as well as which languages are related
to one another historically. This type of
historical linguistic research is particularly
useful in tracing the migration routes of
various societies through time, confirming
archaeological and paleoanthropological data
gathered independently. For example, through
historical linguistic research, anthropologists
have corroborated the Asian origins of many
Native American populations.
Cultural Anthropology or Ethnology

Cultural anthropology or ethnology is
the subfield of anthropology that examines
various contemporary
societies and cultures throughout the world.
Cultural
anthropologists do research in all parts of the
world, from the tropical rainforests of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and Brazil
to the Arctic regions of Canada, from the
deserts of the Middle East to the urban areas
of China. Until recently, most cultural
anthropologists conducted research on non-
Western or remote cultures in Africa, Asia,
the Middle East, Latin America, and the
Pacific Islands and on the Native American
populations in the United States. Today,
however, many cultural anthropologists have
turned to research on their own cultures in
order to gain a better understanding of their
institutions and cultural values.
Cultural anthropologists (sometimes the
terms socio- cultural anthropologist and
ethnographer are used inter- changeably
with cultural anthropologist) use a unique
research strategy in conducting their
fieldwork in different settings. This
research strategy is referred to as par-
ticipant observation because cultural
anthropologists learn the language and
culture of the group being studied by
participating in the group’s daily activities.
Through this intensive participation, they
become deeply famil- iar with the group and
can understand and explain the society and
culture of the group as insiders. We discuss
A linguistic anthropologist interviewing a woman from a different

culture.
KELLEY HAYS-GILPIN: Although concerned with the inter-
Archaeologist pretation of past technology and
adept at ceramic classification, Hays-
C
onservation of the past, the Gilpin has consistently sought to
deciphering of gender in the push the interpretation of
archaeological record, and archaeological data to extract deeper
the meaning of rock art are just a few meaning than archaeologists
of the intriguing topics that Kelley usually propose. Beginning with her
Hays- Gilpin has addressed in more doctoral work, she became
than two decades of research. Hays- increasingly interested in the study of
Gilpin is an archaeologist with a ideology, symbols, and gender in the
research focus on the prehistoric archaeological record. Through the
American Southwest, particularly the comparative study of pottery, textiles,
history and archaeology of the and rock art, she used ancient art as
Pueblo peoples. Like many modern a means of understanding cultural
archaeologists, her career has con- tinuity and change. This
included work in both cultural Kelley Hays-Gilpin.
research fur- thered her
resource management and university understanding of modern Native
teaching (see Chapter 18). She American perceptions of and which was published in 1998. It
completed her doctoral work focusing concerns about the past. For Hays- draws on the research of three
on early decorated ceramics in the Gilpin, the significance of ancient ob- generations of women engaged in the
Four Cor- ners region in the jects to contemporary indigenous study of essen- tially the same group
Southwest and then, began her career people—having conversations about of archaeological materials from sites
with the Navajo Nation Archaeology ancestors and making connections in northeastern Arizona. While it
Department in Flagstaff, Arizona. between the past and present—is of provides a detailed examination of a
Hays-Gilpin worked on collections crucial importance. It is about being particular collec- tion, the study also
salvaged from archaeological sites able to glean messages from the past affords insight into changing
destroyed by development projects that help us live better lives in the perceptions of archaeological
or threatened by construction. present, including such matters as interpretation. Also published in 1998
Currently, she teaches archaeology, how to grow food in the desert and was Hays-Gilpin’s co-edited volume,
ceramic analysis, and rock art how to help others understand and the Routledge Reader in Gender Ar-
courses at Northern Arizona appreciate their heritage. Hays-Gilpin chaeology, which helped establish
University in Flag- staff, located just co-authored an interdisciplinary the legitimacy of gendered
hours from the Pet- rified Forest study of Prehistoric Sandals from approaches to the study of the
National Park and her favorite rock Northeastern Arizona: The Earl H. archaeological record.
art sites. Morris and Ann Axtell Morris
Research,
the methods and techniques of cultural in a systematic manner is the specific research goal
anthropologists at greater length in of the cultural anthropologist. Technically,
Chapter 14. ethnologist refers to anthropologists who focus
The results of the fieldwork of the on the cross-cultural aspects of the various
cultural anthropologist are written up as ethnographic studies done by the cultural
an ethnography, a description of a anthropologists. Ethnologists analyze the data that
culture within a society. A typical are produced by the individual ethnographic
ethnography reports on the environmental studies to produce cross-cultural generalizations
setting, economic patterns, social about humanity and cultures.
organization, political system, and religious
rituals and beliefs of the society under
study. This description of a society is based
on what anthropologists call ethnographic
data. The gathering of ethnographic data
Applied Anthropology
Anthropology
The four subfields of anthropology
(physical anthropology,
archaeology, linguistic anthropology,
and cultural anthropology) are well
established. However, some
scholars recognize a fifth
subdiscipline. Applied anthro-
pology is the use of anthropological
data from the other subfields to
address modern problems and
concerns. These problems may be
environmental, technological,
economic, social, political, or
cultural. Anthropologists have
played an increasing role in the
development of government policies
and legislation, the planning of
development projects, and the
implementation of marketing
strategies. Although anthropologists
are typically trained in one of the
major subfields, an increasing num-
ber are finding employment outside
of universities and museums.
Although many anthropologists
see at least
For archaeologists, rock art—

