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1 Operating System – Concept and Components

Concept: An Operating System (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and
software. It acts as a bridge between the user and the computer.
Components of an OS:
Program Management: Organizes and manages programs.
Resource Management: Allocates CPU, memory, and other resources efficiently.
Security and Protection: Protects data and resources from unauthorized access.

Operations of OS:
Manages input/output (I/O) devices.
Organizes files and directories.

Views of OS:
User View: Focuses on ease of use.
System View: Focuses on resource management.

1.2 Different Types of Operating Systems

Batch OS: Processes multiple tasks in batches without user interaction.
Multi-Programmed OS: Allows multiple programs to run simultaneously by sharing CPU
time.
Time-Shared OS: Multiple users share system resources at the same time.
Multiprocessor Systems: Uses multiple processors to perform tasks faster.
Distributed Systems: Connects multiple computers to share resources and tasks.
Real-Time Systems: Handles tasks that require immediate processing (e.g., air traffic
control).
Mobile OS: Operating systems for mobile devices, like Android and iOS.

1.3 Command Line vs GUI-Based OS

Command-Line OS: Users type text commands (e.g., DOS, UNIX).
GUI-Based OS: Provides graphical icons and menus for easier interaction (e.g., Windows,
Linux).

2.1 Different Services of Operating Systems

Operating systems provide essential services:
Program Execution: Runs programs smoothly.
I/O Operations: Manages input and output devices.
Error Detection: Identifies and resolves errors during program execution.
Communication: Facilitates data exchange between processes or devices.
2.2 System Calls
Concept: System calls are requests made by a program to the operating system for services
(e.g., creating files, accessing hardware).
Types of System Calls:
File management.
Device management.
Process control.

2.3 OS Components
Process Management: Handles running programs and allocates CPU time.
Main Memory Management: Allocates and manages RAM for programs.
File Management: Organizes, stores, and retrieves files.
I/O Management: Controls input/output devices like printers and keyboards.
Secondary Storage Management: Manages long-term data storage, such as hard drives.

2.4 Use of Operating System Tools

User Management: Allows the creation and management of user accounts and permissions.
Security Policies: Protects the system using passwords, firewalls, and access controls.

3.1 Process
Process: A program in execution.
Process States: The lifecycle stages of a process:
New: Process is created.
Ready: Waiting to be assigned to the CPU.
Running: Executing instructions.
Waiting: Paused, waiting for resources.
Terminated: Process is complete.

Process Control Block (PCB): A data structure that stores all information about a process
(e.g., ID, state, priority).

3.2 Process Scheduling

Scheduling Queues: Tracks processes in different states (ready, waiting).
Schedulers:
Long-Term Scheduler: Decides which processes enter the system.
Short-Term Scheduler: Decides which process runs on the CPU.
Medium-Term Scheduler: Swaps processes in and out of memory.

Context Switch: Switching from one process to another by saving and loading states.
3.3 Inter-Process Communication (IPC)
Introduction: Processes need to communicate for sharing data or resources.
Shared Memory: Processes share a common memory space for communication.
Message Passing System: Processes send and receive messages to communicate.

3.4 Threads
Threads: Smaller units of a process that run independently.
Benefits: Faster execution, better resource use.
User Threads vs Kernel Threads:
User Threads: Managed by user programs.
Kernel Threads: Managed by the OS.

Multithreading Models:
Many-to-One: Many threads mapped to one OS thread.
One-to-One: Each thread is mapped to one OS thread.
Many-to-Many: Many threads mapped to multiple OS threads.

3.5 Process Commands

Commands to manage processes:
ps: Displays running processes.
wait: Waits for a process to finish.
sleep: Pauses a process.
exit: Ends a process.
kill: Forcefully stops a process.

4.1 Scheduling Types

Scheduling: Deciding which process gets CPU time.
Types:
Pre-emptive: Processes can be interrupted (e.g., Round Robin).
Non-Pre-emptive: Once a process starts, it runs to completion (e.g., FCFS).

Criteria:
CPU Burst: Time spent using the CPU.
I/O Burst: Time spent waiting for input/output.

4.2 Types of Scheduling Algorithms

FCFS (First Come, First Serve): Processes handled in order of arrival.
SJF (Shortest Job First): Shortest tasks are executed first.
SRTN (Shortest Remaining Time Next): Shortest remaining tasks prioritized.
Round Robin (RR): Each process gets a fixed time slice.
 Priority Scheduling: Higher priority processes handled first.
Multilevel Queue Scheduling: Divides processes into different queues.

4.3 Deadlock
Deadlock: When processes block each other and can’t proceed.
Necessary Conditions:
Mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption, circular wait.

Deadlock Handling:
Prevention: Avoid conditions causing deadlock.
Avoidance: Use algorithms to prevent deadlock (e.g., Banker's Algorithm).

5.1 Basic Memory Management

Partitioning: Divides memory into sections:
Fixed Partitioning: Fixed-sized sections.
Variable Partitioning: Sections vary in size.

Free Space Management:

Bitmap: Tracks memory blocks using bits.
Linked List: Links free memory blocks.

5.2 Virtual Memory

Introduction: Simulates more memory than physically available.
Concepts:
Paging: Divides memory into fixed-sized pages.
Segmentation: Divides memory into logical segments.
Fragmentation: Wastage of memory space.
Page Fault: Occurs when required data is not in memory.

5.3 Page Replacement Algorithms

FIFO (First In First Out): Replaces the oldest page.
LRU (Least Recently Used): Replaces the least recently used page.
Optimal: Replaces the page that won’t be needed for the longest time.
 6.1 File – Concepts, Attributes, Operations, Types, and File System Structure
File: A collection of data stored on a disk, such as a document, image, or video.
Attributes: Characteristics of a file (e.g., name, size, creation date, permissions).
Operations:
Create: Make a new file.
Read: Open a file to see its content.
Write: Add or change data in a file.
Delete: Remove a file from the system.

Types of Files: Text files, binary files, system files, etc.

File System Structure: Organizes and manages files on a storage device.

6.2 Access Methods

Sequential Access: Data is read or written in order, like playing a video or audio file.
Direct Access: Jump to any part of the file directly, like opening a specific page in an e-book.
Swapping: Temporarily moving files from memory to storage when memory is full.
File Allocation Methods:
Contiguous: Files are stored in consecutive blocks on the disk.
Linked: Each file is a chain of blocks connected by links.
Indexed: A special table holds pointers to the file blocks.

6.3 Directory Structure

Single-Level Directory: All files are in one directory.
Two-Level Directory: Each user has their own directory.
Tree-Structured Directory: A hierarchy of directories with sub-directories.
Disk Organization and Disk Structure:
Physical Structure: How data is physically stored on the disk.
Logical Structure: How the operating system organizes and presents data.

RAID Structure of Disk:

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): Combines multiple disks for better
performance or reliability.
RAID Levels (0 to 6):
RAID 0: Splits data across disks for speed.
RAID 1: Duplicates data on two disks for backup.
RAID 5: Spreads data and parity (error checking) across disks.
RAID 6: Similar to RAID 5 but uses extra parity for more reliability.