Introduction:

Good morning! Today we continue our discussion on experimental tools and techniques used in
the study of physical metallurgy.
In the last class, we discussed thermal analysis in detail and examined several metallographic
techniques used to study the microstructures of metals. These techniques include optical
microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-
ray diffraction (XRD).

Recap on X-ray Diffraction:

Let's quickly recap X-ray diffraction (XRD). It is based on Bragg's law, which is expressed as:

2d sin θ = mλ
where:
d is the distance between crystal planes,
θ is the angle of incident beam on the reflecting plane,
m is an integer, and
λ is the wavelength of the X-ray.
In the X-ray diffraction setup:
The incident beam strikes a plane at an angle θ .
The reflected beam is also at the same angle θ .
The angle between the incident beam and the normal to the reflecting plane is 90 − θ .
On a stereographic projection, the incident beam and the transmitted beam are represented. You
can mark the angle 90 − θ on the projection circle.
When using powder diffraction patterns, λ is fixed, but there are many crystal planes to satisfy
Bragg's law, leading to diffraction from multiple planes.

Electron Diffraction:
Electron diffraction follows the same principles as X-ray diffraction because electrons, like X-rays,
exhibit wave-like properties. When electron beams pass through a sample, they get diffracted.
In the case of single crystals, electron diffraction results in spot patterns. For fine crystals, it results
in continuous rings, similar to X-ray diffraction patterns.
 Electron microscopes, such as scanning electron microscopes (SEM) and transmission electron
microscopes (TEM), are very powerful tools that allow high magnification and high-resolution
observation of microstructures.
These microscopes can also be used for microanalysis, such as identifying precipitates or phases
and analyzing elemental composition by measuring secondary electrons emitted from the sample.

Mechanical Properties of Metals:

Mechanical properties are the most sensitive to microstructure. Before we examine how
microstructure can be modified to change mechanical properties, it is important to review the
experimental techniques used to measure mechanical properties.

Common Mechanical Properties:

Tensile strength
Ductility
Formability
Hardness
Impact strength
Fatigue resistance
Creep resistance

Tensile Test:
The tensile test measures the mechanical properties of a material under tensile stress.
The specimen used for the test typically has a uniform diameter or thickness, and a "gage length"
is marked on the specimen.
The specimen is mounted in a universal testing machine, which applies a force and measures the
displacement.
A load cell measures the applied force, and a displacement gauge measures the elongation of the
specimen. Both signals are sent to a recorder for analysis.

Stress-Strain Curve:
 The stress-strain curve is derived from the load-displacement plot. The engineering stress is
defined as:

Load
Stress =
Original Cross-sectional Area
​

Strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length.

The stress-strain diagram provides important information about the material:
Elastic Modulus (Young's Modulus): The slope of the linear portion of the curve.
Proportional Limit: The point at which the stress-strain curve deviates from linearity.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): The maximum stress the material can withstand.
Necking: Local deformation that occurs after the UTS.
Ductility (Elongation): The material's ability to stretch before fracture, measured as percent
elongation at fracture.
Toughness: The area under the stress-strain curve represents the energy absorbed by the material
before fracture.

Types of Stress-Strain Curves:

1. Ductile Materials:
Large deformation occurs before fracture.
The fracture is often characterized by a cup-and-cone type fracture.
2. Brittle Materials:
Fail in the elastic region with minimal deformation before fracture.
The fracture is typically characterized by a clean break with little plastic deformation.
3. Intergranular Fracture:
Sometimes, materials exhibit intergranular fractures, where the crack propagates along the
grain boundaries.