a sustainable future for Hopi earliest humans to modern landfills.
paintings and engravings—provides
communities through subsistence Some archaeologists investigate past
a unique source of information,
farming, craft production, public societies whose history is primar-
offering clues to prehistoric
health programs, and cultural ily told by the archaeological record.
subsistence, ideology, and religion.
revitalization. Known as prehistoric archaeologists,
Yet the interpretation of these
For Hays-Gilpin, the study of they study the artifacts of groups
prehistoric creations is challenging,
archaeology must emphasize team- such as the ancient inhabitants of
and they have often received less
work and reward team players. She Europe and the first humans to arrive
attention than they deserve. Hays-
feels that archaeologists are not in in the Americas. Because these
Gilpin’s Ambiguous Images: Gender
competition with one another, but researchers have no written
and Rock Art (2004), which won the
rather in competition with the forces documents or oral traditions to help
Society for American Archaeology’s
that are destroying the archaeological interpret the sites they examine and
2005 book prize, provides a
record faster than it can be studied. the artifacts they recover, the
significant contribution to the relatively
Her research and career epitomize archaeological record provides the
unexplored field of gender in rock art.
this approach to archaeology. Hays- primary source of information for their
Hays-Gilpin demonstrates that rock
Gilpin advocates monitoring and interpretations of the past. Historical
art is one of the best lines of
reporting on sites that have been archaeologists, on the other hand,
evidence available to understand the
threatened with destruction, and she work with historians in investigating
ritual practices, gender roles, and
continues work on many collections the artifacts of societies of the more
ideological constructs of prehistoric
that have resided in museums for as recent past. For example, some
peoples.
much as century. Her work has led historical archaeologists have probed
In addition to her current
her to col- laborate with a network of the remains of plantations in the
academic position, Hays-Gilpin holds
archaeologists, cultural southern United States to gain an
the Edward Bridge Danson Chair of
anthropologists, art historians, understanding of the lifestyles of
Anthropology at the Museum of
linguistic anthropologists, and Hopi enslaved Africans and slave owners
Northern Arizona, where she is
artists. Her interdisciplinary approach during the nineteenth century. Other
director of the Hopi Ico- nography
to the past exemplifies modern archaeologists, called classical
Project. This project, a collaborative
archaeology’s holistic and inclusive archaeologists, conduct research on
effort between the museum and the
requirements—quite a contrast to its ancient civilizations such as in Egypt,
Hopi Tribe’s cultural preservation
more narrowly specialized traditions. Greece, and Rome.
office, explores Hopi cultural con-
With this new approach, Hays-Gilpin
tinuity over centuries, if not millennia,
has helped to redefine the discipline
through pottery, rock art, mural paint-
of archaeology.
ing, baskets, and textiles. More Explore the Concept on
Archaeologists have examined sites
important, the project is exploring
the world over, from campsites of the myanthrolab.com
ways in which Hopi traditions can
help shape
some aspects of their work as applied, it is skeletal remains or helping police

