TOPIC #3: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Purpose of a circulatory system

Human beings are made up of trillions of cells and most of them are very long way from a direct
source of food or oxygen. Therefore, a transport system is needed to supply the needs of the
body cells and remove the waste material they produce.
Relationship between surface area and volume
The body has a smaller surface area in relation to its bulk or volume. Therefore, it is difficult for
substances to diffuse in and out of cells because there is not enough surface area available for all
the exchanges to take place.
NB:
(i) Diffusion is useful over short distances and is ineffective over long distances.
(ii) Substances diffuse more quickly when the surface area is larger in relation to volume.
For example, single-celled organisms do not need a transport system because they are
small and have a relatively large surface area and the distances are so short, diffusion
is inefficient enough to bring in the substances they need and to carry out their waste.
Components of the human circulatory system
1. A medium (blood) – a fluid that transports dissolved substances and blood cells around the
body.

2. A pump (heart) – a muscular pump that supplies the pressure to move the blood around the
body.

3. A system of tubes (arteries and veins) – are blood vessels that carry the blood to all parts
of the body.

4. Sites of exchange (capillaries) – are blood vessels that “leak” fluids out to body cells.

Circulation in the blood vascular system

Double circulation – is when the blood passes through the heart twice on each complete journey
around the body.
(i) Pulmonary circulation – is the circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs and
back.

(ii) Systematic circulation – is the circulation of the blood from the heart to the rest of
the body and back to the heart.

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NB: A double circulation is very important and efficient because:
(i) It allows blood to get fully oxygenated in the lungs before it is sent off to the different
parts of the body.
(ii) It allows blood to be pumped to the lungs under a relatively low pressure which
prevents the delicate pulmonary system from being damages and also prevents
excessive tissue fluid formation which will flow to the alveoli.
Blood vessels supplying the major organs

Organ Artery Vein

Head Carotid artery Jugular vein
Arm Subclavian artery Subclavian vein
Lungs Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein
Heart Aorta Vena cava
Liver Hepatic artery Hepatic vein
Gut / Alimentary canal Mesenteric artery Hepatic portal vein
Kidney Renal artery Renal vein
Leg Iliac / Femoral artery Iliac / Femoral vein

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NB: (i) Artery – carries oxygenated blood to the organ except pulmonary artery.
(ii) Vein – carries deoxygenated blood from the organ except pulmonary vein.
(iii) Hepatic portal vein – carries deoxygenated blood containing variable amounts of absorbed
food from the gut to the liver.
(iv) Oxygenated blood – is blood rich in oxygen which is bright red.
(v) Deoxygenated blood – is blood lacking oxygen which is dull red.

Description of the heart

The heart is found in the thorax between the lungs and slightly to the left of centre. It is
composed of cardiac muscle and is divided into four chambers. The two upper chambers are
called atrias and the two lower chambers are ventricles. The chambers are all separated by valves
and the left chambers are completely separated from the right chambers by a septum.
Structure and function of the heart and associated blood vessels

pg. 138-139 (CXC HSB)

1. Heart – pumps blood to the lungs and all body parts.

2. Vena cava – is the main vein of the body which returns deoxygenated blood at low
pressure from the head and lower part of the body to the right atrium.

3. Right atrium – receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava and pumps it into the
right ventricle. The pacemaker is found in the wall of the right atrium.

4. Right ventricle – pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery.

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 5. Pulmonary artery – carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

6. Pulmonary vein – returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

7. Left atrium – receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it into the left
ventricle.

8. Left ventricle – pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta.

9. Aorta – is the main artery of the body which carries oxygenated blood at the highest
pressure from the heart to the rest of the body.

10. Tricuspid and bicuspid valves – prevents the backflow of blood from the ventricles to
atriums (atrias) during contraction.

11. Valve tendons – are tightened to support the valves and ensure that the valves do not turn
inside out when the ventricles contract.

