CE 315 EC8 Midterm Reviewer

I - IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION, DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION,

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT, & SCOPE OF HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING

Transportation - essential for a nation’s development and growth.

Transportation engineering/transport engineering - application of technology and scientific principles
to the planning, functional design, operation, and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people and goods (transport).

Importance of Transportation
1. Transport enables the consumers to enjoy the benefits of goods not produced locally.
2. Transport identifies competition, which in turn, reduces price.
3. Transport increases mobility of labor and capital.
4. Transport contributes to growth of industries whose product requires quick marketing.
5. Transport helps in increase in the demand for goods.
6. Transport creates place utility.
7. Transport creates time utility.
8. Transport helps in stabilization of price.
9. Transport ensures even flow of commodities into the hands of the consumers
throughout the period of consumption.

Different Modes of Transportation

1. Roadways Transportation - this mode of transport helps to transfer the goods from one
place to another by road through various methods like auto, buses, trucks, cargos, and
other suitable factors.
2. Railways Transportation - a mean of transport in which the goods and passengers are
transferred from one place to another via railroads.
3. Pipelines Transportation - it is used for sending the liquids and gases from one place to
another using pipes.
4. Water Transportation - it involves the movement of goods through oceans and seas.
5. Air Transportation - also known as aviation, its important characteristic is that it does
not need a particular surface track for its working operations.

Freight and Passenger Traffic - the principal modes of intercity freight transportation are highways,
railroads, water, and pipelines. traffic carried by each mode, expressed as ton-miles or passenger miles,
has varied considerably in the past 70 years.
Public Transportation - a generic term used to describe the family of transit services available to urban
and rural residents. thus, it is not a single mode but a variety of traditional and innovative services,
which should complement each other to provide system-wide mobility.
Transit Modes
 Mass transit - characterized by fixed routes, published schedules, designated
networks, and specified stops; it includes buses, light rail (trolleys) or rapid transit
that either share space mixed traffic or operate on grade-separated rights of way.
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 Para-transit - characterized by flexible and personalized service replace

conventional fixed-route, fixed-schedule mass-transit lines; is available to the
public on demand, by subscription, or on a shared-ride basis.
 Ridesharing - characterized by two or more persons travelling together by
prearrangement, such as carpool, vanpool, or shared-ride taxi.

Characteristics of Road Transport

Land transport - is a transport or a movement of people, animals, and goods from one location
to another location or place by using land. in land transport, there are two main forms: the road
transport and rail transport.
 Road transport - transportation of goods and personnel from one place to the
other on roads; the road is a route between two destinations, which has been
either paved or worked on to enable transportation by way of motorized and
non-motorized carriages.
 Rail transport - also known as train transport; it is a means of transport, on
vehicles which run on tracks (rails or railroads) and is one of the most important,
commonly used, and very cost-effective modes of commuting and goods carriage
over long and short distances.

Characteristics of Road Transport:

 It offers complete freedom to road user to transfer the vehicle from one
lane to another.
 It gives quick and easy transportation of men, machineries, materials etc.
 It serves the agricultural area by transporting of goods.
 Roads are used by various categories of vehicles.
 Construction and maintenance of road transport is cheaper.
 Road transport is a basic need in case of fire and police protections.
 It gives doorstep connectivity even in case of rural area or villages.
 It is important access to reach railways, waterways, and airways.

The Characteristics of Road Transport can be Summarized as:

 Usable
 Affordable
 Accessible
 Safe
 Available

SCOPE OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Highway engineering - deals with the process of design, construction, and maintenance
of different types of roads. apart from the design, construction, and maintenance of
different types of roads, highway engineering also includes the study of the following
topics:
a. Development, planning and locations of roads
b. Materials required for their construction
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c. Highway traffic performance and its control

d. Drainage of roads

SCOPE OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

Transportation engineering - the use of science and technology for organizing,
functioning, and managing transportation systems. those working in the field of
transportation engineering research, assess, design, and develop new solutions that
include but are not limited to:
o Highways and roads
o Traffic control systems
o Public transit systems
o Railroads and depots
o Seaports
o Waterways
o Airports
o Bridges
o Pavements

II - HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING: IMPORTANCE, CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS,

ROAD PATTERNS, PLANNING SURVEYS; HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

Highway Development and Planning - highway engineering involves the planning, design, construction,
operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels. highway planning is a prerequisite for the
development of a highway network and involves estimating traffic volumes and considering
environmental impacts.

Importance of Highway Planning

a. Plan a highway network for safe, efficient, and fast movement of people and goods
b. Minimize the overall cost of construction and maintenance
c. Plan for future development and traffic needs
d. Phase road development programs
e. Establish a compatible financing system

Classification of Roads
1. Expressways - for movement of heavy volume of traffic.
2. Arterial streets - for connecting the central area expressways.
3. Sub-arterial streets - similar arterial roads but to with less spacing.
4. Collector streets - for collection and distribution of traffic through local streets in
residential areas.
5. Local streets - access private property like residences, shops, and industries; traffic
originates here ends here.
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Certain Definitions That are Relevant in This Context:

 Road - a convenient way over which vehicles may lawfully pass for going from one
place to another.
 Service road - used if servicing and as a means of access to adjacent property;
constructed parallel the main road adjacent to roadside buildings.
 Street - a road within a town a residential locality with buildings on one or both
sides.
 Country Road - road connecting place another on the countryside.
 Urban Road - a road within a town or a city.
 Bypass Road - a road constructed skirting a village or a small town, taking off
through a highway joining after bypassing the inhabited area; this helps through
traffic move fast without having to enter the village or town.
 Highway - any public road; a street may be called a highway.
 Arterial Road - road passing within a city and linking the state national highway,
with limited access.
 Freeway - an arterial highway with controlled access crossing other roads at
different levels.
 Boulevard - a very wide road with avenue on its either side; generally used for
ceremonial processions or considered as prestigious roads in a city.

Road Patterns
Urban Road Patterns:
1. Grid Iron Pattern - also known as the rectangular block pattern and is perhaps the
simplest; straight lines and rectangular coordinates can be easily set out, and it is
suitable for flat terrain.
Advantages:
 Construction and maintenance are quite easy.
 Rectangular plots may be further divided into small rectangles blocks for
construction of buildings.
Disadvantages:
 Increases the rate of accident due to poor visibility.
2. Radial Pattern - a circular type of pattern; depending on its layout, the radial
pattern is further divided into three types. they are as follows:
a. Radial or Star and Block Pattern - this type of road pattern is
basically the combination of radial and block patterns; a network of
roads radiates from the center in the outwards direction with a block
pattern.
Advantages:
 It is safer compared to a rectangular pattern.
 Less obstacles.
Disadvantages:
 Only effective in areas where major traffic is flowing
toward a hub.
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b. Radial or Star and Circular Pattern - also known as the radial circular
pattern, has been adopted in certain cases, although in a limited
way.
Advantages:
 This pattern is safer than the above-listed patterns as
the vehicles travel in the same direction.
 Better traffic management due to the presence of
roundabouts.
Disadvantages:
 Its design is complex, and it is quite challenging to
provide a good and required curve.
 Driving ability is affected due to its circular shape.
c. Radial or Star and Grid Pattern - it is a network of roads consisting
of a combination of radial and grid patterns. a radial network of
roads spreads out from the center to the outwards directions. then
the radial streets are connected using a grid pattern.
Advantages:
 Reduction of cut-through traffic.
 Efficient use of land.
Disadvantages:
 Construction cost is higher.
3. Hexagonal Pattern - the basic figure of the road network in this case is a
hexagon; each hexagon has at least one side in common with an adjacent pattern.
through link roads, the hexagon can be divided into six triangle units; facilities
travel from one location to another.
Advantages:
 The distance and the travel time are reduced.
 Congestion of traffic is minimized.
Disadvantages:
 Traffic signs, lighting, and road markings should be properly and
adequately provided to minimize the risk of accidents.

Planning Surveys
For assessing the road length requirements, following studies are made:
1. Economic Studies - details data on the distribution of the current population in the
area, population growth trends, agricultural and industrial product availability,
future development trends in those sectors, communication.
2. Financial Studies - source of income: several financial factors are considered,
including funding sources, projected tax revenue from car and toll fees, and the
indirect effects of the proposed road network on people’s living standards.
3. Traffic or Road Used Studies - it is necessary to undertake traffic; related studies
that include information on the current road infrastructure, daily vehicle traffic
volume, traffic flow patterns and future trends of traffic increase.
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4. Engineering Studies - this includes an examination of the geography, the soil, the
longevity of the roads, and any unique issues with construction, drainage, and
upkeep.

Saturation System for Calculating Optimum Road Length - this option bases its
calculation of road length for an area on the idea of maximizing utility per unit length of
road. this system is therefore a calls saturation system of maximum utility.

Factors for Obtaining the Utility per Length of Roads are:

1. Population served by the road
2. Productivity served be the road network
a. Agricultural product
b. Industrial product

Route Planning - the main objective of this initial phase of road development is to establish
specific goals and prescriptions for road network development along with the more general
location needs. the road pattern which will give the least density of roads per unit area while
maintaining minimum hauling distance is the ideal to be sought.

