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Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

™ define cartography;

™ explain the nature and scope of cartography;

™ discuss the history and evolution of cartography; and

™ suggest cartographic solution to mapping the earth.

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Cartography creates simplified visual model of complex real world either on
two or three dimensional surface as maps using science, technology and arts
for easy presentation to the diverse user communities.
It communicates geographical properties graphically. Raise Erwin (1962)
defined cartography as “the art and science of making maps, charts, globes,
and relief models”. Arthur Robinson and others (1978) defined it in a little
limited sense as “a technique, fundamentally concerned with reducing the
spatial characteristics of a large area, a portion or all of the earth, or another
celestial body, and putting it in a form that makes it observable.” F.J.
Monkhouse (1970) defined it as “in its widest sense, the whole series of map
making, from an actual survey of the ground to printing of map in a more
limited sense the drawing of map.” J. Smith (1984) defined as “the science of
constructing maps and charts. It includes the making of original surveys, the
selection of suitable map projections and decisions on colours, layer tinting
and other visual representations.”
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“As a synonym for mapmaking, cartography is often construed to include the
collection of geographical information through systematic surveys, formal or
otherwise of the physical landscape or its human occupants. In an institutional
context, cartography might refer narrowly to the production of artwork for
printed maps or more broadly to the overall mission of a commercial firm such
as McNally or a government agency such as the Ordnance Survey” (Dictionary
of Human Geography, p. 67). Cartography is the combination of all – science,
technology and arts and as defined above, nature of the cartography is
scientific, technological and artistic and therefore, it may be referred to as
interdisciplinary subject. It adopts the scientific approach in data preparation
like the logical foundation in conceptualizing any map right from the extent,
projection, themes, classification and presentation. It involves geography,
geology, geodesy and surveying, engineering, mathematics and geometry,
algebra, etc. as scientific disciplines and techniques.
Similarly, the technology is also deeply involved with it. It may vary from the

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extremely rustic to the most sophisticated ones today made possible by the
unimaginable advancements of computers and other related devices. These
may include computers and graphic technology, electronic theodolites,
electronic total station (ETS), remote sensing, geographical information
system (GIS), global positioning system (GPS), along with communication
technology. The art is inherent in the nature of cartography because it
necessitates good presentation for easy communication to the intended
readers or users.

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Scope of cartography is wide. It includes the conceptualization of various
aspects including extent, scale, projection, themes, field survey and its
methods, data capturing and compilation, analysis and representation etc. It
starts with physical features or phenomena to cultural features and
phenomena. It captures the real existence or visible objects like physiography,
water, rail and roads, forest, settlements, fields, crops etc. and also abstract
things like environment, literacy, empowerment and the level of awareness etc.
It starts with an extremely small scale to plot level mapping or building level
mapping. It includes a very simple geographic projection system to a very
complex projection system for the conversion of spherical earth surface into
two dimensional representation on the plain paper. At visualization level, it can
do both 2D and 3D. Two dimensional visualization gives only two dimensions
or flat surface whereas three dimensional visualization gives third dimension
i.e. height also. It gives paper output as well as output on soft copy or digital
format. It is both static and dynamic in nature as cartography uses GIS
enabled cartography which supports both real time query and mapping. Its
scope is also widening with changing thematic issues as well as technological
advancements.

SAQ 1
What is cartography? Explain.

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The history of cartography can be traced back to the Babylonian era in 2300
B.C. This work was also notable among ancient Greeks as they were well
aware of the spherical earth till 350 B.C., later on accepted by all. Later on,
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Ptolemy (85-165 AD), depicted the world from 60 N to 30 latitudes in his world
map and created a landmark. It has travelled from wooden carved blocks in
printing work of 15th Century to engraved copper plates during 16th Century
(the age of exploration) to modern day hi-tech printing. However, the modern
cartography emerged during the World War I with the use of Aerial
Photography. It was both scientific and accurate. The ultra modern form of
cartography emerged with the emergence of GIS during 1970-80s, where
database and final presentation are kept separate from each other. Earlier in
paper map, both data and presentations were used to be kept together. 9
 MAP PROJECTION
1.1. Introduction:
Projection or Projected coordinate systems are used to locate objects on a flat, 2D surface. The
latitude and longitude coordinates are converted into x and y coordinates on the flat projection.
The plane is marked at intervals by equally spaced coordinate lines, called the map grid.
Mapping onto a 2D plane means transforming geographic coordinates (ɸ, λ) into a set of
Cartesians (x, y) coordinates that represent positions on the map plane (Figure 1.1). Map
projections are projected coordinate, used to display the earth on a flat plane. In the projected
coordinate system, locations are identified by (X, Y) coordinates on a grid, with the origin at
the centre of the grid.