12. Semilunar valves – prevent the backflow of blood into ventricles when the pressure falls
during relaxation.

13. Cardiac muscle – contracts without fatigue.

NB:
(i) The walls of the atria are relatively thin, so that they can stretch to contain a lot of
blood and withstand the pressure of the blood flowing into the heart in the vena cava
and pulmonary veins. Additionally, the atria have to pump blood a short distance into
the ventricles.

(ii) The walls of the ventricles are much thicker because they pump blood a further
distance into the lungs and to the rest of the body.

(iii) The muscular walls of the left ventricle are thicker than those of the right ventricle
because the left ventricle has to pump blood around the entire body whilst the right
ventricle pumps blood only to the lungs.
Blood flow throughout the heart
Deoxygenated blood enters into the right atrium of the heart through the vena cava. The right
atrium contracts forcing blood through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The right
ventricle contracts and forces blood out of the heart through the semilunar valves into the
pulmonary artery where it is taken to the lungs and becomes oxygenated.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein from the lungs. The left
atrium contracts forcing blood through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle. The left

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ventricle contracts and forces blood out of the heart through the semilunar valves into the aorta
where it is taken around the body.
Cardiac cycle
Cardiac cycle – is the sequence of events that take place during a complete heartbeat.
Diastole – relaxation of cardiac muscles causing the heart to enlarge as it is filled with blood.
Systole – contraction of cardiac muscles causing the heart to become smaller as blood is forced
out.
Phases of the cardiac cycle

pg. 140 (CXC HSB)

1. Diastole – cardiac muscles relax as blood enters the atria of the heart from the vena cava
and pulmonary veins. The semilunar valves are closed preventing any backflow of blood
from the pulmonary artery and aorta into the ventricles.

2. Atrial systole – cardiac muscles of the atria contracts. As a result, their volume will
decrease so that the blood pressure within them increases. Blood at high pressure will
flow through the bicuspid and tricuspid valves into the ventricles. At this stage, the
muscles around the pulmonary veins and vena cava constrict, so that blood is forced one
way into the ventricles.

3. Ventricular systole – cardiac muscles of the ventricles contract. At the same time, the
cardiac muscles of the atria begin to relax. As the ventricles contract, their volume
decreases so that the pressure in them increases. Eventually, the pressure in the ventricles
is greater than that in the atria, as a result, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are pushed

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 closed. As the pressure in the ventricles also becomes higher than that in the arteries, the
semilunar valves are pushed open and blood flows into the pulmonary artery and aorta, to
be taken to the lungs and the rest of the body.
NB: The two atria on each side of the heart contract and relax at the same time. The two
ventricles relax and contract at a different time from the atria but at the same time as each other.
Heart sounds
The “lubb-dupp” sounds that can be detected through the chest wall using a stethoscope are
caused by the closure of the heart valves:
(i) lubb – closure of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves (louder sound).
(ii) dupp – closure of the semilunar valves (softer sound).
NB: An adult human has about 5dm3 of blood.
Heartbeat
The heart beats as the cardiac muscles in the walls contract and relax. The heart beats roughly at
72 beats per minute. In the right atrium there is a special tissue known as the pacemaker (sino-
atrial node) which starts the heartbeat automatically. This is known as myogenic, meaning the
muscle contracts without nervous stimulation.
Pacemaker
Pacemaker – a specialized tissue in the wall of the right atrium of the heart where the heart beat
starts.
Functions of the pacemaker
1. Ensures that the atria contracts just before the ventricles, so that the blood flows in one
direction from the atria to ventricles.

2. Ensures that the heartbeat is fast enough to meet the demands of the tissues for oxygen
and nutrients and for the removal of wastes.
Artificial pacemakers
An artificial pacemaker can help people whose natural pacemaker does not work well. The
operation takes about an hour and is performed under local anaesthetic. Each pacemaker is made
up of a battery-powered pulse generator implanted under the patient’s skin and two electrodes
which are placed intravenously into the right atrium and right ventricle. The pacemaker generates
electrical impulses artificially and conducts them to the cardiac muscles on demand or when the
heart misses a beat.
NB: The latest pacemakers can sense changes in breathing, movement and body temperature and
make exactly the right adjustments to heart rate. The battery in the pacemaker is usually replaced
every year or so.