the appli- cation of anthropological data determine the mechanisms of death.
that is the central part of some researches’ Archaeologists deal with the impact of
careers. Indeed, approximately half of the development on the archaeological
people with doctorates in anthropology record, working to document or preserve
currently find careers outside of academic archaeological sites threatened by the
institutions. construction of housing, roads, and dam
Each of the four major subfields of projects. Some linguistic
anthropology has applied aspects. Physical anthropologists work with government
anthropologists, for example, sometimes agencies and indigenous peoples to
play a crucial role in police investigations, document
using their knowledge of the human body to
reconstruct the appearance of murder
victims on the basis of fragmentary
disappearing
Anthropology languages or work in business
to help develop marketing strategies. Cultural
anthropologists, such as A. Peter Castro (see
“Anthropologists at Work: A. Peter Castro:
Applied Anthropologist”), have played a key
role in the planning of government programs
so that they take peoples’ cultural beliefs and
needs into con- sideration. These applied
aspects of anthropological research are
highlighted in Chapter 18.
Holistic Anthropology,
Interdisciplinary Research, and
the Global Perspective
By its very nature, anthropology is an
interdisciplinary, holistic field. Most
anthropologists receive some training in
each of four subfields of anthropology.
BAMBI B. SCHIEFFELIN: instead on language and socialization
Linguistic Anthropologist among many different societies. They
emphasized the importance of
A
s an undergraduate at Colum- cultural practices in shaping verbal
bia University, Bambi Schief- activities. For example, prior to their
felin was drawn to two fields: research, it was assumed that “baby
anthropology and comparative litera- talk” was the same all over the world.
ture. After spending a summer on a They found, however, that “baby talk”
field trip to rural Bolivia and a year in is not universal and is linked to
the southern highlands of Papua New ideas that people have about
Guinea, Schieffelin decided to pursue children.
a doctorate in anthropology, with a In her ethnographic research,
specialty in linguistic anthropology. She Schieffelin tape-records and tran-
combined the fields of developmental scribes everyday social interactions
psychology, linguistics, and anthropol- in different speech communities. She
ogy, which prepared her for fieldwork has carried out research in Papua
among the Kaluli people in Papua New Guinea since 1967, focusing Bambi Schieffelin.
New Guinea. After completing her not only on language socialization,
Ph.D. degree, Schieffelin spent a year but also on language change and the
teaching anthropology at the introduction of literacy into a nonliter- the Christian missionization process
University of California at Berkeley ate society. In addition to this work in among the native peoples such as
and also teaching linguistics at a relatively traditional society, Schief- the Bosavi. In addition, Schieffelin
Stanford University. Since 1986, she felin has worked in a number of urban has been examining speech activities
has been teaching at New York speech communities in the United and language use on commercials on
University in the Department of States, where linguistic diversity is You- Tube and
Anthropology. apparent on every street corner. Her icanhascheezburger.com and the use
Schieffelin’s work focuses on lan- research in Philadelphia among Sino- of texting by teenagers. This piqued
guage use and socialization. She Vietnamese people focused on lan- the interest of many un- dergraduates
studies how language is acquired by guage socialization and literacy, and who began to explore the techniques
children and how language is used in her studies of Haitians in New York used by linguistic anthropologists for
various social contexts. She has col- analyzed language socialization and exploring new types of media.
laborated with Elinor Ochs to develop code-switching practices. Schieffelin’s work represents the
innovative approaches to under- As a linguistic anthropologist, most current developments in
standing how language use is influ- Schieffelin tries to integrate two per- linguistic anthropology today.
enced by socialization. Together they spectives. First, she focuses on how Linguistic anthropologists have
have edited several volumes, includ- the study of language use can lead to broadened their vision of places in
ing Language Socialization across insights into how culture is transmit- which to investigate language use—
Cultures (1987). In addition, Schief- ted from generation to generation in including the legal, medical, scientific,
felin has developed these topics in everyday social interactions. Second, educational, and political arenas—as
her own book, The Give and Take of she analyzes the ways in which lan- these contexts are critical to under-
Everyday Life: Language Socialization guage expresses social relationships standing how power is acquired and
of Kaluli Children (1990). and cultural meanings across dif- distributed. They are also studying all
Through their research on children’s ferent social and political contexts. varieties of literacy, including television,
language socialization, Schieffelin Recently, Schieffelin has been en- radio, and the Internet providing new
and Ochs contributed to a cross- gaged in research on how language perspectives on these new forms of
cultural understanding of this relates to Bible translation and con- global communication.
process. Un- til the early 1970s, most version to Christianity in Papua New
of the theories on language and Guinea. She does research on how
socialization had been drawn from translations of parables and speech
psychological research on middle- Explore the Concept on
activities change the meaning of
class Americans. S c h i e ff e l i n and concepts of place and the body in myanthrolab.com
Ochs focused
Anthropology
However, because of the huge amount of Finally, anthropology dovetails
research undertaken in these different considerably with the field of history,
subfields—more than three hundred which, like anthropology, encompasses a
journals and hundreds of books are broad range of events. Every human
published every year—no one individual can event that has ever taken place in the
keep abreast of all the developments across world is a potential topic for both
the discipline. Consequently, an- historians and anthropologists. Historians
thropologists usually specialize in one of describe and explain human events that
the four subfields. Nevertheless, most have occurred throughout the world;
anthropologists are firmly committed to a anthropologists place their biological,
holistic approach to understanding archaeological, linguistic, and
humankind—a broad, comprehensive ethnographic data in the context of these
account that draws on all four subfields historical developments.
under the umbrella of anthropology. This Through the four subfields and the
holistic approach involves the analysis of interdisciplinary approach,
biological, environmental, psychological, anthropologists have emphasized a
economic, historical, social, and cultural global perspective. The global
conditions of humanity. In other words, perspective enables anthropologists to
anthropologists study the physical consider the biological, environmental,
characteristics of humans, including their
genetic en- dowment, as well as their
prehistoric, historical, and social and
cultural environments. Through collabora-
tive studies among the various specialists in
the four subfields, anthropologists can ask
broadly framed questions about humanity.
Anthropology does not limit itself to its
own four
subfields to realize its research agenda.
Although it stands as a distinct discipline,
anthropology has strong links to other
social sciences. Cultural anthropology or
ethnology, for instance, is closely related to
sociology. In the past, cultural
anthropologists examined the traditional
societies of the world, whereas sociologists
focused on modern societies. Today, cultural
anthropologists and sociologists explore
many of the same societies using similar
research approaches. For example, both
rely on statistical and nonstatistical data
when- ever appropriate in their studies of
different types of societies.
As we shall discover in later chapters,