Highway Alignment and Surveys

Highway Alignment - the laying out of the center line of a proposed highway on the
ground. a new road should be aligned carefully since any change in alignment may not
be possible or may be expensive at a later stage, owing to increased land acquisition
costs and roadside structures constructed after the road has taken shape.
Requirements of an Ideal Alignment:
1. Directness - the aligned route between end points should be as
direct as possible and result in the minimum possible length under
the circumstances.
2. Ease of Construction, Maintenance and Operation - the alignment
should be such that it is easy to construct, maintain and operate the
highway. the curves and gradients should be easy.
3. Safety - safety for the road-users should be the primary
consideration; the stability of natural slopes and man-made slopes
for embankments and cuttings should be ensured to prevent
possible accidents.
4. Economy - the overall cost of construction and maintenance of the
road, as also the operation cost of the vehicles should be as low as
possible.
5. Special Considerations - depending upon the purpose of the
highway and the characteristics of the terrain, special considerations
may be needed as in the case of hill roads or ghat roads.
Horizontal Alignment - while a direct path between the two end points would be ideal,
there are several obstacles that make this very impossible. the usage of horizontal
curves is necessary for a smooth flow of traffic when there is a direction shift.
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Vertical Alignment - because of the potential for environmental harm, vertical

alignment, or grade, is a serious concern. it also becomes more significant for grades
above 10%. the square of the slope and the cube of the water velocity both affect
erosion potential.

Engineering Surveys for Highway Location

The stages of engineering surveys are:
1. Map Study - topographic maps are available with 15 to 30 meters
contour intervals. valleys, ponds, or lakes etc. can be avoided and
approximate position of bridges etc. can be planned.
2. Preliminary Survey - this is carried out to collect all the physical
information which are necessary in connection with the proposed
highway alignment. this works consists of:
a. Primary transverse
b. Topographical features
c. Leveling work
d. Drainage studies & hydrological data
e. Soil survey
f. Determinations of final center line
g. Traffic Survey
3. Final Location and Detailed Survey - the center line of road finalized
is translated on the ground during location survey. detailed survey is
done to fix temporary benchmark and leveling work is used for
drainage and earthwork calculations.

III - DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS

Design criteria - a detailed list of considerations to be used in negotiating a set of road standards. these
include resource management objectives, environmental constraints, safety, physical environmental
factors (such as topography, climate, and soils), traffic requirements, and traffic service levels.

Objectives of Design Criteria for Highway and Railway

 To provide safe roads for all road users
 To have a safe systems approach that encourages:
1. Simpler, self-explaining roads
2. To enforce safe speeds
3. For giving roadsides (the ‘Clear Zone’ idea about unobstructed, traversable
space beyond the edge of the traveled way for the recovery of errant vehicles).

The World Bank’s Sustainable Safe Road Design Manual also Discusses:
1. Functionality - developing a hierarchy of mono-functional roads (e.g., truck,
distributor, and access).
2. Homogeneity - avoiding differences in speed, direction of travel, and mass of vehicles
(with segregation of incompatible road users).
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3. Predictability - ensuring that roads are easy to understand and there are no nasty
surprises (as for ‘self-explaining’ roads).

Controls in Optimizing the Design of Various Highway and Street Functional Classes
1. Human Factors and Driver’s Performance - the suitability of a design rests as much on
how effectively drivers can use the highway as on any other criteria. considerations
include:
 Driver tasks that include vehicle control, guidance, and navigation.
 Use of the facility by older drivers and older pedestrians.
 Errors due to driver deficiencies and situational demands.
 Speed

Philippine Road Safety Action Plan 2017-2022 - a program developed by the

Department of Transportation adopting a vision of zero road traffic death, with an
interim target to reduce road death rate by at least 20% by 2022. the interventions are
organized according to the Action Plan of the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-
2020, focusing on the following:
i. Road safety management
ii. Safe roads and mobility
iii. Safe vehicles
iv. Safe road users
v. Post-crash care
2. Vehicles - there are four general classes of design vehicles, this includes:
1) passenger cars,
2) buses,
3) trucks, and
4) recreational vehicles
In the design of any highway facility, the designer should consider the largest design
vehicle that is likely to use that facility with considerable frequency or a design vehicle with
special characteristics appropriate to a particular location in determining the design of such
critical features as radii at intersections and radii of turning roadways.
3. Traffic Characteristics - the design of a highway and its features should explicitly cover
traffic volumes and traffic characteristics. traffic volumes obtained from field studies
can indicate the need for improvement and directly influence the selection of
geometric design features, such as number of lanes, widths, alignments, and grades.
4. Physical Elements - these elements include:
a. highway capacity
b. access control and management
c. pedestrians
d. bicycle facilities
e. safety
f. environment
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5. Economic Factors - highway economics is concerned with the cost of a proposed

improvement and the benefits resulting from it.

Design Controls of Highway Construction

1. Anticipated Traffic Volume - the design of a highway or any part thereof should
consider jointly all data relating to traffic such as traffic volume, character of traffic
and axle loading. financing, quality of foundations, availability of materials, cost of
right-of-way, and other factors have important bearing on the design.
Design Volume - number of vehicles which is estimated to pass it towards the
end of a road’s life. In estimating the design volume, the minimum life is
commonly assumed to be 10-15 years for a flexible pavement and 20 years for a
rigid pavement.
Elements that should be Included in Design Traffic Data:
 ADT - current Average Daily Traffic, year specified.
 ADT - future Average Daily Traffic, year specified.
 DHV - future design hourly volume, two-way unless otherwise specified
(DHV usually equals to 30 HV).
 K - ratio of DHV to ADT; generally, 12% to 18% for Rural and 8-12% for
Urban.
 D - Directional Distribution of DHV, one-way volume in predominant
direction of travel expressed as percentage of total.
 T - Trucks, exclusive of light delivery trucks, expressed as a percentage
of DHV.
2. Character of Traffic - a thorough knowledge of the design vehicle’s weight,
dimensions, mobility, and other characteristics is essential for good design. the vehicle
which should be used in design for normal operation is the largest one which
represents a significant percentage of the traffic for the design year.
3. Design Speed - the design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of
the physical features of a highway that influence vehicle operation. it is the maximum
safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway when
conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern.
4. Design Traffic (Vehicles) - the operating characteristics of motor vehicles should be
considered in analyzing a facility. the major considerations are vehicle types and
dimensions, turning radii and off-tracking, resistance to motion, power requirements,
acceleration performance, and deceleration performance.
5. Highway Capacity - roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. in
some cases, these influence the capacity of a road.
Roadway Factors:
 Number of lanes
 Type of Facility and its development environment
 Lane widths
 Shoulder widths and lateral clearances
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 Design Speed
 Horizontal and vertical alignments
 Axle loads
 Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersections
6. Classification of Highway - multilane suburban and rural highways differ from
expressways in several ways, including design standards, visual settings, and control
over access points.
7. Accident Information - on all proposed projects, the accident history should be
analyzed, and potentially hazardous features and locations identified to determine
appropriate safety enhancement.

Design Criteria for Railways

1. Equilibrium Speed - It is a speed at which the effect of the centrifugal force is
completely balance by the cant provided.
2. Maximum Permissible Speed - the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve
taking into consideration the radius of the curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant
excess, and the length if transition. on curves where the maximum permissible speed
is less than the max.
3. Cant Deficiency - occurs when train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the
equilibrium speed. it is the difference between the theoretical cant required for such
high speeds and the actual cant provided.
4. Cant Gradient and Cant Deficiency Gradient - these indicates the increase or decrease
in the cant or the deficiency of cant in each length of transition. a gradient of 1 in
1,000 means that a cant or deficiency of cant of 1 mm is attained or lost in every
1000mm of transition length.
5. Rate of Change of Cant or Cant Deficiency - this is the rate at which cant deficiency
increases while passing over the transition curve.
6. Centrifugal Force on a Curve Track - A vehicle tends to travel in a straight direction,
which is tangential to the curve, even when it moves on a circular curve. As a result,
the vehicle is subjected to a constant radial acceleration.
Equilibrium Superelevation - the difference in the heights of the outer and inner rails of
the curve in the state of equilibrium.

IV - GEOEMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS, INCLUDING CROSS SECTIONS,

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGHMENTS, SUPER ELEVATIONS AND EARTHWORKS

Geometric Design of Roads - refers to the dimensions and arrangement of the visible features of a
roadway including their horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections, super-elevation, and
earthworks facilities.
Primary Goal of Geometric Design:
1. Is to create a highway that enables safety
2. Provide efficiency
3. To form cost-effective traffic operations
3 Main Parts of Geometric Roadway Design:
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1. Alignment - the route of road

2. Profile - the vertical aspect of the road
3. Cross-Section - shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and
sidewalks, along with their cross slope or banking
Design Process:
 Number of Lane Level of Service (LOS)
 Alignment
 Super Elevation and Grades
 Cross Section
 Lane Width
 Horizontal and Vertical Clearance
Design Speed - the design speed is referred to a selected rate of travel used to determine the
various geometric features of the roadway.
Design Vehicle - a selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimensions, and operating
characteristics are used to establish highway design controls to accommodate vehicles of a
designated type.
Sight Distance - sight distance is the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver.
Stopping Sight Distance - the distance ahead that a motorist should be able to see so that the
vehicle can be brought safely to a stop short of an obstruction or foreign object on the road.

Geometric Design of a Railway - involves the careful planning and layout of various elements such as
alignment, gradients, curves super-elevations. the geometric design of a railway track should aim to
achieve optimal efficiency in traffic operations while prioritizing safety and cost-effectiveness.