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 Pulse
Pulse – is the movement of the arterial wall in and out.
It is generated as the elastic walls of the arteries expand when the ventricles contract and recoil
when they relax. The pulse can be felt wherever an artery lies above a bone near the surface of
the body, e.g., in the neck, temple, wrist. The usual pulse rate is 72 beats per minute.
NB: The pulse should always be felt with the index or ring fingers, since the thumb has a pulse
of its own. There is no pulse in the veins since the blood no longer has spurts of pressure and the
walls of veins are not elastic.
Factors which affect the pulse rate
1. Exercise 4. Hormones, e.g., adrenaline
2. Diet 5. Age
3. Stress 6. Disease
Blood pressure
Blood pressure – a measure of how hard the heart has to work to pump blood.
It is at its highest when the ventricles contract (systolic pressure) and lowest when the heart walls
are relaxed (diastolic pressure).

120
Normal blood pressure is 80
mm (
systolic
Hg ( diastolic .
)
Systolic pressure ranges between 100 – 139 mm Hg and diastolic pressure ranges between 60 –
89 mm Hg.
NB: Low blood pressure (hypotension) occurs below these figures and may occur after shock or
severe bleeding. Excessive high blood pressure (hypertension) occurs when these figures are
exceeded.
Factors which lead to hypertension
1. Lack of exercise 3. Inheritance
2. Stress or excitement 4. High alcohol intake
5. Diet – fats can clog up arteries (atherosclerosis) or harden arterial walls making it less
elastic (arteriosclerosis).

6. Obesity – as body weight increases, the heart has to work harder to pump more blood.

7. Smoking – nicotine causes blood vessels to constrict and as a result, the heart has to
pump blood of a greater volume harder through damaged lungs.

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 Reduction of hypertension
1. Regular exercise 2. Loss of weight
3. Good health habits – no smoking, low intake of fats, salt, alcohol.

The heart and exercise

When a person starts to exercise, their respiratory rate increases because the body needs more
energy. The cardiac output increases (the volume of blood in dm3 pumped out of the heart per
minute). This is achieved by:
(i) increasing the heart rate (the number of times the heart beats per minute).

(ii) increasing the stroke volume (the volume of blood in dm3 pumped out of the heart
during each heartbeat).
NB: Cardiac output = heart rate × stroke volume. The extra volume of blood coming into the
circulation is blood that is stored in the liver and spleen when at rest.
Long term benefits of exercise
1. Increase the size of the heart. 3. Keep arterial walls flexible.
2. Increase the power of heart muscle. 4. Increase the size of capillary beds.
NB: Sudden and unplanned exercise can overstress the heart which can lead to angina or even
death. Those who are especially at risk include:
(i) the elderly.
(ii) people with coronary heart disease (CHD).
(iii) people who do not exercise regularly.
Angina – is pain across the chest, left arm and shoulder caused by insufficient blood getting to
the heart muscle. This can be controlled by drugs.
Coronary thrombosis (heart attack)
It occurs when there is a blockage in the coronary arteries resulting in some cardiac muscle being
starved of blood. These muscle cells die due to lack of oxygen (myocardial infarction) and the
heart becomes progressively weaker.
Causes and effects of heart attacks
1. Atherosclerosis – a condition where fatty material e.g., cholesterol is deposited inside
arterial walls. These deposits are called atheromas which roughen the lining of the
coronary arteries and reduce their internal diameter. This disturbs the flow of the blood
and increases the chance that blood clots (thrombus) will form, which in turn increases
blood pressure.

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 2. Arteriosclerosis – a condition where the arterial walls harden and become less elastic.
This also increases blood pressure and may lead to coronary thrombosis.

3. The nicotine in cigarette smoke also causes arteriosclerosis and coronary thrombosis.
Supply of blood to the heart muscle
Coronary arteries – are blood vessels that supply blood containing food and oxygen to the
cardiac muscles, so that it can keep contracting and relaxing.