cultural anthropology also overlaps the
fields of psychology, econom- ics, and
political science. Cultural anthropologists
draw on psychology when they assess the
behavior of people in other societies.
Psychological questions bearing on
perception, learning, and motivation all
figure in ethnographic fieldwork.
Additionally, cultural anthropologists or
ethnologists probe the economic and
political behavior and thought of people in
various societies, using these data for
comparative purposes.
psychological, economic, historical, social, norms of their society, they tend to think
and cultural conditions of humans at all times of their own culture as prefera- ble, and as
and in all places. Anthropologists do not limit what is normal, while ranking other
themselves to understanding a particular cultures as less desirable. Members of a
society or set of societies, but attempt to go society may be so committed to their own
beyond specific or local conditions and cultural traditions that they cannot
demonstrate the interconnections among conceive of any other way of life. They often
societies throughout the world. This global view other cultural traditions as strange or
perspective is used throughout this text to alien, perhaps even infe- rior, crazy, or
show how anthropologists situate their immoral.
findings in the interconnecting worldwide Such deeply ingrained perceptions are
context. difficult to escape, even for
anthropologists. Nineteenth-century
Anthropological Explanations
A fundamental question faced by
anthropologists is how to evaluate the
particular social, cultural, or biological data
they gather. Human knowledge is rooted in
personal experience, as well as in the beliefs,
traditions, and norms maintained by the
societies in which people live. This includes
such knowledge as assumptions about
putting on warm clothing in cold weather
and bringing an umbrella if it is going to rain,
for example. Yet, it also includes notions
about how food should be prepared, what
constitutes “appropriate” behavior, and
what the appropriate social and cultural
roles are for men and women.
Religion constitutes another source of
human knowledge. Religious beliefs and faith
are most often derived from sacred texts,
such as the Bible, Qur’an, and Talmud, but
they are also based on intuitions, dreams,
visions, and extrasensory perceptions. Most
religious beliefs are cast in highly personal
terms and, like personal knowledge, span a
wide and diverse range. People who do not
accept these culturally coded assumptions
may be perceived as different, abnormal, or
nonconformist by other members of their
society. Yet, ethnographic and cross-cultural
research in anthropology demonstrates that
such culturally constituted knowledge is not
as general as we might think. This research
indicates that as humans, we are not born
with this knowledge. Such knowledge tends to
vary both among different societies and
among different groups within the same
society.
Popular perceptions about other cultures
have often
been based on ethnocentric attitudes.
Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging
another society by the values and standards
of one’s own society. To some degree,
ethnocentrism is a universal phenomenon. As
humans learn the basic values, beliefs, and
Anthropology
SCOTT ATRAN: and animals in very similar ways.
foundations of religion, which resulted in his widely
Cultural Anthropologist Later, Atran began an
acclaimed book In Gods We Trust: The Evolutionary
investigation of the cognitive
Landscape of Religion published by Oxford Press. In
B
orn in 1952 in New York City, and evolutionary
this book Atran, explores the psychological
Scott Atran went to Columbia foundations of religion and how it has become a
University as a Westinghouse universal feature of all human societies. Currently,
mathematics scholar. At a student his most recent work is on the characteristics asso-
dem- onstration against the Vietnam ciated with suicide bombers and political and religious
conflict in 1970, he met the famous terrorism in different areas of the world. Atran has been
anthropologist Margaret Mead and funded by the National Science Foundation and other
she invited him to work as her agencies to study the phenomena of terrorism and
assistant at the American Museum of this has included fieldwork and interviews with
National History. In 1970, Atran also imprisoned Al Qaeda members and their supporters in
traveled to the Middle East for the Europe, the Middle East, Central and Southeast Asia,
first time, conducting fieldwork in and North Africa. His recent book Talking to the
Palestinian villages. As a graduate Enemy: Faith, Brother- hood and the (Un)Making of
student in 1974, Atran organized a Terrorists is based on this long-term research. In
famous debate at the Abbaye de March, 2010 Atran testified before the Senate
Roy- aumont in France on the nature Armed Services Subcommittee on Emerging
of uni- versals in human thought and Threats and Capabilities today on “Pathways to and
society, with the participation of from Violent Extremism: The Case for Science-Based
some well- known scholars such as Field Research.” His testimony can be seen at
the linguist Noam Chomsky, the http://www.edge.org/3rd_
psychologist Jean Piaget, the culture/atran10/atran10_index.html.
anthropologists Claude Lévi- Strauss Atran has taught at Cambridge Uni- versity,
and Gregory Bateson, and the Hebrew University in Jerusa- lem, and the École
biologists François Jacob and des hautes études in Paris. He is currently a
Jacques Monod, which many research director in anthropology at the Centre
consider a mile- stone in the national de la recherche scientifique (The Center for
development of the field Scientific Research) based in Paris and is a
known as cognitive science.
member of the Jean Nicod Institute at the École
Atran continued observing
normale supérieure. He is also visiting professor
societies as he traveled overland
of psychology and public policy at the University of
from Portugal to China, via
Michigan, presidential scholar in sociology at the
Afghanistan and Pakistan. Landing
John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York
again in the Middle East, he
City, and co-founder of ARTIS Research and Risk
conducted ethnographic research on
Modeling. Atran’s broadly interdisciplinary scientific
kinship and social ties, land tenure,
studies on human reasoning processes and cultural
and political economy among the
management of the environment, and on religion
Druze, a religious group in Israel and
and terrorism, have been featured around the world in
Lebanon. Later, Atran became a
science publications, such as Science, Nature,
pioneer in the study of the
Proceedings of
foundations of biological thinking in
Western science and other Native
American Indian groups such as the
Itzá Maya in Mexico. This research
became the basis of his well-known
books Cognitive Foundations of
Natu- ral History: Towards an
Anthropology of Science and The
Native Mind and the Cultural
Construction of Nature, and Plants of
the Peten Itzá Maya, which il- lustrate
how people throughout the world
classified biological species of plants
Scott Atran.
the National Academy of
Sciences USA, and Brain
and Behavioral Sciences,
as well as the popular
press, including features
stories with BBC television
and radio, National Public
Radio, The Wall Street
Journal, and Newsweek. He
has been the subject of a
cover story in The New York
Times Magazine (“Darwin’s
God,” 2007) and has written
numerous op-eds for the
New York Times.
Atran has teamed up
with psychologists and
political scientists, including
Douglas Medin and Robert
Axelrod, to experiment
extensively on the ways sci-
entists and ordinary people
categorize and reason
about nature, on the cogni-
tive and evolutionary
psychology of religion, and
on the role of sacred values
in political and cultural
conflict. Based on recent
fieldwork, he has testified
before the U.S. Congress
and has repeatedly briefed
National Security Council
staff at the White House on
paths to violent extremism
among youth in Southeast
and South Asia, the Middle
East, North Africa, and
Europe. Atran has utilized his
knowledge and research as
a cultural anthropologist to
help understand some of the
basic questions of human
life and also to contribute to
solving some of our current
problems with globally-
sponsored political and
religious terrorism.
Explore the Concept on

