MODULE 1

Emergence of IoT
INTRODUCTION
“The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that
contain embedded technology to communicate and sense or interact with
their internal states or the external environment.”
IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything network of Internet-connected
physical devices or systems capable of sensing an environment and
affecting the sensed environment intelligently.
The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to
the popular paradigm of the Internet of Things (IoT).
present-day Internet allows massively heterogeneous traffic through it.
This network traffic consists of images, videos, music, speech, text,
numbers, binary codes, machine status, banking messages, data from
sensors and actuators, healthcare data, data from vehicles, home
automation system status and control messages, military
communications, and many more
Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following features
⚫ Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.
⚫ No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
⚫ Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and
non-IP devices.
⚫ Intermittent and often unstable connectivity
⚫ Multiple domains can be supported and operated upon simultaneously over
IoT-based platforms.
EVOLUTION OF IOT
ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines connected online for the
first time in 1974.
Web: World Wide Web became operational for the first time in
1991
Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which
became operational in early 2000
Digital Locks: became operational in early 2001
Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to
hospitals, doctors, and relatives to alert them of medical
emergencies and take preventive measures.
Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the
Internet or with other vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators
contained within it.
Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing,
monitoring, and actuation systems.
 Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller
than a grain of sand each, they can be used in numerous
beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot operate
Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant
processes, assembly lines, distribution lines, and manage
factory floors all on their own.
UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged
as robust publicdomain solutions etc…
THE INTERDEPENDENCE AND REACH OF IOT OVER VARIOUS
APPLICATION DOMAINS AND NETWORKING PARADIGMS
THE INTERDEPENDENCE AND REACH OF IOT OVER VARIOUS
APPLICATION DOMAINS AND NETWORKING PARADIGMS