For the given two numerical coordinates x and y of point P, one can precisely specify any
location P on the map. In the projected coordinate system, locations are identified by (X, Y)
coordinates on a grid. Normally, the coordinates x = 0 and y = 0 are given to the origin at the
centre of the grid. However, sometimes large positive values are added to the origin
coordinates. This is to avoid negative values for the x and y coordinates in case the origin of
the coordinate system is located inside the area of interest. The point which then has the
coordinates x = 0 and y = 0 is called the false origin.

Figure 1.1: An illustration of the geocentric coordinate system

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Figure:1.2. Geographic coordinates (ϕ, λ) projected onto the 2D mapping plane with 2D
Cartesian coordinates (x, y)

1.2. Types of projection

There is no universal criterion used to classify projections. However, this subsection briefly
discusses the types of projection as follows.

1.2.1. Types of projection based on developable surface

One method to classify map projection types is by considering the surface at which the map is
developed. A developable surface is the one which can be flattened and receive projected lines
or drawn directly from an assumed globe. There are three types/ classes of this kind commonly
used in GIS. They are cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal/ planar projections.

1.2.1.1. Cylindrical projection:

Cylindrical projection is usually placing the earth inside a cylinder with the equator tangent or
secant to the inside of the cylinder. Lines and points on the spherical grid can be transferred to
this cylinder, which is then unrolled into a flat map. Distortions may appear in area, angle,
distance or direction. There are three types of cylindrical projection: normal, transverse, and
oblique.

✓ In a normal projection, the main orientation of the projection surface is parallel to the
Earth's axis. The equator is the standard line; hence this projection has no distortion on
the equator and low distortion nearby, and suitable for tropical countries.
✓ Transverse projection has its main orientation perpendicular to the Earth's axis. It gives
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 maps with no distortion on the central meridian and low distortion nearby, and suitable
for countries at any latitude.
✓ Oblique projections are all other, non-parallel and non-perpendicular. Transverse and
oblique aspects of many projections can be used for most parts of the world.

Figure:1.3 normal, transverse, and an oblique cylindrical projection

1.2.1.2. Conic projections:

Conic projections resulted from projecting a spherical surface onto a cone by transferring of
parallels, meridians and points from the generating globe grid to a cone enveloped around the
globe. Then, the cone is unrolled into a flat plane. In the normal aspect, the axis of the cone
coincides with the axis of the sphere. This aspect yields either straight or curved meridians that
converge on the near pole and parallels are arcs of circles. In this projection, points are
projected radially onto the cone. The simplest conic projection is tangent to the globe along a
line of latitude, along which there is no distortion. This line is called the standard parallel. In
the secant case, the cone intersects the sphere along two parallels on a globe. This reduces
distortion (e.g. Lambert conformal conic projection).

Distortion increases away from the standard parallel. Thus, cutting off the top of the cone
produces a more accurate projection. This is not used for Polar Regions of the projected data.
Instead, conic projections, simple or secant, are best for mapping earth areas having great east-
west (longitude) extent than north south - mid-latitude zones. However, for small areas,
distortion is minimal.
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 Figure:1.4 Conic projection

1.2.1.3. Azimuthal/l or planar projections:

Azimuthal projections project map data onto a flat surface touching the globe by transferring
of parallels, meridians, and points from the generating globe to a plane sheet of paper enveloped
around the globe. It is made upon a plane tangent (or secant) to the reference surface (the
globe). The point of contact may be the North Pole, the South Pole, a point on the equator, or
any point in between. Tangency at the poles is a normal/polar aspect. At the equator, it is an
equatorial aspect. At middle latitude, it is oblique aspect.

In the polar cases, all meridians radiate out from the pole at their correct angular distance apart;
and are straight lines converging at the pole. Parallels are concentric circles having the pole as
their centres. All lines drawn to the centre are great circles, as is also for equatorial and oblique
aspects. Normally, only one hemisphere is shown on these projections. As is for all projections,
distortions increase with distance from either the standard point or the standard line. All
azimuthal projections possess the property of maintaining true directions from the centre of the
map on the plane map or on the projection. An example is the Universal Polar Stereographic
coordinate system.

Figure:1.5 Azimuthal or planar projections

4
Surveying: Types, Classification, Measurement of Distances - Angles – Determination of areas
– Leveling – Simple problems – Total station – Remote Sensing.

