Purposive Communication Lecture

COMMUNICATION

- It was derived from the Latin words con which means “a business,” communis which
means “common,” and communico which means “to confer” or “to relate with one
another” (Igoy et al., 2014).

- It is, therefore, defined as the process of accomplishing a goal, “with a business to

confer or relate with one another.” Thus, in business and workplace situations, an
effective communication is vital to a company’s overall success.

- Communication is a two-way process by which information is exchanged between or

among individuals through a common system of symbols, signs and behaviour
(Martinez 1).

- According to DeSantis, the communication is made between two sides, the source and
the receiver. For him the source, which is the creator of the message, performs four
roles: determining the meaning of what is to be communicated, encoding the meaning
into the message, sending the message, and perceiving and reacting to a listener's
response to the message. However, the receiver decodes the messages by analysing
and interpreting them. Then, the receiver has to store and recall the message, and
finally, to respond to the source, message, channel, environment, and noise.

ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Communication is integrated in all parts of our lives.

Communication is valued in the real world. At any given moment, we explore
how communication is integrated into all episodes of our lives. Our lives consist
of four domains: academic, professional, personal, and civic.

 ACADEMICS. Communication skills are tied to academic success.

Students who are good at writing and speaking perform better not only in
the English classroom but also in the content areas and all other areas of
learning.

 PROFESSIONAL. Desired communication skills vary from one career to

another. However, English courses provided important skills essential for
functioning in entry-level jobs. In such a competitive job market, being
able to demonstrate that you have received communication instruction and
training from communication professionals can give you the edge needed
to stand out from other applicants or employees.

 PERSONAL. Having a vocabulary to name the communication

phenomena in our lives increases our ability to alter consciously our
 communication. This is activated in order to achieve our goals, avoid
miscommunication, and analyse and learn from our inevitable mistakes.
Communication is crucial for a person’s success.

 CIVIC. There is a connection between communication and a person’s

civic engagement. We are engaged with the world around us, participate in
our society, and become a virtuous citizen. Civic engagement refers to
working to make a difference in our communities by improving the quality
of life of community members; raising awareness about social, cultural, or
political issues; or participating in a wide variety of political and non-
political process (Ehrlich, 2000).

2. Communication meets needs.

The exchange of messages and information is important for many reasons, but it
is not enough to meet the various needs we have as human beings. While the
content of our communication may help us achieve certain physical and
instrumental needs, it also feeds into our identities and relationships in ways that
far exceed the content of what we say.

 Physical needs. The need to communicate keep our bodies and minds
functioning. Communication, which we most often associate with our
brain, mouth, eyes, and ears, actually has many more connections to and
effects on our physical body and well-being.

 Instrumental needs. Communicating for instrumental needs helps us get

things done in our day-to-day lives and achieve short- and long-term
goals.

 Relational needs. Communicating for relational needs helps us maintain

social bonds and interpersonal relationships. Communication meets our
relational needs by giving us a tool through which to develop, maintain,
and end relationships.

 Identity needs. Communication allows us to present ourselves in a distinct

manner. Identity needs include the need to present ourselves to others and
be thought of in particular and desired ways. Our identity changes as we
progress through life, but communication is the primary means of
establishing our identity and fulfilling our identity needs.

3. Communication is guided by culture and context.

O’Neil (2006) defines culture as the full range of learned human
behaviour patterns. It includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Conversely, context is the circumstances that form the setting for an event,
statement, or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood (Oxford
Dictionary, 2018).
Culture and context also influence how we perceive and define communication.
 4. Communication is learned.

We are born with the capacity to learn a language and the ability to communicate.
However, our manner of communication varies from one person to another based
on culture and context. This is because communication is learned rather than
innate. It is learned through human contact.

5. Communication has ethical implications.

Communication ethics deals with the process of negotiating and reflecting on our
actions and communication regarding what we believe to be right or wrong. In
communication ethics, we are more concerned with the decisions people make
about what is right and wrong.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION: VERBAL AND NONVERBAL

 Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is
transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of
writing. Objective of every communication is to have people understand what we are
trying to convey. In verbal communication remember the acronym KISS (keep it
short and simple).
When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying
because we know what we are saying. But this is not the case. Usually people bring
their own attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence
creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.

Verbal Communication is further divided into:

Oral Communication
In oral communication, spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face
conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice
over internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch,
volume, speed and clarity of speaking.

Written Communication
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to
communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written. In written
communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc.
Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar
used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.

 Nonverbal Communication
 Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We
can say that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body
language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal
communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker.
Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received.