Stress-Strain Behavior and Crystal Structure:

Most engineering materials are not pure; they contain impurities that influence their stress-strain
behavior.
For example:
BCC (Body-Centered Cubic) structures (like steel) exhibit a yield point phenomena due to
interstitial atoms, resulting in a distinct yield point on the stress-strain curve.
FCC (Face-Centered Cubic) structures exhibit a smoother stress-strain curve, with no distinct
yield point.
Stress-Strain Relationships
True Stress vs. Engineering Stress
Engineering stress is defined as the force applied divided by the original cross-sectional area.
Engineering strain is defined as the change in length (ΔL) divided by the original length (L₀).
True stress and true strain are defined similarly, but true stress uses the instantaneous area
and true strain uses the instantaneous length at any given point during deformation.
Relation between True Stress/Strain and Engineering Stress/Strain
The relationship between true stress, true strain, and engineering stress, engineering strain
can be derived through integration.
True strain can be expressed as ln(L/L₀), and true stress is related to engineering stress by a
similar formula.
The engineering stress-strain diagram can be converted into the true stress-strain diagram by
applying this relationship.
The difference between the two becomes significant when necking begins, but up to certain
strains (about 3-4%), the difference is small and difficult to distinguish.

Plastic Deformation and Uniform Elongation

Uniform Elongation (n)

Uniform elongation refers to the material's ability to elongate without significant necking.
The value ‘n’ is a measure of this uniform elongation and relates to the material’s behavior
during plastic deformation.
The relationship between true stress and engineering stress can be used to understand this
elongation and the flow stress at any given time.

Hardness Testing
Hardness Definition
Hardness is the resistance of a material to indentation or scratching.
Scratch hardness is qualitative, and a scale (0-10) is used, with talc being the softest (0) and
diamond the hardest (10).
Engineering hardness is typically measured by indentation resistance.
 Common Hardness Tests
There are three common types of hardness tests:
Rockwell Hardness Test: Uses either a diamond cone or a steel ball indenter.
Brinell Hardness Test: Uses a hardened steel ball indenter to measure the diameter of
the indentation.
Vickers Hardness Test: Uses a square-based pyramid indenter to create an indentation.
Brinell Hardness Test
In Brinell hardness testing, a hardened steel ball indenter is pressed into the material under a
specified load.
The diameter of the indentation is measured to calculate the hardness.
The Brinell hardness number is calculated as the load divided by the contact area of the
indentation.
Example: For steel, the load can be calculated as 30 × D 2 , where D is the indenter diameter.
Vickers Hardness Test
In the Vickers test, a square-based pyramid indenter is used with a specific apex angle of
136°.
The depth of indentation is smaller compared to Brinell, and the diagonal of the indentation
is measured using a microscope.
The Vickers hardness number is derived from the load divided by the indentation area.
Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell test uses either a diamond cone or a steel ball indenter and applies a minor
load first, followed by a major load to measure the depth of indentation.
Rockwell hardness is calculated by the difference in the depth of indentation under the minor
and major loads.
Rockwell C is used for hard steels, and Rockwell B is used for softer materials.

Impact Testing
Impact Testing Overview
Impact testing measures the ability of a material to withstand crack nucleation and growth
under sudden shock loading.
The most common impact tests are the Charpy and Izod tests.
A typical impact testing machine uses a pendulum with a hammer that strikes a V-notched
specimen.
Charpy Impact Test
 The Charpy impact test involves a standardized specimen with a V-shaped notch.
The specimen is placed horizontally, and a hammer is released from a specified height to
strike the notched specimen.
The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is measured and used to assess the material’s
toughness.