Definition:
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or
beneath the earth’s surface and locating the points in the field.
Uses of Surveying
 To prepare topographical map this shows the hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages towns.
 To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and other
properties.
 To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works, such as
buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals, etc.
 To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find one of the best possible
sites for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals, etc.
 Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map, and archaeological map.
 For setting out of works and transferring details from the map on the ground.
DIVISIONS: Surveying is primarily divided into two types considering the curvature of the earth’s
surface.
Plane Surveying
• The plane surveying is that type of surveying in which earth surface is considered as a plane and
the curvature of the earth is ignored
Geodetic Surveying
• The geodetic surveying is that type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken
into account. It generally extends over larger area.
Plane surveying Vs Geodetic surveying

Fundamental Principles of Surveying: Two basic principles of surveying are:

Work from whole to a part
• According to the first principle, the whole are is first
divided into a number of divisions by forming well
conditioned triangles.
 • The main survey lines are measured very accurately with precise survey instruments. Then the
remaining sides of triangle are measured. The purpose of this method of working is to control
accumulation of errors. During measurement, if there is any error, then it will not effect the
whole work. But if the reverse process is followed then the minor error in measurement will be
magnified.
To locate a new station by at least two measurements ( linear or angular) from fixed reference points:
According to the second principle the points or stations are located by linear or angular
measurement or by both in surveying. If two control points are established first, then a new station
can be located by two linear or two angular measurements or by one linear and one angular
measurement. Let A and B are control points. A new point C can be established. Following are the
methods of locating point C from such reference points A and B.
• The distance AB can be measured accurately and the relative positions of the points can be then
plotted on the sheet to some scale.
 a) Taking linear measurements from A and B for C.
 b) Taking linear measurement of perpendicular from D to C.
 c) Taking one linear measurement from B and one angular measurement as angle ABC.
 d) Taking two angular measurements at A and B as angle CAB and angle ABC
 e) Taking one angle at B as angle ABC and one linear measurement from A as AC.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
Surveying may be classified on the following basis:
(i) Nature of the survey field
(ii) Object of survey
(iii) Instruments used and
(iv) The methods employed.
I. Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field
1. Land Survey. It involves measurement of various objects on land. This type of survey may be further
classified as given below:
(a) Topographic Survey: It is meant for plotting natural features like rivers, lakes, forests and
hills as well as manmade features like roads, railways, towns, villages and canals.
(b) Cadastral Survey: It is for marking the boundaries of municipalities, villages, talukas,
districts, states etc. The survey made to mark properties of individuals also comes under this
category.
 (c) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the construction of streets, water
supply and sewage lines fall under this category.
2. Marine or Hydrographic Survey. Survey conducted to find depth of water at various points in bodies
of water like sea, river and lakes fall under this category. Finding depth of water at specified points is
known as sounding.
3. Astronomical Survey. Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun, stars etc., to locate absolute
positions of points on the earth and for the purpose of calculating local time is known as
astronomical survey.
II. Classification Based on Object of Survey
(a) Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to collect data for designing civil
engineering projects like roads, railways, irrigation, water supply and sewage disposals. These surveys
are further sub-divided into:
 Reconnaissance Survey for determining feasibility and estimation of the scheme.
 Preliminary Survey for collecting more information to estimate the cost of the project, and
 Location Survey to set the work on the ground.
(b) Military Survey: It is conducted to locate strategic positions for the purpose of army operations.
(c) Mines Survey: Mine surveys include both surface and underground surveys. It is conducted for the
exploration of mineral deposits and to guide tunneling and other operations associated with mining.
(d) Geological Survey: In this both surface and subsurface surveying are conducted to locate different
minerals and rocks. In addition, geological features of the terrain such as folds and faults are located.
(e) Archeological Survey: It is conducted to locate relics of antiquity, civilization, kingdoms, forts,
temples, etc.
III. Classification Based on Instruments Used
(i) Chain survey: This is the simplest type of survey in which only linear measurement are made with a
chain or a tape.
(ii) Compass survey: In compass survey angles are measured with the help of a magnetic compass.
(iii) Chain and Compass survey: In this survey linear measurements are made with a chain or a tape and
angular measurements with a compass.
(iv) Plane table survey: It is graphical method of surveying in which field works and plotting both are
done simultaneously.
(v) Theodolite survey: In theodolite survey, the horizontal angles are measured with a theodolite more
precisely than compass and the linear measurements are made with a chain or tape.
(vi) Tacheometric survey: A special type of theodolite known as tachometer is used to determine
horizontal and vertical distances indirectly.
(vii) Leveling Survey: This type of survey is carried out to determine the vertical distances and relative
heights of points with the help of an instrument known as level
(viii) Photogrammetric Survey: Photogrammetric is a science of taking measurements with the help of
photographs taken by aerial camera from air craft.
(ix) EDM Survey: In this type of survey, all measurements are made with the help of EDM.
IV. Classification Based on Methods Employed
(i) Triangulation: In this method control points are established through a network of triangles.
(ii) Traversing: In this scheme of establishing control points consists of a series of connected points
established through linear and angular measurements. If the last line meets the starting point it is called
as closed traverse. If it does not meet, it is known as open traverse.