Gradient - the departure of the track from the original level. in an upward or rising gradient, the
track rises in the direction of movement of traffic, whereas in a falling or downward gradient, the
track falls in the direction of the movement.
Ruling Gradient - the steepest gradient allowed on the track section.
Momentum Gradient - the gradient on a section which are steeper than the ruling gradient
acquire sufficient momentum to negotiate them.
Pusher Gradient - the ruling gradient is so severe on a section that it needs the help of extra
engine to pull the same load than this gradient.
Gradient at Station - to prevent movement of standing vehicle, to prevent additional resistance
due to grade.
Cross Section - a vertical section of the ground and roadway at right angles to the centerline of
the roadway, including all elements of a highway or street from right-of-way line.

Principal Elements of Highway

Travel Lanes - the portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of
shoulders and bicycle lanes.
Shoulder - the portion of the roadway contiguous with the travelled way for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, for emergency use, and for lateral support of
subbase, base, and surface courses.
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 Graded Shoulder - the entire shoulder's width is calculated as the distance between
the travel lane's edge.
 Usable Shoulder - the graded shoulder's width is the area where parked cars can be
placed.
Median - this region is situated between the left shoulders of any opposing lanes of
traffic.

Marginal Elements
Roadside And Median Barriers
 Median Barrier - is a longitudinal system designed to prevent wayward vehicles from
crossing the portion of a divided highway.
 Roadside Barriers - protect vehicles from any potential slopes or obstructions.
Curbs and Gutters Gutter - used to collect rainwater that flows along the street diverting
it into a storm drain.
Curbs - used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce right of way.
Guard Rails - longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections
with high fills.
Sidewalk - usually provided on roads in urban areas but are uncommon in rural areas.
when shoulders are not provided on arterials, sidewalks are necessary even when
pedestrian traffic is low.

Horizontal And Vertical Alignment - the horizontal alignment of a roadway should be designed
to provide motorists with a facility for driving in a safe and comfortable manner. design of
horizontal alignment various design elements to be considered in the horizontal elements are:
 Design Speed - The design speed is the main factor in which geometric design
elements depends.
 Horizontal Curve - A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in
direction to the central line of a road
 Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

Tangent Grades - the slopes or grades of tangents are used to designate them. A steep slope has
the effect of slowing down heavier vehicles and raising operational expenses.
Vertical Curve - when the vertical curves are necessary the maximum grade change values are
exceeded by the algebraic difference of intersecting grades. Highway vertical curves can be
divided into two categories:
 Summit Curve or Crest Curve - when designing the length of the parabolic summit
curves, SSD (stopping sight distance) must be considered.
 Sag Curves or Valley Curves - the following are crucial elements to consider when
designing valley curves:
a. Impact-free vehicle movement at intended speed or passenger comfort.
b. Allowing enough space for drivers to see under other cars' headlights
when driving at night
c. Finding the valley's lowest point to provide adequate cross-drainage
facilities
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Two requirements are met by the valley curve's length when used as a transition curve:
1. Acceptable rate of centrifugal acceleration variation or comfortable circumstances.
2. Distance needed to see the headlights while driving at night.

Super Elevation
Advantages of Providing Super Elevation:
i. Super elevation is provided to achieve the higher speed of vehicles.
ii. It increases the stability of fast-moving vehicles when they pass through a horizontal
curve, and it also decreases the stresses on the foundation.
iii. In the absence of super elevation on the road along curves, potholes are likely to
occur at the outer edge of the road.

Factors Of Super Elevation:

a. Wide sections of pavement
b. Need to match the gradient of the next property
c. Factors relating to surface drainage
d. The frequency of driveways, alleys, and cross streets

Earth Work - large volumes of unformed rock or soil to attain the design levels, earthwork is
done to reshape the topography of a site. to produce the desired topography, earthwork entails
cutting and filling.
 Cutting - excavating earth from a work site to create the desired topography is known
as cutting.
 Filling - process of moving the excavated material or additional earth material to a
work location to achieve the desired topography.

Applications of Earthwork typically, the following projects require earthwork:

 Road construction
 Railways
 Irrigation projects involving dams and canals
 Other frequent earthwork applications include land grading, which is done to change a
site's topography or stabilize slopes

V - STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF RAILWAYS AND PAVEMENTS

Railways and Railway Structures

Railway - a transportation system that utilizes tracks and locomotives to transport passengers from one
place to another. It has various components including tracks, bridges, tunnels, and stations.
Railway Structure - a wide array of construction to support railway operations. In designing railway
structures, various loads must be considered such as live loads, dead loads, and environmental loads.
Bridge Deck - part of a railway that carries the track rails.
Types of Bridge Decks:
 Open Bridge Deck - anchored directly to timber bridge ties supported directly on
the floor system. it is less costly but requires additional measures to protect
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vehicles from falling objects during the operation.

 Ballasted Bridges - anchored directly to timber track ties supported in the ballast
section. Ballasted bridges protect vehicles from dropped ballast and materials.
 Track Substructure - the foundation that supports the track and facilitates drainage.
Track Substructure Layers:
 Ballast - the free draining granular material placed at the top of the substructure
layer in which the sleepers are embedded.
 Capping - well-graded natural or artificially blended gravels/solid which have
sufficient fines to permit compaction to high densities.
 Subgrade - the upper part of the earthworks or natural ground upon which the
capping layers and ballast layers are placed.
Railway Structure Design Considerations:
1. Dead Loads
2. Live Load from carried traffic
3. Environmental load (wind, snow, ice, thermal, seismic, and stream flow loads)
Parameters That Determine or Affect the Geometry of the Railway Track
 Gradient in the track
 Curvature of the track
 Alignment of the track
Considerations For Proper Geometric Design of a Railway Track
 Ensure smooth and safe running of trains
 Achieve maximum speed
 Carry heavy loads without failure
 To avoid accidents
 Least maintenance
 Good aesthetics
Gradients - the rise and fall in the level of the railway track. Sometimes it is indicated as percent rise
and fall. Rising gradient is when the track rises in direction while down gradient is when the track
loses elevation.
Objectives of Gradients
 Reach various stations at different elevation
 Follow the natural contours of the ground
 To reduce the cost of earthwork
Grade Compensation on Curves
 For broad gauge (BG) tracks 0.04% per degree of the curve
 For meter gauge (MG) tracks 0.03% per degree of the curve
 For narrow gauge (NG) tracks 0.02% per degree of the curve

Pavements, Pavement Design And Rehabilitation

Types of Pavements:
o Flexible Pavement - consists of a surface layer of bitumen-bound aggregate (asphalt
concrete), several lower layers of appropriate quality aggregate and the subgrade
beneath. The layers enable the pavement to “bend”, reducing damage and the need
for repairs over time.
What are the functions of layers in a flexible pavement?
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Flexible pavement consists of a surface layer of bitumen-bound aggregate (asphalt

concrete), several lower layers of appropriate quality aggregate and the subgrade
beneath.
The structure of flexible pavement is typically made up of the following layers:
 Surface Course
 Binder Course
 Base Layer
 Subbase Layer
 Capping Layer
 Subgrade Layer
o Rigid Pavements - constructed from Portland cement concrete slabs resting on a
prepared subbase of granular material or directly on a granular subgrade. Load is
transmitted through the slabs to the underlying subgrade by flexure of the slabs.

Types of Rigid Pavements

 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP) - plain cement concrete pavements
constructed with closely spaced contraction joints. (Dowel bars or aggregate
interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints. They normally have
a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.)
 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP) - although reinforcements do not
improve the structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the
joint spacing to 10 to 30m.
 Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP) - Complete elimination of
joints are achieved by reinforcement.
 Pre-Stressed Concrete Pavement (PCP) - designed and produced to be
prestressed to bear tensile forces caused by external loads by various live
objects such as vehicles on the road or aircraft in the airports.
o Composite Pavement - a structure comprising two or more layers that combine
different characteristics and that act as one composite material.

Factors Affecting Pavement Design

1. Wheel Load Influence on Pavements - wheel load on pavement determines the required
pavement thickness to prevent subgrade soil damage. Adequate thickness safeguards against
deformations caused by the wheel load at specific points on the pavement.
2. Axle Configuration - by providing multiple axles, vehicles can carry more load. So, the axle
load also influences the design of pavement.
3. Tire Contact Pressure on Pavement - when a vehicle moves on pavement, pressure develops
between the tire and the pavement.
4. Vehicle Speed - if the vehicle is moving at creep speed, then damage also occurs to the
pavement. If the vehicle speed is gradually increased, then it will cause smaller strains in the
pavement.
5. Repetition of Loads - the wheel loads are repeated all the time; due to this, some
deformation occurs on the pavement.
6. Subgrade Type - testing subgrade soil is crucial for pavement construction.
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7. Temperature - in high temperatures, it makes the asphalts less stiff; while in low
temperatures, it makes the asphalt brittle.
8. Precipitation - moisture from rain affects groundwater depth.

Pavement Maintenance and Rehabilitation

Over time, roads and pavements deteriorate due to traffic loads, weather conditions, and other
environmental factors. To ensure the smooth and safe operation of transportation networks, regular
maintenance and occasional rehabilitation are necessary.

