Alternating emf: Alternating emf is that emf which continuously changes in magnitude and periodically reverses its direction. Alternating Current: Alternating current is that current which continuously changes in magnitude and periodically reverses its direction. E =E,sin wt E =E, cos wt l=hsinwt | |E,I 1 =) cos wt E,1 —Instantaneous value of emf and current ‘Symbol of E,, |; — Peak or maximum value or amplitude of emf and current | AC Source w — Angular frequency t—Instantaneous time wt — Phase Average or Mean Value of Alternating Current: Average or Mean value of alternating current over half cycle is that steady current which will send the same amount of charge in a circuit in the time of half cycle as is sent by the given alternating current in the same circuit in the same time. dq =I dt =|, sin wt dt a q=! |, sin wt dt ° q=2h/w = 2T/20 = | Tit in = 'yy = 1 (TI2) In=ly = 2lg/1 = 0.6371, = 63.7%, Average or Mean Value of Alternating emf: E,=Ey = 2E,/1 = 0.637E, = 63.7% Note: Average or Mean value of alternating current or emf is zero over a cycle as the + ve and — ve values get cancelled. Mean Value of AC, |,Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of Alternating Current: Root Mean Square (rms) value of alternating current is that steady current which would produce the same heat in a given resistance in a given time as is produced by the given alternating current in the same resistance in the same time. dH = PR dt = |,?R sin? wt dt 1 H=JIgR sin? wt dt H=12RT/2 (After integration, w is replaced with 2 1/T) If, be the virtual value of AC, then H=l,?RT [Nelms hy = hf V2 = 0.7071, = 70.7 %l Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of Alternatingemf: [Ele ) Ey = Ey/\2=0.707 E, = 70.7 %Ey Note: 1. Root Mean Square value of alternating current or emf can be calculated over any period of the cycle since it is based on the heat energy produced. 2. Do not use the above formulae if the time interval under the consideration is less than one period. Relative Values Peak, Virtual and Mean Values of Alternating emf: Tips: . The given values of alternating emf and current are virtual values unless otherwise specified. i.e. 230 VAC means E,= Em, = Eyy = 230V AC Ammeter and AC Voltmeter read the rms values of alternating current and voltage respectively. They are called as ‘hot wire meters’. .. The scale of DC meters is linearly graduated where as the scale of AC meters is not evenly graduated because H a I?AC Circuit with a Pure Resistor: R E =E,sinwt een I=E/R O = (E,/R) sin wt E =E, sin wt I=)sin wt (where |,=E,/R and R= Ej/ |) Emf and current are in same phase. AC Circuit with a Pure Inductor: E =E,sin wt Induced emf in the inductor is - L (dl / dt) In order to maintain the flow of current, the applied emf must be equal and opposite to the induced emf. Ewer ain 12 /(E,/L) sin ust dt E, sin wt = L (dl/dt) ae ane aid dl = (E,/L) sin wt dt 1= 1, sin (wt - 1/2) (where l= E,/wl and X,=wL=E,/l) Current lags behind emf by w/2 rad. X, is Inductive Reactance. Its SI unit is ohm. E =E,sin ut 1 24, sin (wt - 17/2)AC Circuit with a Capacitor: E =E, sin wt c q=CE =CE,sin wt eae me l=dq/dt = (d/ dt) [CE, sin wt] (where |, = E,/(1/w0) and 1 =[E,/(1/ wC)] (cos wt ) Xe =1/ WC = Ey!) X, is Capacitive Reactance. bait sin (iter) its SI unit is ohm. Current leads the emf by 11/2 radians. E =E,sinut 1 =|,sin (ut + 1/2) Variatior X, with Frequi 1,=E,/whk and X, = wb * X,_ is Inductive Reactance and w = 2rrf X=2mfL ie X,af o f Variation of X- with Fre l= E,/(1/wC) and X,=21/ we me X, is Inductive Reactance and w = 2mrf Xo =t/anfc ie. X,at/f o f TIPS: 1) Inductance (L) can not decrease Direct Current. It can only decrease Alternating Current. 2) Capacitance (C) allows AC to flow through it but blocks DC.AC Circuit with L, C, R in Series é Combination: 7, Vp The applied emf appears as . Ve Voltage drops V,, V_ and V- across R, L and C respectively. 1) In R, current and voltage are in phase. 2) InL, current lags behind voltage by m2 3) In C, current leads the voltage by m2 E =V[V,2+(V,-V.) E 1 TERE + 0, =X Z= VIR? + (K,-Xo} Z=V[R?+(wL-1wey Fay ie We X- Xe wb -1lwC tan @ = or tan @= Special Cases: Case I: When X, > X, i.e. wL > 1/wC, tan @=+ve or Mis +ve The current lags behind the emf by phase angle ® and the LCR circuit is inductance - dominated circuit. Case Il: When X, Np ie.K>1 NgE, & Islp Energy Losses in a Transformer: 1. Copper Loss: Heat is produced due to the resistance of the copper windings of Primary and Secondary coils when current flows through them. This can be avoided by using thick wires for winding. 2. Flux Loss: In actual transformer coupling between Primary and Secondary coil is not perfect. So, a certain amount of magnetic flux is wasted. Linking can be maximised by winding the coils over one another.