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

Coronary heart disease – is a condition caused by a blockage in one or more coronary arteries
in the heart.
Effects of CHD
1. The supply of blood to the heart muscle may be interrupted.
2. The heart muscle cells are deprived of glucose and oxygen.
3. Poisonous wastes such as lactic acid build up.
4. Part of the heart muscle stops contracting causing a heart attack.
Risks of developing CHD
1. Poor diet – high levels of cholesterol or saturated fatty acids in the blood.

2. Poor lifestyle – lack of regular exercise, stress, smoking or high blood pressure.

3. Genetic factors – being male or having a family history of heart disease.

NB: Many middle-aged men, the highest risk group, help to prevent CHD by:
(i) taking half an aspirin a day.
(ii) drinking a small quantity of alcohol, preferably red wine.
If a doctor suspects that a patient has CHD, an angiogram is carried out which gives a picture of
the state of the arteries.

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 Treatment of CHD
1. Artificial pacemaker

2. Balloon inflation – this procedure involves putting a very small tube (catheter) about
1mm in diameter with a balloon around it into the diseased coronary vessel. The catheter
is pushed through the partially closed vessel until the balloon portion reaches the part that
is nearly blocked. The balloon is inflated, stretching the diseased vessel so that it opens
out. Blood flow is thus increased.

3. Heart bypass – during heart surgery, a mechanical pump (“heart-lung” machine) is used
to make the blood flow through the body. This allows surgeons to deal with the heart
problem without disrupting blood flow.

4. Coronary artery bypass – is an operation where a blood vessel is removed from another
part of the blood and stitched into place between the aorta and the unblocked part of the
coronary artery. Sometimes an artificial vessel is used. The bypass increases blood flow
and reduces the likelihood of angina.

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 BLOOD VESSELS

ARTERY VEIN CAPILLARY

Structure It is composed of a It is composed of a It is composed of a
thick layer of muscle thin layer of muscles single layer of cells
and elastic fibres with and elastic fibres with a very small or
a small lumen. with a large lumen. narrow lumen and thin
walls.
Reason for The thick muscular There is no need for Thin walls and narrow
structure wall with many elastic string walls as most lumen bring blood into
fibres allows the of the blood’s force close contact with
artery to withstand is lost. The large tissues. As it is one cell
and maintain a high lumen and thin walls thick, it is leaky, which
blood pressure. The reduce resistance to is ideal since substances
rings of muscle can the flow of blood and e.g., oxygen and
narrow or widen the valves prevent the glucose must pass out
artery and control the backflow of blood. and carbon dioxide
blood flow in it move in.
according to the
body’s needs.
Function Carries blood from the Carries blood from Connects an artery to a
heart to the tissues. the tissues to the vein carrying blood
heart. from arterioles to
venules.

NB: (i) Arteries have no valves because the force of the heartbeat keeps blood moving through
them. Arteries branch into smaller vessels called arterioles.
(ii) Veins branch into smaller vessels called venules.

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 Differences between arteries, veins and capillaries

Arteries Veins Capillaries

Thick elastic walls Thin elastic walls Very thin walls only one cell
thick
Small lumen Large lumen Very small or narrow lumen
Valves are absent Valves are present Valves are absent
Blood under high pressure Blood under low pressure Blood under low pressure
Blood flows in spurts Blood flows smoothly Blood flows smoothly
Pulse detectable No pulse No pulse
Low blood volume High blood volume Low blood volume
Carries oxygenated blood Carries deoxygenated blood Oxygen and carbon dioxide
except pulmonary and except pulmonary and are exchanged
umbilical artery umbilical vein
Carry blood from the heart Carry blood to the heart Carry blood from arterioles to
venules.

How blood returns to the heart

Veins carry blood at low pressure back to the heart. The pressure in the veins is so low that it is
not sufficient to push the blood back to the heart. The following are essential in helping blood to
get back to the heart:
(i) Gravity – from the head region if standing or sitting upright.

(ii) Skeletal muscle – veins are surrounded by skeletal muscle, particularly in the calves.
As these muscles contract, they squeeze the veins, pushing against the blood they
contain.