Maintenance strategies are employed to combat deterioration. They include:

 Crack Sealing
 Joint Sealing
 Fog Seals
 Patching
Maintenance goals target specific deficiencies to slow overall deterioration.
Rehabilitation involves repairing pavement repairs to reset deterioration.
Categories of Pavement Maintenance
 Pavement Preservation - programs and activities employing a network level,
long term strategy that enhances pavement performance by using an
integrated, cost-effective set of practices that extend pavement life, improve
safety, and meet road user expectations.
 Pavement Rehabilitation - structural enhancements that extend the service life
of an existing pavement and/or improve its load-carrying capacity.
 Pavement reconstruction - replacement of the entire existing pavement
structure by the placement of the equivalent or increased pavement structure.
Types of Cracks
Name: Alligator cracks
Definition: It is an interconnected cracks resembling an alligator's skin.
Cause: Heavy traffic or aging.
Solution: Prompt maintenance is needed.

Name: Longitudinal cracks

Definition: Run parallel or perpendicular to the pavement.
Cause: Due to temperature changes or traffic loads.
Solution: Timely repairs prevent further damage.

Name: Transverse crack

Definition: It is a type of pavement distress where cracks form at right angles to the road. These
cracks are typically straight and can span the entire width of the pavement surface.
Cause: various factors like temperature changes or poor pavement design.
Solution: Timely repairs are necessary to prevent their spread and maintain a safe pavement
surface.

Name: Block cracking

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Definition: It is a pavement issue where interconnected rectangular or block-shaped cracks form

on the road surface.
Cause: It happens due to aging, traffic loads, or inflexible pavement.
Solution: Timely maintenance is crucial to prevent further damage.

Name: Reflection cracks

Definition: Existing cracks in lower layers reflect onto the surface during overlays.
Cause: the existence of fractures in the older pavement layers that spread into the new
pavement layer as traffic loads pass over the cracks and because of temperature changes.
Solution: Proper techniques like crack sealing or milling are needed.

Name: Edge crack

Definition: Travels along the inside edge of a pavement surface within one or two feet.
Cause: The most common cause for this type of crack is poor drainage conditions and lack of
support at the pavement edge.
Solution: As a result, underlying base materials settle and become weakened.

Name: Slippage crack

Definition: Crescent or half-moon-shaped cracks having two ends pointed away from the
direction of traffic.
Cause: They are produced when braking or turning wheels cause the pavement surface to slide
and deform.
Solution: It is necessary to remove the surface course and replace it. The failed area should be
taken up to the point where a good bond is found between the old and new pavement courses.

Pavement Maintenance
Crack Sealing and Filling - prevents the intrusion of water and incompressible materials into
cracks. The methods vary in the amount of crack preparation required and the types of sealant
materials that are used.

Crack Sealing - is the placement of materials into working cracks. Crack sealing requires
thorough crack preparation and often requires the use of specialized high-quality
materials placed either into or over working cracks to prevent the intrusion of water and
incompressible materials.

Crack Filling - places materials into non-working or low movement cracks to reduce
water and incompressible material infiltration. it requires less crack preparation than
sealing, and the filler materials may have lower performance requirements.

Patching - patching material can be just about any Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) or cold mix asphalt
material as well as certain types of slurries. Typically, some form of HMA is used for permanent
patches, while cold mix is often used for temporary emergency repairs.

Pothole Repair - potholes are formed due to water's expansion and contraction under the
pavement, weakening the road's surface. The weight of vehicles further breaks down the
pavement, creating potholes.
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Resurfacing And Overlay - involves the application of approximately 2 inches of asphalt concrete
to the existing surface or pavement of the road to help prolong the life of the road. Overlay or
resurface treated roads might undergo repairs to fix cracks and potholes. these repairs are
performed before the overlay or resurface and won't be visible after.

Asphalt Overlay - used for minor surface issues in asphalt like cracks and starting potholes. If
subgrade and asphalt integrity are intact, overlay suffices, requiring no milling for a simpler and
faster process. prior maintenance may include hole filling, crack smoothing, and cleaning.

Asphalt Resurfacing - this process involves removing some surface layer, addressing damaged
areas without excavation. after cleaning, a new surface layer is added. asphalt contractors
inspect to determine the needed depth for structural and visual improvement. Although
involved, it remains a more affordable option than complete asphalt replacement.

VI - FAILURES, MAINTENANCE, AND REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE

The first highway was constructed on Long Island, New York in the United States in 1911.
Transportation Infrastructures - these are fundamental structures and system used to transport goods
and humans
Examples of Transportation Infrastructures:
 Road
 Railways
 Airways
 Canals
 Bridges and tunnels
 Ship canals

Highway Failure - pavement failure may occur due to values factors such as excessive vehicular
stress, sunlight exposure, water intrusion, unequal expansion, and construction due to seasonal
changes, etc.
Main Causes of Pavements Failure:
1. Poor Soil
2. Ground Hole
3. Poor Quality of Materials
4. Timing of Maintenance

Roads - is a linear way for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use
by vehicles (motorized and non-motorized) and pedestrians.
Types of Failures in Road and Highways
1. Cracking
2. Surface deformation
3. Disintegration
4. Surface defects
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I. Cracking - most common type of pavement failure. the nature of the crack
itself is fast spreading.
Types Of Cracking
1. Alligator Cracking/ Fatigue Cracking
2. Block Cracking
3. Linear Cracking
4. Edge Cracking
5. Transverse Cracking
6. Reflective Cracking
7. Slippage Cracking
II. Surface Deformation - the change in a road surface from the intended
construction profile.
1. Rutting
2. Corrugations
3. Shoving
4. Depression
5. Swell
III. Disintegration - the breaking up of a pavement into small, loose pieces
including the dislodging of aggregate particles. improper curing and finishing
of the concrete, unsuitable aggregates and improper mixing of the concrete
can cause this distress.
1. Potholes
2. Patches
IV. Surface Defects - the boundaries or planes that separate a material into
regions, with each region having the same crystalline structure but a different
orientation.
1. Raveling
2. Bleeding
3. Polishing
4. Delamination

Railways - a platform used by transportation vehicles like trains to transport people and goods.
Types of Failures in Railways
1. Crushed and Split heads
2. Transverse, Compound horizontal fissure
3. Rail misalignment

Bridges and Tunnels

 built to provide passage either above or through the obstacles.
 a bridge is a structure to cross an open space or gap.
 while a tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding
soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end.
Types Of Failures In Bridge And Tunnels
1. Corroded steel materials
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i. Corrosion of Steel
ii. Paint Deterioration
iii. Loose Connection
2. Damaged concrete materials
i. Collapse
ii. Spalling
iii. Wear/Abrasion
iv. Material Deterioration
v. Surface Defect
vi. Water Leak at Deck
3. Expansion Joint
i. Abnormal Spacing
ii. Difference in Level
iii. Rupture
iv. Drainage Blocked
4. Drainpipe

Ports - a maritime facility which may comprise one or more wharves where ships may dock to
load and discharge passengers and cargo. although usually situated on a seacoast, some ports
can be miles inland, with access to the sea via river or canal.
Ship Canals - a canal especially intended to accommodate ships used on the ocean, seas, or lakes
to which it is connected, as opposed to a barge canal intended to carry barges and other vessels
specifically design for a river and/or canal navigation.
Type Of Ports And Ship Canal Failures:
 Material Deterioration
 Damage of Components
 Scouring
 Sedimentation
 Collapsing of wharf/ Settlement of foundation
Airports Runways - a complex of runways and buildings for the take-off, landing, and
maintenance of civil aircraft, with facilities for passengers.
Types of Airport Runways Failure:
1. Cracking
2. Surface Deformation
3. Disintegration
4. Surface Defects
5. Rubber Deposits
Maintenance Of Transportation Infrastructure Highway Maintenance - preserving and keeping each
type of roadway, roadside, structures as nearly as possible in its original condition as constructed or as
subsequently improved and the operation of highway facilities and services to provide satisfactory and
safe transportation, is called Road Maintenance or maintenance of highways.
Maintenance Operations For Road Surfaces:
 Gravel Roads
 Surface Treatment
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 Slick Asphalt Surface

 Concrete Road
Maintenance Operation For Gravel Road
 Blading - a smoothing operation which pulls loose material from the side of the road
or spreads wind-rowed aggregate to fill surface irregularities and restore the road
crown.
 Reshaping or Resurfacing - the reshaping of the driving surface and the road shoulder
can be done by cutting material with the motor grader and relaying it to the proper
shape and crown.