M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine

CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system
IoE: The IoE Internet of Everything
Industry 4.0: the fourth industrial revolution pertaining to
digitization in the manufacturing industry.
IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet
which aims to decentralize online social interactions,
payments, transactions, and other tasks while maintaining
confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data
IOT VERSUS M2M
M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as one of its
sub-domains
IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a broader range of
interactions such as the interactions between devices/thingsand
people
M2M enables the combination of workflow comprising such
interactions within IoT.
IOT VERSUS CPS
Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing,
control, actuation, and feedback as a complete package
CPS as it allows for the comparison of the physical
system’s output, performance, and health. Based on
feedback from the digital twin, a physical system can be
easily given corrective directions/commands to obtain
desirable outputs
the IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need feedback
or a digital twin system.
IoT is more focused on networking than controls.
IOT VERSUS WOT
From a developer’s perspective, the Web of Things (WoT) paradigm
enables access and control over IoT resources and applications.
WoT paradigm has various adaptability and security challenges,
especially when trying to build a globally uniform WoT
As IoT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things,
people, systems, and applications, which often do not consider the
unification aspect and the limitations of the Internet, the need for
WoT, which aims to integrate the various focus areas of IoT into the
existing Web is really invaluable
Technically, WoT can be thought of as an application layer-based hat
added over the network layer. However, the scope of IoT applications
is much broader; IoT also which includes non-IP-based systems that
are not accessible through the web.
ENABLING IOT AND THE COMPLEX
INTERDEPENDENCE OF TECHNOLOGIES
ENABLING IOT AND THE COMPLEX
INTERDEPENDENCE OF TECHNOLOGIES
IoT paradigm into four planes: services, local connectivity,
global connectivity, and processing.
⚫ Typically, the services offered in this layer are a combination of
things and lowpower connectivity
⚫ The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to
multiple local IoT deployments
⚫ global connectivity plays a significant role in enabling IoT in the real
sense by allowing for worldwide implementations and connectivity
between things, users, controllers, and applications
⚫ The final plane of processing can be considered as a top-up of the
basic IoT networking framework. The continuous rise in the
usefulness and penetration of IoT in various application areas such as
industries, transportation, healthcare, and others is the result of this
plane.
IOT NETWORKING COMPONENTS
we outline the broad components that come into play
during the establishment of any IoT network, into six
types: 1) IoT node, 2) IoT router, 3) IoT LAN, 4) IoT
WAN, 5) IoT gateway, and 6) IoT proxy
IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each
of these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a
radio, which communicates with the network infrastructure (either
within the LAN or outside it). The nodes may be connected to other
nodes inside a LAN directly or by means of a common gateway for
that LAN. Connections outside the LAN are through gateways and
proxies
IoT Router: An I oT router is a piece of networking equipment that is
primarily tasked with the routing of packets between various entities in
the IoT network; it keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the
network
IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local
connectivity within the purview of a single gateway. Typically,
they consist of short-range connectivity technologies. IoT LANs
may or may not be connected to the Internet. Generally, they are
localized within a building or an organization.
IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various
network segments such as LANs. They are typically
organizationally and geographically wide, with their operational
range lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers
IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router
connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet.
Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs.
Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs
and WANs, and the IP layer using only layer 3
IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer
and performs application layer functions between IoT
nodes and other entities. Typically, application layer
proxies are a means of providing security to the network
entities under it ; it helps to extend the addressing range
of its network
In above figure, various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are
configured to to one another as well as talk to the IoT router
whenever they are in the range of it.
The devices have locally unique (LU-x) device identifiers.
These identifiers are unique only within a LAN.
There is a high chance that these identifiers may be repeated in
a new LAN
. A router acts as a connecting link between various LANs by
forwarding messages from the LANs to the IoT gateway or the
IoT proxy.
As the proxy is an application layer device, it is additionally
possible to include features such as firewalls, packet filters, and
other security measures besides the regular routing operations
COMMUNICATION IN IOT
ADDRESSING STRATEGIES IN IOT
 IPV6
The first three blocks are designated as the global prefix, which is
globally unique. The next block is designated as the subnet prefix,
which identifies the subnet of an interface/gateway through which
LANs may be connected to the Internet.
Finally, the last four blocks (64 bits) of hexadecimal addresses are
collectively known as the interface identifier (IID).
IIDs may be generated based on MAC (media access control)
identifiers of devices/nodes or using pseudo-random number
generator algorithms
 SOME OF THE IMPORTANT FEATURES OF IPV6
(i) Larger Addressing Range: IPv6 has roughly four times more
addressable bits than IPv4. This magnanimous range of addresses
can accommodate the address requirements for any number of
connected or massively networked devices in the world.
(ii) Simplified Header Structure: Unlike IPv4, the IPv6 header
format is quite simple. Although much bigger than the IPv4 header,
the IPv6 header’s increased size is mainly attributed to the
increased number of bits needed for addressing purposes.
 SOME OF THE IMPORTANT FEATURES OF IPV6
(iii) End-to-End Connectivity: Unlike IPv4, the IPv6 paradigm
allows for globally unique addresses on a significantly massive
scale. This scheme of addressing enables packets from a source node
using IPv6 to directly reach the destination node without the need
for network address translations en route (as is the case with IPv4).
(iv) Auto-configuration: The configuration of addresses is
automatically done in IPv6. It supports both stateless and stateful
auto-configuration methods and can work even in the absence of
DHCP (dynamic host configuration protocol) servers. This
mechanism is not possible in IPv4 without DHCP servers.
(v) Faster Packet Forwarding: As IPv6 headers have all
the seldom-used optional fields at the end of its packet,
the routing decisions by a router are taken much faster,
by checking only the first few fields of the header.

(vi) Inbuilt Security: IPv6 supports inbuilt security

mechanisms (IPSec) that IPv4 does not directly support.
IPv4 security measures were attained using separate
mechanisms in conjunction with IPv4. The present-day
version of IPv6 has security as an optional feature.
(vii) Anycast Support: Multiple networking interfacesare
assigned the same IPv6 addresses globally; these
addresses are known as anycast addresses. This
mechanism enables routers to send packets to the nearest
available destination during routing
(viii) Mobility Support: IPv6 has one of the essential
features that is crucial for IoT and the modern-day
connected applications: mobility support. The mobility
support of IPv6 allows for mobile nodes to retain their IP
addresses and remain connected, even while changing
geographic areas of operation
(ix) Enhanced Priority Support: The priority support
system in IPv6 is entirely simplified as compared to
IPv4. The use of traffic classes and flow labels determine
the most efficient routing paths of packets for the routers.
(x) Extensibility of Headers: The options part of an IPv6
header can be extended by adding more information to it;
it is not limited in size. Some applications may require
quite a large options field, which may be comparable to
the size of the packet itself.
SEVEN ADDRESS TYPES OF IPV6
(i) Global Unicast (GUA): These addresses are assigned to
single IoT entities/ interfaces; they enable the entities to
transmit traffic to and from the Internet. In regular IoT
deployments, these addresses are assigned to gateways,
proxies, or WANs.
(ii) Multicast: These addresses enable transmission of
messages from a single networked entity to multiple
destination entities simultaneously.
(iii) Link Local (LL): The operational domain of these
addresses are valid only within a network segment such as
LAN. These addresses may be repeated in other network
segments/LANs, but are unique within that single network
segment.
SEVEN ADDRESS TYPES OF IPV6