Key Points Summary

Engineering vs. True Stress/Strain
Engineering stress and strain are based on original dimensions, while true stress and strain
use instantaneous dimensions during deformation.
True stress-strain diagrams are more accurate, especially after necking starts, but the
difference is small up to around 3-4% strain.
Hardness Testing Methods
Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell tests all measure resistance to indentation.
The type of indenter and the test method (diamond cone, steel ball, square pyramid)
determine the scale and accuracy of the hardness value.
Impact Testing
Measures a material’s toughness under shock loading.
The Charpy test uses a pendulum hammer to strike a notched specimen, and the absorbed
energy is used to calculate the material’s impact resistance.
Charpy V-Notch Test
The Charpy V-notch test measures the energy required to fracture a specimen, which is an indicator of
material toughness. Here's how the test is conducted:
1. A hammer is released from a certain height, striking the specimen, which then fractures.
2. The height of the hammer's fall is measured after the fracture, and this height difference is
converted into energy using the formula:
Energy = mgh
where m is the mass of the hammer, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height
difference.
3. The Charpy V-notch value is derived from the energy required to rupture the specimen. To
improve the accuracy of the test:
First, the hammer is released without a specimen to measure the height the hammer reaches.
Then, the test is repeated with the specimen in place to account for any energy loss from
factors like improper lubrication.

Steel and Brittle Failure

Steel exhibits a very important characteristic when subjected to low temperatures, where it can fail in a
brittle manner. This type of failure is exemplified by:
Titanic Ship: It failed when it struck an iceberg in extremely low temperatures.
Liberty Ships (WWII): These ships suffered brittle fractures due to cold temperatures.

At room temperature, steel is usually ductile, showing good toughness and a high Charpy V-notch
value. However, as the temperature decreases, the toughness of steel drops, and the Charpy V-notch
value reduces. This transition from ductile to brittle fracture occurs at a specific transition
temperature. At this temperature, steel fails with a cleavage fracture, which is a brittle fracture with
little plastic deformation, unlike ductile fractures that show necking and large plastic deformations at
the notch root.

Fatigue Property
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading, which causes stress to fluctuate over
time. Components such as aircraft fuselages or railway wheels are prime examples of materials
subjected to cyclic stresses.
The stress fluctuates between a maximum and minimum value, resulting in strain fluctuations.
This leads to the nucleation and propagation of cracks, ultimately resulting in fracture at a stress
level lower than the material's yield strength.
A rotating beam fatigue test is used to evaluate the material's resistance to fatigue. In this test, a
standard specimen with a reduced section is subjected to cyclic loading, and the number of cycles
to failure is recorded.
 The stress range is the difference between the maximum and minimum stresses, and the number
of cycles to failure is plotted against this stress range.
BCC metals like steel exhibit a certain limit called the endurance limit beyond which the material
can endure infinite fatigue cycles. Non-ferrous metals like aluminum and copper do not exhibit
this limit.

The fracture resulting from fatigue typically shows a characteristic appearance:

It starts with crack nucleation and propagates slowly, leaving starvation marks on the surface.

Creep Property
Creep refers to the time-dependent deformation of materials when subjected to constant stress at
high temperatures. Even if the applied load is less than the material's yield strength, the material will
continue to deform over time, which is referred to as creep.
Creep becomes significant when the temperature exceeds 0.4 to 0.5 times the melting point of
the material in Kelvin.
A typical creep test involves applying a load to a sample at high temperature and measuring the
strain over time. The plot of strain versus time shows three stages:

Stage 1: Initial decrease in strain rate.

Stage 2: Steady strain rate.
Stage 3: Increased strain rate leading to failure.

Creep is important for materials used in high-temperature environments, such as boiler

components, steam turbine blades, or aero gas turbine blades. Monitoring creep requires
sophisticated equipment for precise temperature control and strain measurement, as it often takes a
long time for significant creep to occur.

Creep and Temperature

Creep life is significantly affected by stress and temperature. Higher stress or temperature reduces the
time to failure, and these factors can be combined into a time-temperature parameter known as log
similar parameter. Using this parameter, the master rupture plot is created, allowing engineers to
predict the life of a material at a specific temperature without conducting long-term tests.

Summary
In this chapter, we covered various experimental tools and techniques used to analyze materials,
including:
Metallographic techniques to study microstructure.
X-ray diffraction to identify phases.
Mechanical property tests, including impact, fatigue, and creep tests.
Thermal analysis for determining transformation temperatures in materials.
In the next class, we will move on to the evolution of structures in pure metals.