Maintenance Operation For Surface Treatment

 Patching - filling over and repairing damaged asphalt or potholes to a depth of only
one or two inches.
Types:
 Full-Depth Patching - removal of the entire pavement surface layer,
regardless of its thickness, over the patching area.
 Deep Patching - removal of four inches or more of the pavement
surface course.
 Seal Coating - the process of applying a protective coating to asphalt-based
pavements to provide a layer of protection from the elements.
 Remixing and Repaving
Methods:
 Repaved Method - the existing bituminous is re-plasticized, sacrificed.
evenly distributed and a small amount of new mix is the overlaid by a
single machine
 Remix Method - existing bituminous materials are recycled.
Maintenance Operation For Slick Asphalt Surface
 Sealcoating - a bituminous surface treatment (BST), also known as seal coat or chip
seal, is a thin protective wearing surface that is applied to a pavement or base course.
 Retexturing - this method includes mechanical reworking of the existing surface to
improve its frictional characteristics and therefore the resistance to skidding.
Maintenance Operation for Concrete Road
 Crack Sealing - is the process of placing an adhesive sealant into cracks on the
pavement surface, preventing the infiltration of moisture and non-compressible
materials into the pavement.
 Street Sweeping - sweeping removes caked mud, abrasives, and other debris from the
surface. regularly cleaning and sealing joints and random cracks keeps them free of
water and sediments and protects the subgrade from water intrusion.
Maintenance Operation for Shoulder Approach
Shoulder - a portion of the road that falls outside the outer lane and is design for
emergency used by traffic.
Hard And Soft Shoulders
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o Hard Shoulder - consists of a hardened strip of land, it could be

concrete
o Soft Shoulder - usually consist of gravel or dirt
Shoulders Are Generally One Of The Following Types:
 Earth Shoulder
 Earth shoulders consist of those shoulders where turf has not been
significantly established.
 Earth shoulders require extensive maintenance, especially in the
period immediately after construction.
 Every effort must be made to establish turf and to protect any turf
present, to prevent erosion, and the resultant loss of soil.
 Sod Shoulder
 Are earth shoulders on which a solid turf has been established.
 Normally they require very little maintenance and holes, ruts, and
settlements should be repaired with sod or stabilized material.
 Hand labor with shovels is an effective method of smoothing up ruts.
 Aggregate Surface Shoulder
 Aggregate surfaced shoulders will vary in thickness, which will affect
the amount of maintenance required.
 On these shoulders blading should be held to a minimum and spot
repairs made by the addition of aggregate.
 It may be desirable to upgrade aggregate surfaced shoulders at
problem spots and in urban areas.
 Pave Shoulder
 Repairs to bituminous or concrete paved shoulders should be in the
same manner as for similar roadway surfaces.
 If a seal coat has been placed for delineation, it shall be maintained as
a seal coat surface.

Drainage Maintenance
The Means of Removing Surplus Water or Liquid Waste:
1. Cleaning of ditches, culvert, drop inlets and catch basins to accommodate free flow of
water.
2. Removal of sediments, branches and other debris gathered at trash racks, culvert, and
structures entrances.
3. Repair of eroded channels and dikes.
4. Riprap and bank protection to prevent recurrence.

Bridge Maintenance and Traffic Service Bridges Maintenance - it is the up-keeping of the bridge
components in good and serviceable condition to ensure a longer life of the bridge as envisaged at the
time of its design and construction
Type of Approach in Bridge Maintenance:
1. Proactive - operates on a “run-to-failure” philosophy that minimize maintenance time
and investment.
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2. Reactive – takes steps to anticipate and resolve problems before they occur.
3. Seal Or Replace Leaking Joints Or Eliminate Deck Joints - this helps minimize
deteriorations into support structures and elements under their joints
4. Seal Deck Overlays - increases the life of a deck for protecting the surface from strong
chemicals whether vents and daily well.
5. Install Cathodic Protection System - is an electrochemical corrosion mitigation
technique, when a bridge structure is exposed to salt it can expect corrosion to the
embedded steel during its service life. only permanent repair of existing corroded steel
reinforced concrete.
6. Employ Electrochemical Chloride Extraction - is a method of concrete treatment to
prevent future corrosion of steel. the electrochemical chloride extraction is a treatment
process where chloride ions are removed from chloride-contaminated concrete through
ion migration.
7. Repair Concrete - it protects other bridge elements including once made of steel from
damaging and erosion.

Components of Road Maintenance

The various road maintenance functions include:
1. Surface Maintenance - pavement maintenance and rehabilitation programs restore the
riding quality and maintain the structural integrity of the pavement over its full design
life.
2. Roadside and Drainage Maintenance - depends on the characters of roadside where the
roadside is grassy it must be mowed; cutting, ploughing, or spraying with weed killer must
be done.
3. Shoulder And Approaches Maintenance - shoulders protected by bituminous blankets
have surface treatments same as for roadway surface.
4. Snow And Ice Control - in repair of roads, we can apply abrasive to heavily travelled
roadway and street.
5. Bridges Maintenance - exposed steel work must be cleaned by sand blasting flame or
other means followed by repainting.
6. Traffic Service - include stripping, sign repair and maintenance (particularly needed for
repair after stormy weather).

Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation - is an activity primarily to provide good riding and skid resistance or to improve
the structural effectiveness of the pavement.
Primary Objective of Rehabilitation:
1. To improve the smoothness of the road surface.
2. To extend the pavement life.
3. To improve the skid resistance to the road.
4. To construct the sections with poor foundations.
5. To improve the drainage facilities.
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Resurfacing - is the addition pavement layer over the existing roadway or bridge deck surface to
provide additional capacity. The additional re-surface pavement should not be less than 20 mm
in thickness.
9 Steps For Resurfacing:
Step 1: Prep Work
Step 2: Removal
Step 3: New Concrete
Step 4: Sub Drain (Optional)
Step 5: Milling
Step 6: Adjust Appurtenances
Step 7: Tack Coat
Step 8: Paving
Step 9: Reinstatements
Reconstruction - the process of installing both the subgrade asphalt layer as well as the top
pavement overlay layer.
Restoration and Rehabilitation Work Include:
1. Replacement of defective joints.
2. Repair of spalled joints.
3. Substantial pavement work.
4. Reworking or strengthening of sub-base.
5. Recycling existing materials to improve their structural integrity.
6. Adding under drains.
7. Improving shoulders.
8. Removing and replacing deteriorated materials.
Rehabilitation - when the road surface condition becomes poor or defective by warn or
damaged due to aging, weathering and the action of road traffic, rehabilitation or resurfacing
work is needed to restore the pavement surface to the required level of service.
Process:
1. Prioritization of pavements in need of rehabilitation
2. Development of feasible rehabilitation strategies
3. Selection of the most cost-effective rehabilitation strategy
4. Adequate measurement of performance of the rehabilitated pavements
Efficiency Rating
1. Rating of Sufficiency
2. Accident Data
3. Skid Test
4. Maintenance Report
5. Public Comments and Suggestions

VII – TRAFFIC ENGINEERING: TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS – TRAFFIC STUDIES-SPEED, VOLUME,

SPEED AND DELAY, ORIGIN-DESTINATION, PARKING AND ACCIDENT STUDIES; CAPACITY OF
URBAN ROADS AND HIGHWAYS; TRAFFIC OPERATIONS REGULATION AND CONTROL; DESIGN
OF INTERSECTIONS-AT GRADE AND GRADE SEPARATED
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Traffic Engineering - is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the safe and efficient movement of
people and goods on roadways. traffic engineers work to ensure that roads are designed and operated in
a way that minimizes congestion and accidents, while also providing adequate capacity for the level of
traffic.

Traffic Characteristics - is the most important aspect of improving traffic facilities.

In traffic characteristics, we study the following:
 Road User Characteristic
 Vehicle Characteristic
 Braking Characteristic
Road User Characteristics - Road users play an important role in the study about traffic engineering. they
assume an array of roles, such as cars, pedestrians, cyclists, etc., and each one individually assesses the
situation.
Factors that affect road user characteristics are the following:
 Physical Characteristics
 Vision
 Hearing
 Strength
 General Reaction To Traffic
 Mental Characteristics
 Knowledge
 Skill
 Intelligence
 Experience
 Literacy
 Psychological Characteristics
 Anger
 Fear
 Impatience
 Superstition
 Worry
 Environmental Characteristics
 Weather Condition
 Traffic facilities

Vehicular Characteristics - the features of the vehicle being used for travelling the roadways are often
referred to as vehicular characteristics. the specifications for a vehicle operating on a road regarding its
dimensions and weight should be appropriate with the amenities provided on that road.
In vehicular characteristics, we study:
1. Dimension
 Length - vehicle length affects parking designs, turning radius and extra
widening; maximum length of vehicles can be up to 18 meters
 Width - width of vehicle affects lane width, shoulder width and parking designs;
maximum width of vehicles can be up to 2.44 meters
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 Height - height of vehicle affects height of bridges, electricity poles and other
service line; maximum height of vehicle is up to 4.75 meters
2. Weight of Loaded Vehicle - the design of pavement thickness and gradients may be
influenced by the weight of the loaded vehicle; limiting gradients are govern by weight
and power.
3. Power of Vehicle - the limiting value of gradients and the permissible value are both
influenced by the vehicle's power.
4. Speed of Vehicle - traffic control and all geometric elements are influenced by the
vehicle's speed.

Braking Characteristic - vehicle braking characteristics are affected by the kind and efficiency of the
braking system. the stopping distance, headway between vehicles, and safety of vehicle operation may
be influenced by the braking characteristics of traffic engineering.
Traffic Studies and Analysis - traffic studies or surveys are carried out to examine the characteristics of
traffic. the geometrical features and traffic management techniques needed to ensure safe and efficient
traffic flows are supported through this study. consensus additionally applies to traffic surveys, which are
used to gather data on traffic.
Traffic Volume Studies - is the quantity of vehicles passing through a particular area of road. usually
expressed as vehicles/hour or vehicles/day.

Traffic Speed Study - is a vehicle's current velocity at a specific area.