Nonverbal communication cues can play five roles:

 Repetition: they can repeat the message the person is making verbally.
 Contradiction: they can contradict a message the individual is trying to convey.
 Substitution: they can substitute for a verbal message. For example, a person's eyes can
often convey a far more vivid message than words.
 Complementing: they may add to or complement a verbal message. A boss who pats a
person on the back in addition to giving praise can increase the impact of the message.
 Accenting: they may accent or underline a verbal message. Pounding the table, for
example, can underline a message.

The many different types of nonverbal communication include:

o Facial expressions
o Body movements and posture
o Gestures
o Eye contact
o Touch
o Space

TWO TYPES OF SETTINGS WHERE WE COMMUNICATE:

o Informal Settings: chats and conversations
-We certainly engage in chats and conversations daily in informal settings. These
daily occurrences rarely merit our attention yet these are important parts of our lives.
o Formal Settings: interviews, debates, public speaking, group discussions and
parliamentary procedures
-It is the communication that takes place along the “official” lines of communication
within an organization.

ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1. SENDER/ENCODER

The sender also known as the encoder decides on the message to be sent, the best/most effective
way that it can be sent. All of this is done bearing the receiver in mind. In a word, it is his/her job
to conceptualize.
The sender may want to ask him/herself questions like: What words will I use? Do I need signs
or pictures?

2. MEDIUM

The medium is the immediate form which a message takes. For example, a message may be
communicated in the form of a letter, in the form of an email or face to face in the form of a
speech.

3. CHANNEL

The channel is that which is responsible for the delivery of the chosen message form. For
example, post office, internet, radio.

4. RECEIVER
The receiver or the decoder is responsible for extracting/decoding meaning from the message.
The receiver is also responsible for providing feedback to the sender. In a word, it is his/her job
to INTERPRET.

5. FEEDBACK
This is important as it determines whether or not the decoder grasped the intended meaning and
whether communication was successful.

6. NOISE (also called Interference)

This is any factor that inhibits the conveyance of a message. That is, anything that gets in the
way of the message being accurately received, interpreted and responded to. Noise may be
internal or external. A student worrying about an incomplete assignment may not be attentive in
class (internal noise) or the sounds of heavy rain on a galvanized roof may inhibit the reading of
a storybook to second graders (external noise).

FIVE STEPS TO THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN THE WORKPLACE

 Creation. Creating the message is the first step of the process. It is the forming
the communicative intent where the sender generates an idea. This requires the
individual who is sending the message to decide what he wants to say and select a
medium through which to communicate this information.
  Transmission. After a message is created, it must be transmitted. This
transmission may be as simple as meeting with the intended recipient of the
message and orally sharing the message, or calling the individual to communicate
orally over the phone.

 Reception. After transmitting the message, the communication duties change

hands and fall upon the receiver of the message. This individual must obtain the
message either from the written format the sender selected or by listening
carefully as the message is delivered orally.

 Translation. Once receiving the message, the recipient must translate the
messages into terms that s/he can easily understand.

 Response. Communication is a two-way street and response is often necessary.

Message recipients take the lead in concluding the communication process by
crafting a response to the message. This response may be verbal or written.

ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION
Essential issues to be aware of in any communication situation are:

 Content refers to the information and experiences that are provided to the
receiver of the communication process. It is what the receiver derives value from.
Thus, content must be presented in a language that makes a grammatical sense.
Words have different meanings and may be used or interpreted differently. So
even simple words and messages can be misunderstood.

 Process refers to the way the message is presented or delivered-- the nonverbal
elements in speech such as the tone of voice, the look in the sender’s eyes, body
language, hand gestures, and state of emotions such as anger, fear, uncertainty,
and confidence that can be detected.

 Context refers to the situation or environment in which your message is

delivered. Important contextual factors that can subtly influence the effectiveness
of a message include the physical environment.

COMMUNICATION ETHICS IN THE ACADEMIC CONTEXT

Communication ethics deals with the behaviour of an individual or a group which
is governed by their morals and in turn affects communication.

 Writing should be done carefully.

 Uphold research ethical standards.
 When dealing with the faculty and staff, students should show their
respect toward them by showing politeness, humility, honesty, and
sincerity.
 Transactions or communication plans should follow a protocol for their
acceptance or approval.
  Never tell a lie or misinterpret facts to your teachers, classmates, or to any
people.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication models are systematic representations of the process which helps in

understanding how communication works can be done. Models show the process metaphorically
and in symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by breaking communication
from complex to simple and keeps the components in order. Communication models can
sometimes encourage traditional thinking and stereotyping but can also omit some major aspects
of human communication.

Methods and channels of communication to be used and the purpose of communication,

must be considered before choosing a specific communication model. Models are used by
business companies and other firms to foster their communication, explore their options and to
evaluate their own situations. It is also used to understand how the receivers will interpret the
message.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION MODEL

There are three general types of communication models in which all other
communication models are mostly categorized.