(iii) Valves – prevent the backflow of blood when the muscle squeezes the vein. As a
result, the blood must flow in a single direction back to the heart.

(iv) Partial vacuum in chest – we breathe in by causing a partial vacuum in our chest
cavity. This partial vacuum not only causes atmospheric air to be drawn into the lungs
but it also causes blood to move along the major veins and into the heart.

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 BLOOD
Blood – is a fluid containing dissolved substances and blood cells (corpuscles).
Structure / Composition of blood

Plasma
Plasma – is the liquid part of blood containing 90% water and 10% dissolved substances.
Role of plasma
1. Liquid medium in which cells and platelets can move.
2. Supplies tissue fluid including water to tissues.
3. Transports carbon dioxide mainly as hydrogen carbonate ions (bicarbonate) from the
cells in the body to the lungs.
4. Transports waste e.g., urea from the liver to the kidneys.
5. Transports hormones from endocrine glands to target organs in the body.
6. Transports nutrients from the intestine to the liver and then to the tissues of the body.
7. Transports heat to all parts of the body.
8. Transports antibodies and substances needed for blood clotting.

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 Erythrocytes (Red blood cells)
They are the most numerous of our blood cells. In a healthy human, 1mm3 of blood (one drop)
contains about 5 million red blood cells. Vitamin B12 is needed to make red blood cells which are
made in the bone marrow of limbs, ribs and vertebral column. After about 100 – 120 days, red
blood cells are destroyed in the liver and spleen.
Spleen – an organ of the body situated at the left of the stomach and involved in keeping the
blood in good condition.
Structure of red blood cells

Red blood cells are biconcave in shape and do not contain a nucleus or any organelles. Instead,
the cytoplasm is full of haemoglobin.
How the structure of red blood cells is suited to its function
1. It contains haemoglobin, an iron-containing pigment which picks up oxygen at the lungs
and let go of it at the tissues. It is this pigment that makes these cells and blood appear
red.
2. It does not have a nucleus which leaves more space to carry haemoglobin.
3. The biconcave shape:

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 (a) increases the surface area of each red blood cell for the diffusion of oxygen and
carbon dioxide into and out of cells.

(b) together with the elastic cell surface membrane allows the red blood cells to squeeze
through narrow capillaries.
(c) and relatively thin cells give short diffusion distances which makes the exchange of
gases more efficient.
Function of red blood cells
1. Transports oxygen from lungs to all respiring tissues.
2. Transports some carbon dioxide from respiring tissues to lungs.
NB: Oxygen combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells forming oxyhaemoglobin.
Our ability to transport oxygen is affected by:
(i) Anaemia – is a condition where the body has too few red blood cells or where the red
blood cells do not contain enough haemoglobin in their cytoplasm.

(ii) High altitudes – there is less oxygen in the air at high altitudes, but people living or
travelling there acclimatize by forming more red blood cells.

(iii) Carbon monoxide – is a gas that is taken up by haemoglobin in preference to

oxygen, forming carboxyhaemoglobin. This leads to lack of oxygen in the blood
causing drowsiness and even death. Additionally, pregnant females should not smoke
as this may reduce the amount of oxygen available to the foetus.

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 Leucocytes (White blood cells)
They come in many different shapes and sizes. There are about 10 thousand in 1 mm3 of blood.
They are made in the bone marrow, lymph nodes and spleen.
Structure of white blood cells
White blood cells contain a nucleus and mitochondria and many are irregular in shape.
Types of white blood cells

1. Phagocytes:
(a) Neutrophil – travel in the blood engulfing cells and cell debris by phagocytosis.

(b) Monocyte – move to organs such as the lungs and intestines where they engulf cells,
pathogens and cell debris by phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis – is the process by which white blood cells engulf foreign bodies or cell debris
inside their vacuoles.
NB: The phagocyte recognizes the foreign particle, ingests the particles by flowing around them
and then digests the particles using enzymes.
How the structure of a phagocyte is suited to its function
1. Irregular shaped and lobed nucleus allows cells to squeeze through gaps in capillary
walls.
2. Enzymes in granular cytoplasm digest microorganisms once engulfed.
3. Sensitive cell surface membrane can detect microorganisms.
Function of phagocytes
Remove any microorganism that invade the body and might cause infection by phagocytosis.