Plans and Maps

 Plan: A plan is graphical representation to some scale, of the features on, near, or below the
surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal plane
 Map: If the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal plane is small, the plan is called a
map.
 Thus graphical representation is called a plan if the scale is large while it is called a map if
the scale is small.
 On a plan, generally, only horizontal distance and directions or angles are shown. On a
topographical map, however the vertical distances are also represented by contour lines.
LINEAR MEASUREMENTS AND CHAIN SURVEYING
Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and even though angles may be read precisely, the
length of at least one line is essential.
Methods used for linear measurements:
(i) Approximate Methods: (i) pacing; (ii) passometer; (iii) pedometer; (iv) odometer and (v)
speedometer.
 Pacing: Walk along a known length – calculate average length of a step (normal man - 0.75 m to
0.8 m). Walk along the line to be measured and counts the number of steps - number of steps ×
average length of a step gives the distance.
 Passometer: Watch-like instrument - carried vertically in the pocket of shirt or tied to a leg -
records number of steps taken. Thus the problem of counting number of steps is eliminated.
 Pedometer: This instrument is similar to passometer but it can record the distance instead of
number of steps. In this, zero setting and setting of step length is made before walking.
 Odometer: This instrument is attached to the wheel of a cycle or other vehicle. It records the
number of revolutions made by the wheel. Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the
distance travelled may be found.
 Speedometer: Odometer calibrated to give distance directly is called speedometer. This is to be
used for particular vehicle only. All automobiles are provided with speedometers.
Types of Graphs and Their Uses
Silvia Valcheva
http://intellspot.com/types-graphs-charts

Every graph is a visual representation of data. This article describes five

common types of statistical graphs widely used in any science.

1. Line Graph

A Line Graph displays data that change. Every Line Graph consists of data
points that are connected. The purpose of connecting their lines is to help
illustrate a trend, for example, a change or other pattern.

Uses of Line Graphs:

When you want to show trends over time, for example, how house prices
have increased over time
When you want to show cumulative growth or increase

The following Line Graph shows annual sales of a particular

business company for the period of six consecutive years:

NOTE: This article has been modified.

The above Line Graph contains only one line. However, Line Graphs can
illustrate more than one set of data, and therefore can contain more than one
line.

2.Bar Graph
A Bar Graph represents discrete data with rectangular columns (or bars).
Bar Graphs are among the most popular types of graphs in economics,
statistics, and marketing. They are commonly used to illustrate categories of
data.

Each rectangular bar in a Bar Graph has a height corresponding to the values
that they represent. The x-axis of a Bar Graph presents the discrete
categories, and the y-axis shows a measured value.

Uses of Bar Graphs:

When you want to display data that are grouped into discrete categories
When you want to compare differences among categories

Example: The Bar Graph below illustrates the total sum of Sales of Product A
and Product B for each of three years (three categories).

The bars in Bar Graphs can be vertical or horizontal. The above Bar Graph has
vertical bars.
3.Pie Chart
A Pie Chart displays data in a ‘pie-slice’ format and illustrate proportion.Each
pie slice represents the size of one category relative to the size of other
categories -- and in proportion to all the categories together (the whole pie).
Therefore, a Pie Chart illustrates part-whole relationships, and -- for every
Pie Chart -- the whole pie should always add up to 100%.

When you want to create and represent the composition of something

When you want to show percentages or proportional data
A Pie Chart works best for displaying data from four to seven categories.

Example: The pie chart below represents the proportion of types of

transportation used by 1000 students to go to their school.
4. Histogram
A Histogram shows continuous data in ordered rectangular columns.
Usually, there are no gaps between the columns in a Histogram.

A Histogram displays a frequency distribution (shape) of a data set. At

first glance, histograms look like bar graphs. However, there is a key
difference between them. Bar Graphs represents categorical data and
Histograms represent continuous data.

Uses of Histograms:
When the data are continuous.
When you want to represent the shape of the data’s distribution.

Example: The Histogram below illustrates per capita income for each of five
age groups (bins or ranges).

Histograms are widely used in statistics, psychology, business, and

economics.
5. Scatter Plot
A Scatter Plot is an x-y diagram that shows a relationship between two
variables. It is used to plot data points on both the horizontal x-axis and the
vertical y-axis.

The purpose of a Scatter Plot is to show the relationship between two

variables.

Sometimes, but not always, when there is a relationship between two

variables, the first variable is called the independent variable, and the second
variable is called the dependent because its values depend on the first
variable. In these cases, a Scatter Plot allows you to visualize how one
variable (the dependent variable) depends on the other variable (the
independent).

Example: The Scatter Plot below represents the relationship between the
monthly sales achieved by each of seven stores and the online advertising
dollars spent by each of the same seven stores.

The orange line in the above Scatter Plot is called a “line of best fit” or a
“trend line.”

Scatter Plots are used widely in data science, statistics, and psychology.