1. Linear Model of Communication

Linear model of communication is a simple one way communication model. The message flows
in a straight line from sender to the receiver. There is no concept of feedback. The only task that
a receiver does here is to receive the message. Different models that follow linear model of
communication are:
Aristotle’s Model
Shannon Weaver Model
Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

ARISTOTLE’S MODEL
One Sentence Overview: A framework for thinking about how to improve your
communication abilities, by looking at key aspects underpinning a situation.

Aristotle’s model of communication

is the oldest communication model, dating
back to 300BC. The model was designed to
examine how to become a better and more
convincing communicator. Aristotle argues
we should look at five elements of a
communication event to analyze how best to
communicate: speaker, speech, occasion,
target audience and effect. He also identified
three elements that will improve
communication: ethos (credibility), pathos
(ability to connect) and logos (logical argument). Aristotle’s model does not pay attention to the
role of feedback in communication.

SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL
One Sentence Overview: The Shannon-Weaver model is the first to highlight the role of
‘noise’ in communication, which can disrupt or alter a message between sender and receiver.

The Shannon-Weaver
model sees communication
occurring in five key parts:
sender, encoder, channel,
decoder, receiver. It emphasizes
the importance of encoding and decoding messages for them to be sent (e.g. turning them into
written words, morse code, etc.). During the process of encoding, sending and decoding, ‘noise’
occurs that can disrupt or cloud a message. In the most traditional sense, this may be static on a
radio broadcast, or even extend to mishearing a conversation or misspelling an email. This model
was the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication process. The idea of feedback
was retroactively introduced to this model.

BERLO’S S-M-C-R MODEL

One Sentence Overview: Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains it in four
steps: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

Berlo’s model of communication explains it in four steps: Source, Message, Channel,

and Receiver. The unique aspect of Berlo’s model is that it gives a detailed account of the key
elements in each step that will affect how well the message is communicated:
Source: Elements of the source include communication skills of the sender, their attitude
and their culture.
Message: Elements of the message include its content, structure and code.
Channel: Elements of the channel include the senses of hearing, seeing, touching,
smelling, etc.
Receiver: Elements of the receiver include their attitude, knowledge and culture.

See a summary of all elements in the image below:

2. Transactional Model of Communication

In transactional model, senders and receivers
both are known as communicators and both play
equally important role in communication.
Transactional model relates communication with
social reality, cultural up-bringing and relational
context (relationships). Non-verbal feedback
like gestures, body language, is also considered
as feedback in this model. Different models that
follow transactional model of communication
are:
 Barnlund’s Transactional Model
Helical Model

BARNLUND’S TRANSACTIONAL MODEL

One Sentence Overview: Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication highlights
the role of private and public cues that impact our messages.

Barnlund’s Transactional Model of

Communication is a model that explores interpersonal,
immediate-feedback communication. Central to this
approach is the idea that feedback for the sender is the
reply for the receiver.
This model also highlights the role of ‘cues’ in
impacting our messages. Barnlund highlights the role
of public cues which are environmental cues,
and private cues which are a person’s personal
thoughts and background. With this emphasis on cues,
Barnlund’s model highlights the factors that influence
what we think and say.

DANCE’S HELICAL MODEL

One Sentence Overview: Dance’s Helical Model sees communication as a circular
process that gets more and more complex as communication occurs, which can be represented
by a helical spiral.

Dance’s Helical Model builds on circular models by explaining

how we improve our messages over time by using feedback. When
we communicate with others, their feedback will influence our next
statement. We become more knowledgeable with each cycle of
communication, enabling up to ‘expand our circle’, as represented
by the increasingly wider and wider circles. The movement up the
spiral indicates that each communication practice is new and
different from the previous, as communication does not ever
perfectly repeat itself.

3. Interactive Model of Communication

Interactive model or convergence model is similar to
transactional model as they are both two way
communication model. But, interactive model is mostly
used for new media like internet. Here, people can respond
to any mass communications like videos, news, etc. People
can exchange their views and ideas. Different models that follow interactive model of
communication are:
Schramm’s Interactive Model

OSGOOD-SCHRAMM MODEL
One Sentence Overview: The Osgood-Schramm model shows.

The Osgood-Schramm model explores

communication that is equal and reciprocal. It does
not differentiate between the sender and receiver,
but sees each as being in an equal position as
message encoders and decoders. This model is best
for explaining and examining personal
synchronous communication where feedback is
immediate (such as face-to-face discussions). As
feedback is immediate, noise can be reduced through ongoing clarification of messages during
the conversation.