(iv) Unique Local (ULA): Similar to LL addresses, ULA

cannot be routed over the Internet. These addresses may be
repeated in other network segments/LANs, but are unique
within that single network segment.
(v) Loopback: It is also known as the local host address.
Typically, these addresses are used by developers and
network testers for diagnostics and system checks.
(vi) Unspecified: Here, all the bits in the IPv6 address are set
to zero and the destination address is not specified.
(vii) Solicited-node Multicast: It is a multicast address based
on the IPv6 address of an IoT node or entity
ADDRESS MANAGEMENT CLASSES
Class 1: This class can be considered as an isolated class,
where the communication between IoT nodes is
restricted within a LAN only
⚫ The communication among the nodes may be direct or
through other nodes (as in a mesh configuration).
Class 2:The class 2 configuration is mainly utilized for
enabling communication between two or more IoT LANs
or WANs
Class 3:IoT network configuration, where the IoT LAN
is connected to an IoT proxy. The proxy performs a host
of functions ranging from address allocation, address
management to providing security to the network
underneath it.
Class 4: In this class, the IoT proxy acts as a gateway
between the LAN and the Internet, and provides GUA to
the IoT nodes within the LAN.
Class 5: This class is functionally similar to class 4.
However, the main difference with class 4 is that this
class follows a star topology with the gateway as the
center of the star.
Class 6: The configuration of this class is again similar to
class 5. However, the IoT nodes are all assigned unique
global addresses (GUA), which enables a point-to-point
communication network with an Internet gateway
Class 7:Multiple gateways may be present; the
configuration is such that the nodes should be reachable
through any of the gateways. Typically, organizational
IoT deployments follow this class of configuration
ADDRESSING DURING NODE MOBILITY
in a realistic scenario, especially in modernday IoT
systems (which are low-power and have low
form-factor), the need for addressing of mobile nodes is
extremely crucial to avoid address clashes of addresses
accommodating a large number of IoT nodes.
following three strategies may be to for ensure
portability of addresses in the event of node mobility in
IoT deployments
⚫ Global Prefix Changes ,
⚫ Prefix Changes within WANs:
⚫ Remote Anchoring:
GLOBAL PREFIX CHANGES
Abstracts the addressing strategy using global prefix changes.
⚫ A node from the left LAN moves to the LAN on the right. The
node undergoing movement is highlighted in the figure. The nodes
in the first LAN have the prefix A, which changes to B under the
domain of the new gateway overseeing the operation of nodes in
the new LAN.
⚫ Typically, addresses are assigned using DHCPv6/ SLAAC;
however, in this scenario, it is always prudent to have static node
IP addresses to avoid a clash of addresses.
⚫ This strategy is, in most cases, beneficial as the IoT nodes may be
resourceconstrained and have low-processing resources due to
which it may not be able to handle protocols such as DHCPv6 or
SLAAC.
PREFIX CHANGES WITHIN WANS:
Abstracts the addressing strategy for prefix changes
within WANs. In case the WAN changes its global
prefix, the network entities underneath it must be
resilient to change and function normally.
The address allocation is hence delegated to entities such
as gateways and proxies, which make use of ULAs to
manage the network within the WAN.
REMOTE ANCHORING:
Abstracts the addressing strategy using a remote
anchoring point. This is applicable in certain cases which
require that the IoT node’s global addresses are
maintained and not affected by its mobility or even the
change in network prefixes.
Although a bit expensive to implement, this strategy of
having a remote anchoring point from which the IoT
nodes obtain their global addresses through tunneling
ensures that the nodes are resilient to changes and are
quite stable.
Even if the node’s original network’s (LAN) prefix
changes from A to B, the node’s global address remains
immune to this change.