myanthrolab.com
Anthropology
anthropologists, for example, often observations and collects data (see
reinforced ethnocentric beliefs about Figure 1.2).
other societies. The twentieth century saw Many of the data collected are
the co-opting of anthropological data to referred to as variables. A variable is
serve specific political and social ends. As any piece of data that changes from
the twentieth century progressed, case to case. For example, a person’s
however, anthropologists increasingly height,
began to recognize the biases that pre-
vented the interpretation of
other cultures in more valid,
systematic ways. Figure 1.2 Deductive and inductive research methods.
The Scientific Method

Given the preceding concerns, it is critical
to understand how anthropological
interpretations are evaluated. In contrast to
personal knowledge and religious faith,
anthropological knowledge is not based on
traditional wisdom or revelations. Rather,
anthropologists employ the scientific
method, a system of logic used to evalu-
ate data derived from systematic
observation. Research- ers rely upon the
scientific method to investigate both the
natural and the social worlds because the
approach allows them to make claims about
knowledge and to verify those claims with
systematic, logical reasoning. Through
critical thinking and skeptical thought,
scientists strive to suspend judgment about
any claim for knowledge until it has been
verified.
Testability and verifiability lie at the
core of the scientific method. There are
two ways of developing testable
propositions: the inductive method and
the deductive method. In the inductive
method, the scientist first makes
Deductive Method
HYPOTHESIS:
derived from theory, tested by specific observation
GENERAL
THEORY
SPECIFIC OBSERVATIONS
EXPLANATION:
derived from specific observation, builds general theory
Inductive Method
weight, age, and sex all constitute disagreements about interpretations are
variables. Research- ers use the observations common. Consequently, conclusions are
about different variables to develop frequently presented as tentative and hypo-
hypotheses about the data. A hypothesis thetical. The point here, however, is not
is a testable proposition concerning the that progress is impossible.
relationship between particular sets of Anthropological evidence can be verified
variables in the collected data. The practice or discarded by making assumptions
of testing hypotheses is the major focus of explicit and weeding out contradictory,
the scientific method, as scientists test one subjective knowledge. Poor hypotheses are
another’s hypotheses to confirm or refute rejected and replaced by better explana-
them. If a hypothesis is found to be valid, it tions. Explanations can be made stronger
may be woven together with other hypotheses by drawing on independent lines of
into a more general theory. Theories are evidence to support and evaluate theories.
statements that explain hypotheses and This process makes the scientific method
observations about natural or social much more effective than other means of
phenomena. Because of their explanatory acquiring knowledge.
nature, theories often encompass a variety of
hypotheses and observations. One of the
most comprehensive theories in anthropol-
ogy is the theory of evolution (see Chapter 3).
This theory helps explain a diversity of
hypotheses about biological and natural
phenomena, as well as discoveries by
paleoanthropologists and geneticists.
In contrast to the inductive method, the
deductive
method of scientific research begins with a
general theory from which scientists develop
testable hypotheses. Data are then collected
to evaluate these hypotheses. Initial
hypotheses are sometimes referred to as
“guess- timates” because they may be based
on guesswork by the scientist. These
hypotheses are tested through experi-
mentation and replication. As with the
inductive method, scientists test and retest
hypotheses and theories to ensure the
reliability of observations made.
Through these methods, researchers do
not arrive at absolute truths. Theories may be
invalidated or falsi- fied by contradictory
observations. Yet, even if numerous
observations and hypotheses suggest that a
particular theory is true, the theory always
remains open to further testing and
evaluation. The systematic evaluation of
hypotheses and theories enables scientists to
state their conclusions with a certainty that
cannot be applied to personal and culturally
construed knowledge.
Despite the thoroughness and
verification that characterize the research,
anthropological explanations have limitations.
Anthropologists must grapple with the myriad
of complex, interwoven variables that
influence human society and biological
processes. The complexi- ties of the
phenomena being studied make it difficult to
assess all of the potential variables, and
Anthropology
A. PETER CASTRO:
Applied Anthropologist
C
onflict over use of the
environment is a theme
that unites
A. Peter Castro’s work as an
applied cultural anthropologist,
including his more than two
decades of service as a consultant
for the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations,
the United States Agency for
International Development, the
United Nations Development Program, A. Peter Castro with a man and woman in Ethiopia.
CARE, and other organizations.
Conflict is a ubiquitous aspect of
human existence. While disputes
may be an important
means for people to assert their upbringing, where farm worker union- issues in health care and agricultural
rights, interests, and needs, conflicts ization struggles, debates about off- programs and about the importance
can escalate into violence that shore oil development, and conflicts of linking local, national, and global
threatens both lives and livelihoods. over housing and commercial expan- dimensions of human and environmen-
Castro has used his perspective, sion were everyday occurrences. He tal crises. Castro’s Ph.D. advisor,
skills, and knowledge as a cultural credits his professors at the David Brokensha, has a distinguished
anthropologist to address issues University of California, Santa record as an applied anthropologist
related to understanding and Barbara, where he obtained his and was instrumental in providing
dealing with environmental conflicts undergraduate and graduate opportunities for Castro to develop
in participatory and peaceful ways. degrees, with giving him the contacts in international agencies.
Besides his ongoing work as a inspiration and the training to use cul- Brokensha was one of the founders of
consultant, he incorporates conflict tural anthropology to address press- the Institute for Development
issues into his classes in the ing social and environmental issues. Anthropology, a nonprofit research and
Anthropol- ogy Department of the As an undergraduate, Castro was a educational organization dedicated to
Maxwell School of Citizenship and research assistant on a number of applying anthropological theories and
Public Affairs at Syra- cuse University, applied anthropology projects. In methods to improving the condition of
where he is an associ- ate professor. classes and through long discussions the world’s poor.
Castro’s interest in environmen- outside of class, he learned Castro’s early work as an ap-
tal conflicts reflects his rural California invaluable lessons from various plied anthropologist for international
professors about
Anthropology and the Humanities biochemical and physical aspects of the flower.
However, when painters, poets, or novelists
The scientific method is not the only means
perceive a flower, they understand the plant from
used by anthropologists to study different
an aesthetic standpoint. They might interpret the
societies and cultures. Anthropologists
flower as a sym- bolic phenomenon that represents
also employ a more humanistic- interpretive
nature. The scientist and the humanist use
approach as they study cultures. Think
different approaches
of this analogy. When botanists examine a
flower, they attempt to understand the
different components of the plant within a
scientific framework; they analyze the
and perspectives when examining
the natural world. Anthropologists
employ a humanistic-interpretive
approach in many circumstances.
James Peacock uses another type
of analogy to discuss the difference
between the scientific and the
humanistic-interpretive approaches
in anthropology (1986). Peacock
draws from the field of photography
to construct his analogy. He
discusses the “harsh light” of the
rigor of scientific analysis, used to
study the biological and material
conditions of a society, versus the
“soft focus” used when interpreting
the symbols, art, literature, religion,
or music of different societies.
Peacock con- cludes that both the
“harsh light” and the “soft focus”
are vital ingredients of the
anthropological perspective.
Anthropology
organizations focused on practical

