HKISO #2

BIOLOGY NOTES - Session 2: Life and Living

Objective:

Develop interest in studying living things and demonstrate respect for all living entities
and the environment.

Key Concepts:

Ecosystems:

Comprise communities of organisms and their physical environment.

Include both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors.
Conservation of matter and energy within ecosystems.
Higher biodiversity correlates with increased stability, resistance, and resilience in
ecosystems.

Community vs. Ecosystem:

Community: Populations of various species in a defined area, without considering the

physical environment.
Ecosystem: Encompasses the biotic (living) elements and abiotic (non-living) factors
within a specific area.

Types of Ecosystems:

Marine Ecosystems: Predominant, covering 75% of the Earth's surface.

Freshwater Ecosystems: Rare, occupying only 1.8% of the Earth's surface.
Terrestrial Ecosystems: Cover the remaining Earth surface, including land-based
environments.

Biomes:

Terrestrial ecosystems categorized into biomes based on climate.

Examples: Tropical rainforests, savannas, deserts, coniferous forests, deciduous
forests, tundra, etc.

Specific Biomes:

Tropical Forest
Desert
Savanna
Chaparral
Mountains
Tundra
Energy and Matter Flow:

Movement of energy and matter occurs through food webs and biogeochemical
cycles.
Food webs: Networks of organisms feeding on one another.
Biogeochemical cycles: Pathways of chemical elements through the biosphere.

Example of Carbon Cycle:

Plants use carbon dioxide and nutrients from the soil to build cells.
Animals consume plants, utilizing their molecules for energy and cell development.
Cellular respiration in plants and animals releases carbon dioxide.
Bacteria and fungi decompose waste or deceased organisms, recycling their
compounds.

Unidirectional Energy Flow:

Energy flows into ecosystems as sunlight and exits through heat.

Food Web & Food Chain

Food Chain: Represents a single path of energy flow in a system.

Food Web: Consists of interconnected food chains, depicting multiple feeding
relationships.
Grazing Food Web: Begins with photosynthetic organisms, followed by herbivores and
carnivores.
Detrital Food Web: Starts with decomposers feeding on decaying organic matter.

Trophic Levels

Primary Producer: Initiates the food chain by converting sunlight into energy.
Primary Consumers: Herbivores that feed on producers.
Secondary Consumers: Predators feeding on primary consumers.
Tertiary Consumers: Predators feeding on secondary consumers.
Apex Consumers: Occupy the top of the food chain.

Energy Transfer & Trophic Levels

Most energy is lost through biological processes.

Only energy assimilated into an animal's mass transfers to the next level.
Energy limitations restrict support for higher trophic levels.
Nutrient recycling occurs through waste or decomposition.

Adaptations

Morphological: Physical characteristics aiding survival.

Physiological: Internal body processes supporting survival.
Behavioral: Actions undertaken for survival (e.g., migration, calls).
Causes of Adaptations

Water Scarcity: Specialized water storage or deep root systems.

Temperature Change: Insulation or metabolic rate adjustments.
Sunlight Exposure: Pigment protection or directional growth.
Food Scarcity: Energy reserves or migration.

Ecological Succession

Primary Succession: Formation of life where none existed before.

Secondary Succession: Re-stabilization post-disturbance.
Climax Community: Equilibrium state after evolution.

Disturbances & Equilibrium

Disturbances like natural disasters or human activities affect ecosystems.

Regression is the process of disturbance-induced imbalance.
Resistance: Ecosystem's ability to maintain equilibrium.
Resilience: Ecosystem's speed of returning to equilibrium post-disturbance.

Ecological Relationships

Competition: Overlapping niches leading to resource competition.

Predation: Predators consuming prey for sustenance.
Parasitism: Parasite-host interaction, benefiting one and harming the other.
Mutualism: Symbiotic relationship benefiting both species.
Commensalism: Interaction benefiting one without affecting the other.

Examples of Relationships

Predation: One species hunts and consumes another for survival.

Parasitism: One organism benefits while the other is harmed.
Mutualism: Both species benefit from their interaction.
Commensalism: One species benefits without affecting the other

Species and Taxonomy

Species: Similar organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.
Classification: Organisms grouped for identification (taxonomy).
Taxonomy: Science of classifying organisms into hierarchical groups.
Linnaean Taxonomy: Carl Linnaeus' system organizes species hierarchically:
Hierarchy: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
Binomial Nomenclature: Genus + Species (e.g., Canis lupus).
Subspecies: Variations within a species due to geographic or behavioral isolation.
Binomial Nomenclature Example: Ursus maritimus (Polar bear).

Habitat, Adaptation, Evolution

Habitat: Environment where organisms live, influenced by food, water, cover, and space.
 Adaptation: Traits aiding survival and reproduction in a habitat, shaped by natural
selection.
Evolution: Species' adaptation over time to changing environments.

Levels of Biological Organization

Atom: Basic unit of matter (nucleus + electrons).

Molecules: Atoms bonded together.
Organelles: Structures within cells performing specific functions.
Cell: Basic unit of life; composed of organelles.
Tissue, Organ, Organ System: Levels of organization in multicellular organisms.
Organism: Individual living entity (e.g., a tree).