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 2. Lymphocyte
How the structure of a lymphocyte is suited to its function
Large nucleus contains many copies of genes for the control of antibody protein production.
Function of lymphocytes
Produce antibodies which are proteins that help in the defense against disease by killing
microorganisms.

Thrombocytes (Platelets)
They are tiny non-nucleated fragments involved in the clotting of blood. There are about 250
thousand in 1 mm3 of blood. They are made in the red bone marrow and live between 8 – 10
days.
Structure of platelets

They are colorless, irregular in shape and have no nucleus.

How the structure of platelets is suited to its function
They can release blood-clotting enzymes.
Function of platelets
Clotting of blood
Blood clotting
Damaged tissues and platelets release an inactive enzyme called thromboplastin or
thrombokinase, which in the presence of calcium ions and vitamin K, converts the inactive blood
protein prothrombin into the active enzyme thrombin. Thrombin acts upon the soluble protein
fibrinogen and converts it into the insoluble protein fibrin which forms a net-like structure
trapping red blood cells called a blood clot. Serum is released from the clot which has an
antibacterial effect. These dry out and form a scab at the wound site.
Serum – is plasma without fibrinogen.
Importance of blood clotting
1. Prevents excessive blood loss from damaged blood vessels.
2. Prevents entry of pathogens through damaged skin.
3. Protects new skin from damage as it grows.

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 Functions of blood
1. Transport of substances – e.g., glucose, amino acids, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
antibodies and heat.

2. Defense against disease – through blood clotting and the action of white blood cells
(phagocytosis and antibody production).

3. Regulation of body temperature – by the capillaries in the skin.

4. Support / Reproduction – erection of the penis is achieved by filling large spongy

spaces with blood which is essential for reproduction.

BLOOD GROUPS
Your blood group is identified by antibodies and antigens in the blood. Antibodies are proteins
found in plasma. They're part of your body's natural defences. They recognise foreign
substances, such as germs, and alert your immune system, which destroys them. Antigens are
protein molecules found on the surface of red blood cells.
There are 4 main blood groups defined by the ABO system determined by the genes you inherit
from your parents.
 blood group A – has A antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B antibodies in the
plasma
 blood group B – has B antigens with anti-A antibodies in the plasma
 blood group O – has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma
 blood group AB – has both A and B antigens, but no antibodies

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NB: Each group can be either RhD positive or RhD negative, which means in total there are 8
blood groups.
Blood group O is the universal donor since its red blood cells carry no antigens to be clumped
by recipient antibodies.
Blood group AB is the universal recipient since its plasma contains no antibodies to clump
donor red blood cells.
Precaution in blood transfusion and handling

A blood transfusion is the process of taking blood from a donor, processing it, and then inserting
it into the body of a patient in need of blood. A blood transfusion may be necessary to make up
blood volume following haemorrhage or during surgery. Receiving blood from the wrong ABO
group can be life threatening. For example, if someone with group B blood is given group A
blood, their anti-A antibodies will attack the group A cells. This is why group A blood must
never be given to someone who has group B blood and vice versa.
Only compatible blood should be transfused, or the red blood cells will be clumped and
haemolysis may occur. Clump cells may block capillaries and cause kidney or brain damage, or
even death. Haemolysed cells ‘leak’ haemoglobin so oxygen transport is affected.
Rhesus (Rh) factor risk in pregnancy and precautions
Red blood cells sometimes have another antigen, a protein known as the RhD antigen. If this is
present, your blood group is RhD positive. If it's absent, your blood group is RhD negative. This
means in total there are 8 blood groups.
A rhesus negative individual does not normally have anti-Rh antibody in the plasma but can
make it quickly once exposed to Rh+ cells. Pregnant women are always given a blood group test.
This is because if the mother is RhD negative but the child has inherited RhD-positive blood
from the father, it could cause complications if left untreated.
NB: RhD-negative women of child-bearing age should always only receive RhD-negative blood.
Leakage of blood from an Rh+ baby may cause an Rh- mother to make anti-Rh antibodies. These
cross the placenta into the blood of the fetus of a second or subsequent pregnancy: this fetus
suffers from burst red blood cells (haemolytic disease of the newborn).

