Chapter Two

Objectives:

▪ What a computer system is and how it works to process data.

▪ To identify computer components and their function

2.1 Components of a Computer System

System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a
coordination fashion to achieve some objective.
A computer system composed of components that are classified either as Computer
hardware or Computer software.

2.1.1. Hardware
Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer that you see, you use to and the parts
you can touch.

We can further classify the hardware as follows:

- Input devices
- Central Processing Unit (CPU)
- Storage device
- Output devices.
1. Input Devices

Input is the process of giving or inserting data and instructions to the computer system.

An input device is any machine, which helps to input/feed data and instructions into a
computer.
Functions of input devices are:
- It accepts (read) instructions and data from the outside world
- It converts these instructions and data into computer acceptable form.
- It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
Examples of input devices:-
• Keyboard (which is the most widely used input devices)
• Disk derives (floppy and hard-disk derives)
• Mouse
• Scanner
• Light pen
• Microphone
• Bar code reader
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 • Voice synthesizer
• CD-ROM Drive
• Touch Screen, etc.

Special Input Units

1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition Systems

It is intensively used by U.S. banking industry to input information on

checking account transactions. It has been in use since the 1950s, allows checks and
deposit slips to be read both by people and by machines. The machines, called magnetic
ink character readers, read and convert the characters into machine code by detecting the
presence of magnetized particles in the ink on the checks or deposit slips. As many as 1500
checks per minute can be read and stored.

Optical Recognition Systems

Optical Recognition Systems fall into two categories. The first and most advanced are
the Optical Character Recognition (OCR) systems, which are able to recognize hand-printed
and typewritten characters. The second type of optical character recognition is referred to as
Optical Mark recognition (OMR). OMR doesn’t utilize letters of the alphabet. Instead, with
the use of electronic scanners, marks and symbols are converted into appropriate electronic
signals. A typical example of an OMR application would be computerized test forms. OMR
systems are also used to read bar codes such as the Universal Product Code (UPC). 2Optical
Recognition Systems

Figure2.1 Basic organization of a computer system

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2. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• The Central processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of a computer system.

• Is the most costly and main component of the computer system;

• Consists of the Control Unit & the Arithmetic Logic Unit

Purpose of CPU

• fetch instruction: The CPU read instruction from the memory

• Interpret instruction: the instruction must be decoded to determine what action is required

• Fetch data: the execution of an instruction may require reading of data from memory or an
I/O module.

• Process data: the execution of an instruction may require performing some arithmetic or
logical operation on data.

• Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to memory or an I/O
module.

Two main parts of CPU are: the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit.

A. Control Unit

• As the name implies, it performs all the control functions of the computer.

• It retrieves the instruction from memory.

• Translates those instructions into computer functions and sends signals to other
computer hardware units to carry out those functions.

• It is also responsible for determining the next instruction to be executed by the

computer.

• In general it serves as the computer traffic cope.

B. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• It is referred as the computers "number crunchier".

• It performs the arithmetic calculations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and

division and comparisons and it is used to keep track of and execute instruction.

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• All modern digital computers can do is addition; multiplication is merely a continues
addition; subtraction is the addition of the complements of the number to be subtracted;
division is the addition of complements.

• Registers are paths or conduits that connect the Arithmetic Logical Unit to the main
memory.

• When an instruction loaded from main memory, it is placed first in the register to wait
instructions from the control unit.

• Data are also stored in registers prior to execution in the ALU.

Registers- are temporary storage locations for managing instructions and data as they
are being processed in control & ALU.

3. Storage device

3.1 Primary storage (Main Memory)

Every computer has a temporary storage area that is built into the computer hardware and
in which instructions and data of a program reside mainly when the program is being
executed by the CPU. This storage space is known as primary storage, or main memory,
or simply memory.

When we put in data into a computer, it is sent directly to the memory. Physically, this
memory consists of some chips either on the motherboard or on a small circuit board
attached to the motherboard of a computer system. This built-in memory allows the CPU
to store and retrieve data very quickly. The rate of data fetching from the main memory is
about 100 times faster than that from a high-speed secondary storage like disk.
The main memory has two parts.
- RAM
- ROM

A) RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is the name for the chips that are used in primary storage. RAM is called by that
name because any location on the chip can be randomly selected to store data and
instructions, which can then be directly accessed and retrieved.