Two Main Types of Speed:
➢ Spot Speed - displays the vehicle's current velocity at a specific location. it is
necessary to plan both vertical and horizontal curves, sign’s location and size, signal
design, and accident analysis. doppler radar, pressure contact tubes, and endoscopy are
used to measure it.
➢ Average Speed - is the average speed of all cars passing an exact location. there are
two types of average or mean speed:
 Time Mean Speed - represents the arithmetic mean of all vehicle speeds
which have been measured during a time of interval.
 Space Mean Speed - is the average speed of cars travelling a particular
length of road at any time. it is presented as the harmonic mean of the
moving objects' speeds.

Speed and Delay - carries out over a large distance, making determining traffic density easier.
Various Methods For Carrying Out Speed And Delay Studies:
➢Floating Car Method - a test is driven through an established path at a speed that is
nearly identical to that of the stream, seeking to float with it.
➢ License Plate Method/Vehicle Method - utilized voice recorders or synchronized stop
watches. The observers are positioned at the test section's entry point and departure
point where the information regarding trip duration is needed.
➢ Interview Method - the work may be finished quickly by interacting with and
gathering information from the road users immediately. the data gathered, however,
might not accurately offer all the information.
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➢Elevated Observations and Photographic Technique - are excellent resources for

learning simple test topics like intersections. this approach is ideal for examining the
speed on a variety of local roads.

Origin and Destination (O and D) Study - it establishes their numbers, points of origin, and final
locations in the relevant zone studies. it provides details on the route selected, the actual direction of
travel, and the distance travelled.
The following are several methods of O&D study:
 Roadside interview method
 Home interview method
 Tag on car method
 Return method
 License plate method

Parking Study - one of the biggest issues on by the increase in traffic on the roads is parking. it influences
the development of transportation. the demand for parking has increased as there is less space available
in towns and cities, particularly in regions like major business districts.
There are two basic types of parking facilities:
 On-street or curb parking - a type of parking in which cars are parked on curbs
that were originally designated for parking. on the curb parking, angle or parallel
parking may be permitted. angles like 30 degrees, 60 degrees, or 90 degrees are
frequently employed.
 Off-street parking facilities - if parking is provided at a location away from the
curb, it is referred to as off-street parking; off-street parking has an advantage of
avoiding unnecessary traffic jams and delays.

Accident Studies - is carried out to locate the location of an accident, determine what caused it, and
implement design control precautions.
These are the various records that are maintained in accident studies:
 Location Files - is useful in identification of points of serious accidents
 Spot Maps - show accident spots, pins, symbols etc.
 Condition Diagram - condition diagram studies the important physical
conditions of accidents
 Collision Diagram - shows the approximate path of vehicles and pedestrians
involved in accidents.

Capacity of Urban Road and Highway Road Capacity - the maximum volume of traffic that a highway
facility can handle in each time frame given the current state of the roads, the traffic, and the amount of
traffic control.
Types of capacity:
 Basic Capacity - is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a specific spot
on a lane or roadway in one hour, given the best possible road and traffic
conditions.
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 Possible Capacity - is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a specific
location on a lane or highway in one hour, under the prevailing roadway and
traffic conditions.
 Practical Capacity - is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given
point on a lane or roadway for one hour, if traffic density doesn't cause an
unnecessarily long delay, a hazard, or a restriction on the driver's ability to
maneuver under current traffic circumstances. typically, this is referred to as the
"design capacity."

Traffic Control Devices And Regulation - it direct, guide and inform drivers by offering visual or tactile
indicators. also, it notifies road users of regulations and provides warning and guidance needed for the
reasonably safe, uniform, and efficient operation of all elements of traffic.

Intersection - when two roads meet to form an at-grade junction, are nodes in the transportation
network. The rules governing how the traffic streams from these two paths interact are established by
the intersection's form of traffic management.
Intersections are classified into two broad groups:
 At-grade intersection - all roads converge at the same point. In this kind of crossroads,
almost every type of traffic maneuver is utilized.
 Grade separated intersection - if the intersections' intersecting roads are separated by a
difference in elevation, this eliminates the necessity for a crossing maneuver. the
required interchange facilities make it possible to turn between grade-separated
intersections.

Traffic Signal - is a control device which could alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at
intersections using red and green traffic light signals automatically. the main requirements of traffic
signals are to draw attention, provide meaning and time to respond and to have minimum waste time.
Types of Traffic Signals:
o Traffic Control Signals - they have three colored light glows facing each direction of
the traffic. RED light means STOP, GREEN means GO, YELLOW or AMBER means
allows the CLEARANCE.
o Pedestrian Signals - they are meant to give the right way to pedestrian to cross a
road during the walk period when the vehicular traffic shall be stopped by red or
stop signal on the traffic signals of the road.

Traffic Sign - Is a device that is installed on a fixed or portable support and conveys a specific message
using words or symbol. Traffic sign should be set in such a way that they are easily seen and recognized
by road users.
There Are Three Classifications of Traffic Signs:
o Regulatory/Mandatory Signs
o Warning Sign
o Informatory Sign
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There are three basic types of traffic sign: signs that give orders, signs that warn and signs that
give information. Each Type has different shapes. Circles give orders, Triangles warn, and
Rectangles inform.
A further guide to the function of a sign is its color. Blue circles give a mandatory instruction,
such as “Compulsory Turn Left” etc. Blue rectangles are used for information signs. All triangular
signs are red.
 Regulatory/Mandatory Sign - used to educate road users of specific laws
and regulation to ensure traffic safety and flow.
 Shape - Circular
Regulatory signs are classified under the following sub-
heads:
1. Stop and Give-Way Signs
2. Prohibition Signs
3. Speed Limit and Vehicle Control Signs
4. No Parking and No Stopping Signs
5. Compulsory Direction Control and Other
Signs 6. Restriction End Signs
 Warning/Cautionary Signs - are used to advise road users of upcoming
road conditions at a suitable distance in advance. The warning signs are
shaped like an equilateral triangle with an upward pointing apex.
 Shape - Triangle
The symbol is black and have white background with red
border.

 Informatory Sign - is used to provide to guide road users about the

routes, destination, direction, roadside facilities which make travel easier,
safe, and pleasant.
 Shape - Rectangular
Informatory signs are classified under the following sub-
heads:
1. Directions and Place Identification Signs
2. Facility Information
3. Other Useful Information Signs
4. Parking Signs
5. Good Gauge

Road Marking - markings are made of lines, patterns, words, symbols or reflectors or the pavement,
curb, sides of islands or the fixed objects within or near the roadway. Road marking is a safety device
used on roads. Traffic markings may be called special signs intended to control, warn, guide, or regulate
traffic.
Functions of Road Marking
a) Segregation of Traffic
b) Stop and Go
c) Give way instruction
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d) Overtaking or not
e) Two lanes to one lane/lane traffic
f) Inter-vehicle distance
g) Parking zone or no parking
h) Speed indication
i) Direction
j) One way
k) Pedestrian crossing
l) Type of vehicles allowed

Types of Road Marking

1. Pavement Marking - are generally made with white and yellow color marking used to
indicate parking restriction.
The following are the common types of pavement marking:
 Centre Line - this line is meant to separate the opposing streams of traffic on
undivided two-way roads
 Lane Line - this line is design to guide traffic and to properly utilize the carriageway.
 Edge Line - this line indicates the carriageway edge of rural road which have no curb
stones along the edges.
 No Passing Zone Marking - it indicates that overtaking is prohibited.
 Turn Markings - are useful near intersections to designate proper lateral placement
of vehicles before turning to different directions.
 Stop Line - are meant for vehicles to stop near a pedestrian crossing, signalized
intersection etc. where the vehicles must stop and proceed.
 Crosswalk Lines - place where pedestrian is to cross a pavement that are properly
marked by the pavement markings.
 Bus Stop - a space meant for bus stop is also marked by the word “BUS” (by yellow
color)
2. Curb Marking - indicates a certain regulations like parking regulations. also, the
marking on the curb and edges of islands with alternate black and white line increase
the visibility from a long distance.
3. Object Marking - physical obstruction on or near the roadway are hazardous and
hence should be properly marked. typical obstruction are supports for bridges, signs and
signal, level crossing gates, traffic islands, narrow bridge, culver head walls etc.
4. Reflector Marking - is used as a hazard and guide markers for safe driving during
night. hazard markers reflection yellow light should be visible from a long distance of
about 150m.

Road Delineators - is a provided visual assistance to drivers about the alignment of a road ahead,
especially at night. Reflectors are used on delineator for better night visibility.
The Three Types of Road Delineators:
1. Roadway Indicators
2. Hazard Markers
3. Object Markers
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VIII – TRAFFIC FLOW AND ANALYSIS OF ROADS INCLUDING QUEUEING ANALYSIS

AND LEVEL OF SERVICE ASSESSMENT

Traffic Stream Parameters - traffic streams can be characterized by several different operational
performance measures. a traffic stream that operates free from the influence of such traffic control
devices as signals and stop signs is classified as uninterrupted flow. traffic streams that operate under
the influence of signals and stop signs are classified as interrupted flow.

Traffic Flow, Speed, and Density - traffic flow, speed, and density are variables that form the
underpinnings of traffic analysis. to begin the study of these variables, the basic definitions of traffic flow,
speed, and density must be presented.
• Traffic Flow - often measured over the course of an hour, in which case the resulting value is
typically referred to as volume.
• Speed - this measure of average traffic speed is referred to as the space-mean speed and is
expressed as (assuming that the travel time for all vehicles is measured over the same length of
roadway).
• Density - the number of vehicles occupying a given length of a lane or roadway at a particular
instant.