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 Tissue fluid
Tissue fluid – is the fluid that contains no blood cells or plasma proteins which bathes the cells
of tissues. It is formed by filtration of plasma in the capillaries.
Functions of tissue fluid
1. Supplies cells with oxygen and food materials by diffusion from the blood.
2. Removes waste products e.g., carbon dioxide from cells by diffusion into the blood.
Lymph
Lymph – is a colourless fluid rich in lipids found in the lymphatic system. It is formed when
tissue fluid drains into the lymphatic vessels. It differs from blood in the absence of red blood
cells, lower amount of proteins and the proportion of the types of white blood cells.
Functions of lymph
1. Transports fats.
2. Drains fluid away from cells in lymph vessels.
Tissue fluid formation

pg.134 (CXC HSB)

There is a relatively high blood pressure at the arterial end of the blood capillaries which forces
small molecules and ions from the blood through the capillary wall. Large molecules e.g.,
proteins and red blood cells stay inside the capillary. The tissues are therefore surrounded by a
fluid from which they obtain their nutrients and into which they pass wastes. At the venous end
of the capillary, the loss of molecules from the blood has caused the blood pressure to fall. As a
result, it is now less than the pressure of the tissue fluid so that much of the tissue fluid is
reabsorbed into the capillaries that lead to the venule.

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 Adaptation of the capillaries for the formation of tissue fluid
1. The walls of capillaries are only one cell thick – substances do not have very far to
diffuse through them.

2. The capillaries are highly branched – they cover an enormous surface area giving more
space for diffusion to occur.

3. The capillary beds are constantly supplied with fresh blood – maintaining the
concentration gradients of dissolved substances between blood and tissues.
NB: Tissue fluid returns to the capillaries by osmosis. If blood plasma has a high water potential,
water will not be able to return quickly enough and as a result, the tissues swell up with fluid. If
the body is short of plasma proteins, the body swells up. E.g., in elephantiasis, a parasitic worm
lodges in the lymph vessels in the groin and causes fluid to build up in the legs.

LYMPATHIC SYSTEM
Lymphatic system – is a transport system composed of a series of tubules that return excess
tissue fluid to the blood in the neck region.
Lymph capillaries unite to form lymphatic vessels which possess valves maintaining a one-way
flow of lymph. Along the lymph vessels are lymph nodes or glands which produce white blood
cells. Lymph is moved along the vessels by the movement of skeletal muscles. Also, inspiratory
breathing movements of the thorax suck lymph into the thoracic duct and expiratory movements
force it into innominate veins (part of circulatory system).
Function of lymph vessels
Collect lymph from around the body and carry it to the subclavian vein in the neck region.
Lymph node / gland – is a swelling of a part of a lymph vessel.
Location of lymph nodes / glands
1. Neck (Cervical lymph node)
2. Armpits (Axillary lymph node)
3. Stomach / gut (Mesenteric lymph node)
4. Groin (Inguinal lymph node)
Function of lymph nodes / glands
1. Production of lymphocytes.
2. Production of phagocytes.
NB: Enlarged lymph glands are a sign that the body is fighting off an invading pathogen.

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 Functions of the lymphatic system
1. Transfer of substances between tissues and blood.
2. Production of lymphocytes in lymph glands / nodes.
3. Production of antibodies from lymphocytes for protection against toxins.
4. Transport of phagocytes for destruction of microorganisms.
5. Removes excess fluid, protein and foreign material from tissue spaces.
6. Absorption of fats into the lacteals of the villi which are small vessels of the lymphatic
system.
7. Transport tissue fluid back into the blood.

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