1995). Castro’s concern with integrat- Castro has been working as a
aspects of planning, managing, and
ing historical analysis, as well as conflict consultant for the Forestry
evaluating community forestry pro-
analysis, into international Department of the Food and
grams and projects. Although conflict
development planning is illustrated in Agriculture Organi- zation of the
between communities and public for-
his edited col- lection of articles on United Nations (FAO), writing and
est administrators often helped
the theme “Histori- cal Consciousness editing a number of publications
propel the rise of such programs and
and Development Planning” in the aimed at providing information and
projects, conflict itself was not initially
interdisciplinary journal World practical training on natural resource
seen by officials and technical officers
Development (1998). conflict management. He co-edited a
as a topic of concern. Nonetheless,
The importance of dealing with useful book with Antonio Engel called
Castro found that, whether carrying
environmental conflicts became Negotiation and Media- tion
out applied ethnographic fieldwork
starkly clear when Castro was asked Techniques for Natural Resource
on deforestation in Kenya for the
by the United Nations Management in 2007. This book has
United States Agency for International
Development Pro- gram (UNDP) in been used widely by applied anthro-
Development or preparing a
1992 to serve as team leader for the pologists and others in development
literature-based review of indig-
midterm evaluation of Bangladesh’s work and can be found at ftp://ftp.fao
enous forest management practices
Social Forestry Project, a countrywide .org/docrep/fao/010/ai052e/ai052e00
for the Food and Agriculture Organi-
effort being implemented at a cost of .pdf. In 2009, Castro participated in
zation, one needed to take such is-
$46 million. The project was a United Nations University of Peace
sues into account. For example, it
supposed to create the capacity for conference in Sudan and wrote a
was apparent that conservation
Bangladesh’s Forestry Department to paper about conflict management
efforts in Kenya could not be
engage in community-oriented train- in the Darfur area. The paper can be
understood without relating them to
ing, tree planting, and resource pro- downloaded at http://www.africa.
long struggles involving different
tection. While the project had many upeace.org/documents/environment_
rural groups, government agencies,
accomplishments, it also had severe files.pdf. Currently, Castro is co-editing
commercial interests, and other
problems in many areas due to lack a book Climate Change and Threat-
stakeholders. In addition, Cas- tro
of public participation (see Castro ened Communities with David Broken-
discovered through ethnographic
and Nielsen 2005). Sadly, a project sha and Dan Taylor. Castro’s work as
interviews and archival research that
meant to address some long- an applied anthropologist has been
conflicting interests had sometimes ne-
standing conflicts sometimes served recognized throughout the world.
gotiated agreements calling for
to intensify them. The evaluation
locally based management or
mission identified these issues, but
collaborative activities that still had
because the UNDP could not compel
relevance today (for example, see Explore the Concept on
changes, it termi- nated the project
Castro’s book Fac- ing Kirinyaga: A
early in some tribal areas where myanthrolab.com
Social History of Forest Commons in
conflict was becoming particularly
Southern Mount Kenya,
intense.
Cultural anthropologists utilize the anthropologists or archaeologists often