Basic Traffic Stream Models - as more and more vehicles begin to use a section of highway; the traffic
density will increase, and the average operating speed of vehicles will decline from the free-flow value as
drivers slow to allow for the maneuvers of other vehicles.
1. Speed-Density Model - as more and more vehicles begin to use a section of highway;
the traffic density will increase, and the average operating speed of vehicles will decline
from the free-flow value as drivers slow to allow for the maneuvers of other vehicles.
2. Flow-Density Model - the flow density diagram is used to give the traffic condition of a
roadway. this is referred to as the traffic flow at capacity, or simply the capacity of the
roadway. when the density is zero, flow will also be zero since there are no vehicles on
the road.
3. Speed-Flow Model - it shows that two speeds are possible for flows up to the highway’s
capacity. the flow is zero either because there are no vehicles or there are too many
vehicles so that they cannot move.

Headway - the distance or time between the rear bumper of a vehicle and the front bumper of the next.
 Time Headway - the difference between the time when the front of a vehicle arrives at a
point on the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at the same point.
 Space Headway - the distance between corresponding points of two successive vehicles at
any given time.

Types of Traffic Models

o Microscopic Model - predict the following behavior of cars (their change in speed and position)
as a function of the behavior of the leading vehicle.
o Macroscopic Model - used to calculate traffic flows for a country, region, or city.
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Models of Traffic Flow

o Poisson Model - used to model the random process, the number of vehicles arriving a given
time.
Limitations of the Poisson Model - If the variance is significantly greater than the mean,
the data are said to be over dispersed, and if the variance is significantly less than the
mean, the data are said to be under dispersed. In either case the Poisson distribution is
no longer appropriate, and another distribution should be used.

Queuing Analysis
Queuing - can occur at red lights, stop signs, bottlenecks, or any design-based or traffic-based
flow constriction.
Dimensions of Queuing Models - the purpose of traffic queuing models is to provide a means to
estimate important measures of highway performance, including vehicle delay and traffic queue
lengths.
Queuing models are often identified by three alphanumeric values:
 the first value indicates the arrival rate assumption
 the second value gives the departure rate assumption and
 the third value indicates the number of departure channels.

D/D/1 Queuing Model - assumes deterministic arrivals and departures with one
departure channel.
M/D/1 Queuing Model - assumes exponentially distributed arrival times, deterministic
departure times and one departure channel.

Traffic Analysis at Highway Bottlenecks

1. Recurring Bottlenecks - exist where the highway itself limits capacity. traffic congestion at such
bottlenecks results from recurring traffic flows that exceed the vehicle capacity of the highway in
the bottleneck area.
2. Incident-Induced Bottlenecks - occur because of vehicle breakdowns or accidents that
effectively reduce highway capacity by restricting the movement of traffic.

Level-of-Service Analysis - level of service (LOS) is a term used to qualitatively describe the operating
conditions of a roadway based on factors such as speed, travel time, maneuverability, delay, and safety.
The HCM [Transportation Research Board 2010] defines the LOS Categories for freeways and
multilane highways as follows:
1. Level of service A - signifies free-flow conditions where there is a high degree of
freedom to choose speeds and maneuver within the traffic stream.
2. Level of Service B - allows speeds like in low traffic, but more vehicles are around.
Choosing speeds is still easy, but moving between cars is a bit less comfortable than
Level of Service A.
3. Level of Service C - involves almost free-flow speeds with limited maneuvering,
resulting in reduced driver comfort. Traffic disruptions lead to lengthy queues and
delays.
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4. Level of Service D - shows slightly lower speeds with more restricted maneuvering,
leading to decreased driver comfort and both physical and psychological discomfort.
5. Level of Service E - indicates traffic operating at or near full capacity. Small
disruptions like entering vehicles or lane changes can lead to delays as other vehicles
adjust.
6. Level of Service F - describes a breakdown in vehicular flow, with queues forming
where incoming traffic surpasses outgoing flow. This disruption leads to slow speeds,
congestion, and often complete stops.

Level-of-Service Determination
 Base Conditions and Capacity - base conditions can be categorized as those relating to roadway
conditions, such as lane widths, lateral clearances, access frequency, and terrain; and traffic
stream conditions such as the effects of heavy vehicles (large trucks, buses, and RVs) and driver
population characteristics.
 Determining Free-Flow Speed - governed by roadway design characteristics (horizontal and
vertical curves, lane and shoulder widths, and median design), the frequency of access points,
the complexity of the driving environment and posted speed limits.
 Determining Analysis Flow Rate - one of the fundamental inputs to a traffic analysis is the actual
traffic volume on the roadway. generally, the highest volume in a 24-hour period (the peak-hour
volume) is used for volume (v) in traffic analysis computations.
 Calculating Service Measure(s) and Determining LOS - once the previous steps have been
completed, all that remains is to calculate the value of the service measure and then determine
the LOS from the service measure value. for freeways and multilane highways, this is a relatively
straightforward task.

Basic Freeway Segments - a basic freeway segment is defined as a section of a divided roadway having
two or more lanes in each direction, full access control, and traffic that is unaffected by merging or
diverging movements near ramps.

Multilane Highways - like freeways in most respects, except for a few key differences:
o vehicles may enter or leave the roadway at at-grade intersections and driveways (multilane
highways do not have full access control).
o multilane highways may or may not be divided (by a barrier or median separating opposing
directions of flow), whereas freeways are always divided.
o traffic signals may be present.
o design standards (such as design speeds) are sometimes lower than those for freeways.

Two-Lane Highways - two-lane highways are defined as roadways with one lane available in each
direction. These highways are typically found in rural areas and are designed to handle lower volumes of
traffic compared to freeways or multilane highways.

IX - PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND DESIGN: SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTS ON PAVEMENT

MATERIALS, PAVEMENT DESIGN FACTORS, DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENTS AS
PER IRC
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Ideal Road Pavement Requirement

A good pavement should possess the following requirement:
 it should have required thickness to distribute the wheel load
stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade soil.
 it should be structurally strong to resist all types of stresses
imposed upon it.
 to prevent the skidding of vehicles, it should have a sufficient
coefficient of friction.
 it should have a smooth level surface that offers comfort to road
users even at high speed.
 ensure less noise when the vehicle moving on it.
 it should be dustproof so that there is no danger to traffic
safety.
 it must provide an impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is
well-protected, and
 it should offer low maintenance with long life.

Specification and Testing on Pavement Materials

Why Testing of Pavement Materials?
 to ensure quality during construction.
 conforms with appropriate standard.
 to understand the behavior of the materials individually and in combination with
other materials.

Pavement Materials:
1. Soil
2. Aggregates
3. Bitumen
4. Cement

Soil - the natural material over which the pavement is going to be constructed. All types of soil derive
from the disintegration of rocks and decomposition of vegetation.
Soils are defined as:
 residual,
 sedimentary,
 aeolian and
 glacial.

Soil Testing
Soil Bearing Capacity Tests - the strength for resisting the compressive stress is the bearing
capacity of soil. the bearing capacity of the soil material over which the pavement is going to be
constructed is expressed in pavement engineering by reference either to the California bearing
ratio (CBR) or to the modulus of subgrade reaction, k.
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 California Bearing Ratio (CBR test) - performed in construction materials

laboratories to evaluate the strength of soil subgrades and base course materials.
There are CBR laboratory tests and CBR in situ tests.
 Plate bearing Test (modulus of subgrade reaction, k) - determines the ground's
bearing capacity and actual strength by applying an increasing load from a circular
steel plate to induce settlement. it is used in cases where the ground particle sizes
are large, or the soil has a firmer texture.
 Resistance R Value Test - used to measure the potential strength of subgrade, subbase,
or even base course soil materials in pavements. the R-value test measures the ability of
the tested material to resist lateral spreading due to an applied vertical load.
 Repeated Triaxial Test - Resilient Modulus Test - it is a measure of material stiffness and
provides a mean to analyze stiffness of materials under different conditions, such as
moisture, density, and stress level. while the specimen is subjected to the dynamic
cyclic stress, it is also subjected to a static confining stress provided by a pressure
chamber.
 Density Test in Situ - a density test is a type of materials test to determine the density
of compacted soil, rock, or other materials, either in the field or in a lab setting.
compaction density obtained on site is measured by one of the following methods: the
sand-cone method, the rubber balloon method, nuclear methods or the drive-cylinder
method.
 Sand-Cone Method - it consists of creating an almost cylindrical hole, weighing the
extracted material, and measuring the volume of the hole created. this test method is
used to determine the density and water content of compacted soils placed during the
construction of earth embankments, road fill, and structural backfill.
 Rubber Balloon Method - in this method, the volume of the hole created is measured
by water, which is secluded by a rubber membrane, creating a balloon. it determines
the in-situ density and unit weight of the soil when testing compacted earth fills.
 Nuclear Method - this is a rapid non-destructive method for in situ measurements of
wet density, water content and the determination of dry density of soil and soil
aggregate mixtures. the nuclear densometer measures the interaction of gamma
radiation with the ground to calculate the density.
 Drive-Cylinder Method - this test method is used to determine the in-situ density of
soils that do not contain significant amounts of particles coarser than 4.75 mm, and
which can be readily retained in the drive cylinder.