Cell Theory and Categories

Discovery of Cells: Timeline from the observation of "cella" in cork tissue to the Unified
Cell Theory.
Cell Theory Postulates: All organisms are composed of cells, cells are life's basic units,
and cells arise from existing cells.
Cell Categories: Prokaryotic (without a nucleus) vs. Eukaryotic (with a nucleus and
organelles).

Cell Structure and Components

Nucleus: Control center containing DNA; parts include the nuclear envelope, pores,
nucleoplasm, and nucleolus.
Mitochondria: Energy production sites; consist of cristae and matrix.
Ribosomes: Protein synthesis sites; made of RNA and proteins.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER with ribosomes, Smooth ER for lipid synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and transports proteins.
Lysosomes: Membranous sacs for protein modification and repair.

Additional Insights:

Hierarchy: Understanding the nested levels from species to domains.

Cellular Organization: Levels from atoms to organelles to multicellular organisms.
Cellular Components: Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, ER, Golgi, lysosomes – each
with distinct functions.
Binomial Nomenclature: Genus and species identification (e.g., Canis lupus).
Adaptation and Evolution: How species adapt in response to changing habitats over time.

Organization of Life

Cells

Basic Unit: Every living thing has at least one cell.

Variety: Range from single cells to trillions.
Types: Blood cells, bone cells, muscle cells, etc.
Tissues

Definition: Group of cells working together for a specific job.

Examples: Red blood cells, fat, muscle.

Connective Tissue

Function: Joins, supports, cushions, and insulates.

Examples: Blood, bone, cartilage.

Epithelial Tissue

Characteristics: Forms protective coverings, lining membranes.

Muscle Tissue

Action: Contracts or shortens to cause movement.

Nerve Tissue

Role: Carries messages to and from the brain.

Organs

Composition: Two or more tissues working together.

Examples: Stomach, heart, intestines, etc.

Organ Systems

Definition: Groups of organs performing specific functions.

Examples: Digestive, nervous, cardiovascular systems.

Organism

Definition: Anything that can live independently.

Types: Unicellular, multicellular.

The Big Picture

Interactions: Organisms interact within populations, communities, and ecosystems.

Ecosystems: Terrestrial and aquatic environments.

Homeostasis

Definition: Regulation of internal conditions for stability.

Examples: Body temperature regulation.

Historical Milestones

1665: Robert Hooke discovered cells.

1838-39: Schleiden & Schwann formulated Cell Theory.
Cell Theory

Fundamentals: All organisms made of cells, cell is basic unit, cells arise from existing
cells.

Cell Characteristics

Essentials: Cell membrane, hereditary material (DNA), organelles, cytoplasm.

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes: No nucleus, smaller, bacteria.

Eukaryotes: Nucleus, larger, all other cells.

Organelles

Mitochondria: Energy production.

Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Synthesis and transport.
Golgi Complex: Packaging and shipping.
Lysosomes: Digestion and waste removal.
Chloroplasts (in plants): Photosynthesis.
Vacuoles (in plants): Storage.

Cell Structures

Cell Membrane: Barrier controlling passage in and out.

Cytoplasm: Fluid containing organelles.

Cell Wall

Plant Cell Feature: Outside the cell membrane, provides structure and protection.

Interconnectedness

Cells to Ecosystems: Living beings interact and depend on each other in various ways.

Cells:

Plant and Animal Cells:

Found in Both: Nucleus, Golgi Complex, Mitochondrion, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Cell
Membrane, Ribosomes.
Only in Plants: Chloroplasts, Cell Wall, Larger Vacuoles.
Plasma Membrane:
Selectively permeable, made of bi-lipid layer with integrated proteins.
Functions: Shape maintenance, Barrier, Selective permeability, Endocytosis, Cell
recognition, Osmosis.

Transport Across Membranes:

 Active vs. Passive Transport:
Active: Requires ATP, moves substances against the concentration gradient.
Passive: No ATP, substances move with the concentration gradient.
Bulk Transport: Endocytosis (inward) and exocytosis (outward).
Passive Transport Types: Diffusion and Osmosis.

Osmosis:

Definition: Movement of solvent (usually water) across a semipermeable membrane from

higher to lower concentration.
Types: Endosmosis (inward) and exosmosis (outward).

Chromosomes:

Thread-like structures formed during cell division.

Composed of DNA and proteins, consisting of chromatids attached by a centromere.
Chromosome number: Fixed for each species.

Lysosomes:

Found in animal cells, absent in plant cells.

Vesicles with digestive enzymes for intracellular digestion and waste disposal.
Functions: Breakdown of foreign particles, intracellular digestion, waste removal.

Plastids and Chloroplasts:

Plastids: Only in plant cells; leucoplasts (colorless) and chromoplasts (colored).

Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll, responsible for photosynthesis.

Centrosomes:

Found near the nucleus in animal and lower plant cells.

Composed of centrioles and microtubules, aiding in cell division.

Cell Differences:

Plant vs. Animal Cells:

Presence of cell wall and chloroplasts in plants, absence in animals.
Vacuoles larger in plants, smaller in animals.
Centrioles and centrosomes present in animals, absent in plants