humanistic- interpretive method as they have to interpret these phenomena, just
conduct ethnographic research. However, as one might interpret a literary, poetic,
archaeologists also try to employ these or religious text. Cultural beliefs and
same methods when examining artifacts practices may not be easily translatable
from ancient societies. When cultural from one society to another. Cultural
anthropologists or archaeologists examine anthropologists or archaeologists
various practices and institutions in
different societies, they often find that an
outsider cannot easily comprehend these
phenomena. In order to comprehend these
different practices and institutions, cultural
frequently find practices and institutions that
have meaning and significance only within a
specific language and culture. Cultural
anthropologists or archaeologists en- deavor
to understand cultural practices or
institutions that may have rich, deep,
localized meaning within the society being
examined, but that are not easily converted
into transcultural or cross-cultural meaning.
We focus more thoroughly on this humanistic-
interpretive approach in Chapter 6 on
anthropological explanations.
Thus, in addition to its interconnections
with the natural and social sciences, the
discipline of anthropology is aligned with the
humanistic fields of inquiry. This is
particularly true with respect to the field of
cultural anthropology, as these researchers
are involved in the
Anthropology
study of different contemporary cultures. throughout the world. As
When participating in the life and anthropologists analyze these
experience of people in various societies, humanistic and artistic traditions,
ethnographers must confront a multitude they broaden our understanding of
of different behaviors and values that may the economic, social, political, and
have to be translated and interpreted. As religious conditions that prevail
mentioned above, archaeologists also within these societies.
confront this type of problem when One fundamental difference
studying past cultures and civilizations exists between the scientific and the
from different regions of the world. Similar humanistic- interpretive aspects of
issues confront linguistic anthropologists anthropology. This difference
as they translate and understand various pertains to the amount of progress
languages. one can achieve within these two
Many anthropologists explore the different but complemen- tary
creative cultural dimensions of humanity, enterprises. Science has produced a
such as myth, folklore, poetry, art, music, cumulative increase in its knowledge
and mythology. Ethnopoetics is the study base through its methodology. Thus,
of poetry and how it relates to the in the fields of astronomy, physics,
experiences of people in different societies;
for example, a provocative study of the
poetry of a nomadic tribe of Bedouins in the
Middle East has yielded new insights into
the concepts of honor and shame in this
society (Abu-Lughod 1987). Another re-
lated field, ethnomusicology, is devoted to
the study of musical traditions in various
societies throughout the world.
Ethnomusicologists record and analyze
music and the traditions that give rise to
musical expression, exploring similarities
and differences in musical performance and
composition. Ethnomusicologist Dale
Olsen completed a fascinating study of
Japanese music in South America. There
are Japanese minority populations in the
countries of Peru, Brazil, Argentina,
Paraguay, and Bolivia. Olsen has studied the
musical forms, both popular and classical,
of these Japanese minorities and how they
reflect the main- tenance of ethnicity and
culture in South America (2004). Other
anthropologists study the art of particular
societies, such as pottery styles among
Native American groups.
Studies of fine art conducted by
anthropologists
have contributed to a more richly hued,
global portrait of humankind. Artistic
traditions spring up in all societies, and
anthropologists have shed light on the
music, myths, poetry, literature, and art of
non-Western
and other remote peoples. As
a result, we now have a
keener appreciation of the
diverse creative abilities
exhibited by humans
the accumulation of knowledge; we literature or music of the twenty-first
know much more about these fields century has progressed beyond that of
of science than our ancestors knew Sophocles’, Shakespeare’s, Dante’s, Bach’s,
in the fifteenth or nineteenth or Beethoven’s time period. As we shall see,
century. As a result of scientific the various humanistic endeavors involving
discoveries and developments, the beliefs, myths, and artistic expression in
scientific knowledge in these areas small-scale and ancient civilizations are
has definitely become more effective extremely sophisticated and symbolically
in offering explanations regarding complex, and one cannot assess modern
the natural and social world. As we societies as “superior” or more
shall see in Chapter 6 on “progressive” in those domains.
anthropological explanations, The essence of anthropology consists of
anthropologists today have a much understanding and explaining human
better understanding of human behavior and culture with endeavors
behavior and culture than did monopolized by no single approach. Such
anthropologists in the nineteenth an enlarged perspective within
century. Through the use of the anthropology requires peaceful coexistence
scientific method, anthropology has between scientism and humanism, despite
been able to make strides in their differences. In a recent discussion of
assessing human behavior and this issue within anthropology, Anne
cultural developments. Campbell and Patricia Rice suggest that
In contrast, one cannot discuss many anthropologists do not agree with one
the progress in the humanities in another’s assumptions from either a
the same manner. Myth, literature, humanistic or a scientific perspective be-
music, and poetry have not cause of their philosophical commitments to one
progressed in the way that scien- or the other area (Campbell and Rice 2003).
tific explanations have. One However, anthropologists
certainly cannot say that the
chemistry, biology, and Ethnomusicologists study the musical traditions of different societies. This photo shows
anthropology, a group from North India playing traditional musical instruments.
there has been significant
progress in
Anthropology
recognize these differences among about, data collected in the field. By
themselves, and this is helpful, to a great being exposed to the cultures and
degree, in making progress in our field lifestyles of unfamiliar societies, students
because we continue to criticize and may adopt a more critical and
challenge one another’s assumptions and analytical stance toward conditions in
orientations, which results in better their own society. Critical thinking skills
understanding of both the scientific enhance the reasoning abilities of
explanations and the humanistic students wherever life takes them.
understandings within our field. Anthropology also creates an
What we are going to find in this expanding global awareness and an
textbook is that the many great syntheses appreciation for cultures other than our
of anthropological knowledge require the own. In this age of rapid communication,
fusion of both the scientific and the worldwide travel, and increasing
humanistic perspectives. When the economic interconnections, young people
archaeologist studies the preci- sion and preparing for careers in the twenty-first
beauty embodied in the 4,500-year-old century must recognize and show
pyramids of the Egyptian civilization, he (or sensitivity toward the cultural differences
she) finds that their inspiration came partly among peoples, while understanding the
from the mathematics of numbers fundamental similarities that make us all
considered sacred and divine and partly distinctly human. In this age of cultural
from the emula- tion of nature. Both diversity and increasing
scientific and humanistic approaches internationalization, sus- taining this dual
enable anthropologists to study the sacred perception of underlying similar human
and the mun- dane aspects of nature and
culture. When anthropologists combine the
scientific and humanistic approaches, they
can discover what is transcultural and
universal and what is unique to specific
societies. This is the major goal of
anthropological research to determine the
similarity and differences of humans in the
past and the present.
Why Study Anthropology?

Many students today question the practical
benefits of their educational experience.
Hence, you might ask, “Why study
anthropology?” First, anthropology
contributes to a general liberal arts
education, which helps students develop
intellectually and personally, as well as
profes- sionally. Numerous studies indicate
that a well-rounded education contributes
to a person’s success in any chosen career,
and because of its broad interdisciplinary
nature, anthropology is especially well-
suited to this purpose.
Critical Thinking and Global