Aggregates - these are used in pavement construction in cement concrete, bituminous concrete, and
other bituminous construction. also used in granular base course underlying the superior pavement
layers.

Aggregate Tests
 Aggregate Impact Test - evaluates the toughness or resistance of the aggregates to the
impact. aggregate impact value should not normally exceed 30% for aggregate to be
used in wearing course of pavements. the maximum permissible value is 35% for
bituminous macadam and 40% for water bound macadam base courses.
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 Los Angeles Abrasion Test - it determines the wear on aggregates under the influence
of crushing and abrasion forces. the forces are developed during rotation of the
aggregate and steel spheres in an apparatus known as the Los Angeles machine. the Los
Angeles abrasion value of good aggregates acceptable for cement concrete, bituminous
concrete and other high quality pavement materials should be less than 30%.
 Aggregate Crushing Test - evaluates the strength or resistance of aggregates to
crushing. the aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to
crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. IRC and BIS specify that the ACV
for cement concrete pavement should not exceed 30 percent.
 Soundness/Accelerated Weathering Test - a test to study the resistance of aggregates
to weathering action, by conducting accelerated weathering test cycle. aggregates that
are durable (resistant to weathering) are less likely to degrade in the field and cause
premature HMA pavement distress and potentially, failure. as per IRC, 12% is the
maximum permissible loss in soundness test after 5 cycles with sodium sulphate, for the
aggregate to be used in bituminous surface dressing, penetration macadam and
bituminous macadam constructions.
 Shape test: Flakiness Index, Elongation Index and Angularity Number
1. Shape test - determines the size and shape of aggregates.
2. Flakiness Index of aggregate - the percentage by weight of particles whose
least dimension [thickness] is less than three- fifths [0.6] times of their mean
size.
3. Elongation Index of aggregate - the percentage by weight of particles whose
greatest dimension [length] is more than nine - fifths [1.8] times of their mean
size.
4. Angularity Number of an aggregate - the amount by which the percentage
voids exceed 33, after being compacted in a prescribed manner.
 Specific gravity Test - the test that measure the quality or strength of material. the
specific gravity of aggregates normally used in construction ranges from about 2.5 to 3.0
with an average value of about 2.68. aggregates having low specific gravity are generally
weaker than those with high specific gravity.
 Water absorption Test - water absorption measure the porosity and gives an idea on
the internal structure of aggregate. aggregates having more absorption are more porous
in nature and are generally considered unsuitable, unless found to be acceptable based
on strength, impact, and hardness tests.

Bitumen - a visco-elastic material used as a road surfacing and roofing material usually in flexible road
construction. Bitumen shall be prepared by the refining of crude petroleum by suitable methods using
appropriate crude or by blending different crudes or different short residue to achieve desired properties
of paving grade bitumen conforming to specifications.
Different forms of bitumen used in road construction are:
 Cutbacks Bitumen - are used extensively in sprayed sealing applications, particularly in
cooler weather where they provide improved initial stone retention due to their lower
viscosity.
 Bitumen Emulsion - used during road works to seal roads and protect them from other
elements.
 Bituminous Primers - to bind the loose aggregates of crushed aggregate base course so
that it can be prepared for subsequent construction activity of laying asphalt layer.
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 Modified Bitumen - helps the road for better age resistance properties, prevention of
cracking and reflective cracking, higher resistance to deformation at high pavement
temperature and lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations.

BITUMEN TESTS
 Penetration Test - the penetration value of bitumen is measured by distance in tenths
of mm that a standard needle would penetrate vertically into bitumen sample under
standard conditions of test. the test measures the hardness or softness value of
bitumen.
 Softening Point Test - softening point test specified bitumen based on its temperature
resistance which indicates the proper bitumen binder in the desired weather conditions
when constructing roads. softening point value should be higher than pavement
temperature, otherwise, bitumen present in the layer will be soft and sticky.
 Ductility Test - ductility of bitumen is its property to elongate under traffic load without
getting cracked in road construction works. ductility test on bitumen measures the
distance in centimeters to which it elongates before breaking when two ends of
standard briquette specimen of material are pulled apart at a specified speed and
specified temperature.
 Viscosity Test - determines the flow characteristics of bitumen in the range of
temperatures used during application. viscosity greatly influences the strength of
resulting paving mixes.
 Specific Gravity Test - measures how much lighter or heavier bitumen is compared with
the same volume of water. the specific gravity of pure bitumen is in the range of 0.97 to
1.02. this test can be used to classify and identify the type of bitumen.
 Flash and Fire Point Test - conducted on bitumen to know the safe mixing and
application temperature values of bitumen grade. At higher temperatures bituminous
materials leave out volatiles and these volatile vapors contains hydrocarbons.
 Solubility Test - used to measure the percentage of soluble bitumen content in an
organic solvent. To perform the solubility test, bitumen is solved in a specific solvent
and then the mixture is filtered. After that, insoluble materials are washed, dried, and
then weighed.
 Rolling Thin Film Oven Test - helps measure the effect of heat and wind on a moving
film utilized in the hot mix asphalt binder. this test can determine how effective the
asphalt mixture is for any construction, therefore RTFO is vital before contracting a
pavement.

Cement - a chemical substance used for construction that sets, harden, and adheres to other materials
to bind them together. it is a durable and long-lasting option for road construction. the benefits of
cement-treated bases include high bearing capacity, increased stiffness, and lower deformation under
loads.

Cement Tests
 Fineness Test - The fineness of cement is the significant factor affecting the rate of
hydration, rate of gain of strength, setting time, and rate of evolution of heat. The rate
of strength development increases with fineness.
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The fineness of cement can be determined by:

 Sieve test - the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is
continuously passed for 15 minutes through standard bis sieve no. 9.
the residue is then weighed, and this weight should not be more
than 10 per cent of original weight.
 Permeability apparatus test - specific surface area of cement
particles is calculated, which is expressed as the total surface area in
sq.cm/g.

 Consistency Test - the consistency of cement is the minimum water requirement to

start the chemical reaction between water and cement. this test helps to identify the
minimum water required to make the cement paste.
 Setting Time Test - Vicat's apparatus is used to find the setting times of cement i.e.,
initial setting time and final setting time.
 Compressive Strength Test - compressive strength, is carried out on a 50 mm (2-inch)
cement mortar test specimen. the test specimen is subjected to a compressive load
(usually from a hydraulic machine) until failure. this loading sequence must take no less
than 20 seconds and no more than 80 seconds.
 Soundness Test - soundness test is conducted in Le Chatelier's apparatus; a specimen of
hardened cement paste is boiled for a fixed time so that any tendency to expand is
speeded up and can be detected. the soundness of cement refers to the stability of the
volume change in the process of setting and hardening.
 Heat of Hydration Test - during the hydration of cement, heat is produced due to
chemical reactions. this heat may raise the temperature of concrete to a high
temperature of 50°C. to avoid these, in large scale constructions low-heat cement must
be used.
 Tensile Strength Test - this test is carried out by molding cement-sand mortar briquettes
which are placed in a machine that can apply a tension load. a 1:3 cement-sand mortar
with the water content of 8% is mixed and molded into a briquette in the mold. the
tensile strength is calculated by measuring the load required to split the sample in half
over the section of the fracture.
 Chemical Composition Test - different tests are conducted to determine the amount of
various constituents of cement.

Pavements Design Factors - many factors such as number of vehicles, speed, climatic conditions, and
other factors affect are to be considered for the design of pavement. ground or surface transportation is
the most widely used transportation in the world. so, construction of pavements should be done as it is
strong and durable for their design life.

Traffic - key factors include contact pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load
repetitions.
 Contact pressure - the type pressure is an important factor, as it determines the contact
area and the contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even
though the shape of the contact area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a
circular area is often considered.
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 Wheel load - it determines the depth of the pavement required to ensure that the
subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configurations affect the stress distribution and
deflection within a pavement.
 Axle configuration - the load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further
enhanced by the intro-duction of multiple axles.
 Moving loads - The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at
creep speed. Many studies show that when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24
km/hr, the stresses and deflection reduced by 40 per cent.
 Repetition of Loads - The influence of traffic on pavement not only depend on the
magnitude of the wheel load, but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each
load application causes some deformation, and the total deformation is the summation
of all these.
 Structural models - The structural models are various analysis approaches to determine
the pavement responses (stresses, strains, and deflections) at various locations in a
pavement due to the application of wheel load. The most common structural models are
layered elastic model and visco-elastic models.
 Layered elastic model - A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains, and
deflections at any point in a pavement structure resulting from the application of a
surface load. Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural layer is
homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic.
 Material characterization
The following material properties are important for both flexible and rigid
pavements:
 When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the elastic moduli
and Poisson ratio of subgrade and each component layer must be
specified.
 If the elastic modulus of a material varies with the time of loading,
then the resilient modulus, which is elastic modulus under repeated
loads, must be selected in accordance with a load duration
corresponding to the vehicle speed.
 When a material is considered non-linear elastic, the constitutive
equation relating the resilient modulus to the state of the stress must
be provided.

Environmental factors
 Temperature - the effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different from that of concrete
pavements. temperature affects the resilient modulus of asphalt layers, while it induces curling
of concrete slab.
 Precipitation - the precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity of surface water
infiltrating into the subgrade and the depth of ground water table. poor drainage may bring lack
of shear strength, pumping, loss of support, etc.
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