Awareness
In the context of a liberal arts education,
anthropology and anthropological research
cultivate critical thinking skills. As we
noted earlier, the scientific method relies on
constant evaluation of, and critical thinking
characteristics and outward cultural anthropology may enable students to find
differences has both practical and moral practical applications for dealing with
benefits. Nationalistic, ethnic, and racial issues of cultural and ethnic diversity and
bigotry are rife today in many parts of the multiculturalism on a daily basis. Similarly,
world, yet our continuing survival and policy makers in federal, state, and local
happiness depend upon greater mutual governments may find it useful to have an
understanding. Anthropology promotes a understanding of historic preservation
cross-cultural perspective that allows us to issues and cultural resource management
see ourselves as part of one human family in concerns. In education, various aspects of
the midst of tremendous diversity. Our society anthropology—including the study of
needs not just citizens of some local region evolution, the human past, and non-
or group but also, and more importantly, European cultures and the interpretation
world citizens who can work cooperatively in of cultural and social phenomena—are
an inescap- ably multicultural and increasingly being integrated into
multinational world to solve our most elementary and secondary school
pressing problems of bigotry, poverty, and curricula. Education majors preparing for
violence. the classroom can draw on their
In addition, an anthropology course background in anthropology to provide
gives students a chance to delve into a a more insightful context for some of these
discipline whose roots lie in both the issues.
sciences and the humanities. As we have
seen, anthropology brings to bear rigorous
scientific methods and models in examining
the causes of human evolution, behavior, and
social relationships. But anthropologists also
try to achieve a humanistic understanding of
other societies in all their rich cultural
complexity. Anthropology casts a wide net,
seeking an understanding of ancient and con-
temporary peoples, biological and societal
developments, and human diversity and
similarities throughout the world. Viewing
life from the anthropological perspective,
students will also gain a greater
understanding of their personal lives in the
context of the long period of human evolution
and development. In learning about behavior
patterns and cultural values in distant
societies, students question and acquire new
insights into their own behavior. Thus,
anthropology nurtures personal
enlightenment and self-awareness, which are
fundamental goals of education. While these
general goals are laudable, the study of
anthropology also offers more pragmatic
applications (Omohundro 1998). As seen in
the discussion of applied anthropology, all of
the traditional subfields of anthropology
have areas of study with direct relevance to
modern life. Many students have found it
useful to combine an anthropology minor or
major with another major. For example, given
the increasingly multicultural and inter-
national focus of today’s world, students
preparing for careers in business,
management, marketing, or public service
may find it advantageous to have some
anthropology courses on their résumés. The
concepts and knowledge gleaned from
Anthropology
Summary Study and Review on myanthrolab.com
Anthropology consists of four subfields:

physical anthropology, archaeology, use systematic research methods and
linguistic anthropology, and cultural strategies, primarily participant
anthropology or ethnology. Each of these observation, which involves participating in
subfields uses distinctive methods to the daily activities of the people they are
examine humanity in the past and in all studying.
areas of the world today. Physical Anthropologists draw on the scientific
anthropologists investigate human method to investigate humanity, while
evolution and the physical variation of recognizing the limitations of science in
human populations across many grasping the subtleties of human affairs.
geographical regions. Archaeologists study Yet, anthropology is also a humanistic
the past by analyzing artifacts (material discipline that focuses on such cultural
remains) of past societies. Linguistic elements as art, music, and religion. By
anthropologists focus their studies on bridging the sciences and the humanities,
languages, seeking out historical rela- anthropology enables us to look at
tionships among languages, pursuing clues humanity’s biological and cultural heritage
to the evolution of particular languages, with a broad perspective.
and comparing one language with another For students, anthropology creates a
to determine differences and similarities. global awareness and a deep appreciation
Cultural anthropologists conduct fieldwork of humanity past and present. By
in various societies to examine people’s evaluating anthropological data, students
lifestyles. They describe these societies in develop critical thinking skills. And the
written studies, called ethnographies which process of anthropological inquiry—
highlight behavior and thought patterns exploring other cultures and comparing
characteristic of the people studied. In them to one’s own—sheds light on one’s
examining societies, cultural personal situation as a human being in a
anthropologists particular time and place.
Questions to Think About

1. As an anthropologist on a starship in the 4. You are talking with a friend who asks,
twenty-first century, you are a specialist
“Why would anyone want to study
in “first contact” situa- tions. Briefly anthropology? What practical benefits
describe your goals and methods. can be gained from taking a course in
2. As an anthropologist, you find out about anthropology?” How would you answer
the existence of a group of humans in your friend?
the Amazon rainforest that have never 5. What is the holistic approach, and how
been contacted. How would you use the is it related to anthropology and its four
four subfields of anthropology to subfields, as well as to other
investigate this human community? disciplines?
3. How do anthropologists utilize the
scientific method in their studies? What
are the limitations of the scientific
method in anthropological studies?
artifacts ogy
Key Terms cultural ethnocentrism
anthropology anthropology
deductive ethnography ethnologist
applied ethnology ethnomusicology
anthropology method
ethnoarchaeol ethnopoetics fossils
archaeology
historical logy participant
linguistics observation
holistic primates
hypothesis primatology
inductive scientific
method method
linguistic sociolinguistics
anthropology structural
linguistics linguistics
middens theories
paleoanthropo variable
Read the Original Source on myanthrolab.com

Anthropology
For further information about topics covered in this chapter, go

to MyAnthroLab at www.myanthrolab.com and access the
following readings in MyAnthroLibrary:
Katharine Milton, The Evolution of a Physical Anthropologist.
Richard E. Blanton, Archaeologist at Work.

Terence E. Hays, From Ethnographer to Comparativist
and Back Again.

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1

■ How does the field of anthropology bridge both

CULTURAL LINGUISTIC ANTH

humanity back over 6 million years. tools and activ-

that the frequency of prehistoric

languages to discern the historical links

Cultural Anthropology or Ethnology

A linguistic anthropologist interviewing a woman from a different

For archaeologists, rock art—

some aspects of their work as applied, it is skeletal remains or helping police

Explore the Concept on

The Scientific Method

organizations focused on practical

Cultural anthropologists utilize the anthropologists or archaeologists often

Why Study Anthropology?

Critical Thinking and Global

Summary Study and Review on myanthrolab.com

Anthropology consists of four subfields:

Questions to Think About

Read the Original Source on myanthrolab.com

For further information about topics covered in this chap- ter, go

Richard E. Blanton, Archaeologist at Work.

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