RAM holds in its memory

- The operating system programs that manage the operation of the computer.
- The program that is being used at the time.

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 - The data that is being used by the program.

The representation of data and instructions within a RAM chip depends on the flow of
electric current. If the current is turned off or disrupted, the contents of the chip will be
lost. For this reason, RAM memory is said to be volatile.

In other words, when power or light is off, the RAM is empty. When it is on, RAM is
capable of receiving and holding data and instructions for processing. Therefore, RAM is
volatile.

It is possible both to read data from RAM and to write data on RAM. Also we can access
data randomly from RAM.
RAM is:
- Small in storage capacity
- Fast in processing speed
- Volatile
- Expensive price wise.

RAM chips are of two types- dynamic and static. A dynamic RAM (DRAM), uses an
external circuitry to periodically regenerate or refresh the storage charge to retain the
stored data. On the other hand, a static RAM (SRAM), does not need any special
regenerator circuits to retain the stored data. Since it takes more transistors and other
devices to store a bit in a static RAM, these chips are more complicated and take up more
space for a given storage capacity than do dynamic RAM. Moreover, a static RAM is
faster, costlier, and consumes more power than dynamic RAM. Due to these reasons,
large memories use dynamic RAM, and static RAM is used mainly onspecialized
applications. The main memory of most computers uses dynamic RAM.

B) ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM is a non-volatile memory chip in which data is stored permanently and can not be
altered by the programmer. The data stored in ROM chip can only be read and used- they
can not be changed. Since ROM chips are non-volatile, the data stored inside a ROM are
not lost when the power supply is switched off, unlike the case of the volatile RAM chip.

ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data which do not change and are
frequently used known as micro programs. A good example of micro program stored in a
ROM chip is the set of instructions that is needed to make the computer system ready for
use when its power is switched on. This micro program called ‘system boot program’,
contains a set of start-up instructions to check if the system hardware like memory, I/O
devices, etc. are functioning properly, and looks for an operating system and loads its
core part in the volatile RAM of the system to produce the initial display-screen prompt.

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There are two types of ROM. Manufacturer programmed and user programmed. A
manufacturer programmed ROM is one in which data is burnet in by a manufacturer of
the electronic equipment in which it is used. It is not possible for a user to modify the
program or data stored inside the ROM chip.

On the other hand, a user-programmed ROM is one in which the user can load and store
‘read only’ programs and data. It is possible for the user to customize a system by
converting his/her own programs to micro programs and storing them in a user-
programmed ROM chip. Such a ROM is commonly known as Programmable Read Only
Memory (PROM) because a user can program it.

Once information is stored in a ROM chip or a PROM chip, it can not be altered.
However, there is another type of memory chip called Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory (EPROM) that overcomes this problem. As the name implies, it is possible to
erase information stored in an EPROM chip and the chip can be reprogrammed to store
new information. When an EPROM is in use, information stored in it can only be ‘read’
and the information remains in the chip until it is erased.

3.2 Secondary (auxiliary) storage devices

The primary storage (RAM) of the computer system has some limitations even though
they are fast for data access.
- They have limited storage capacity,
- They are expensive and
- They are volatile.
As a result, additional memory (Secondary memory) is used with most computer system.

Secondary storages:

- Are non-volatile, they store data and information permanently,

- Are cheap or low in cost,
- Operating speed far slower than the primary storage.
- Store large amount of information.

Example : Types of magnetic disks

Floppy disk
Hard disk

Types of optical disk

• CD-R
• CD-RW
• DVD R/RW

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4. Output Devices

Output is computer produced text, graphics, or sound in hard-copy or soft-copy format

that can be used by people.

Output device- is an electromechanical device that accepts data from a computer and
translates them into a form suitable for use by the user.

➢ Soft copy outputs are temporary in nature and vanish after use. E.g. outputs
displayed on a screen or spoken out by a voice response system.
➢ Hard copy outputs are permanent in nature and can be kept in paper files or
looked at a latter time. e.g. – outputs produced by printers or plotters on paper.

Examples of output device are:

- Printers
- Monitors (screens)
- Plotters
- Speakers.

Bus
Bus is an electrical pathway through which bits are transmitted between the
Various computer components.

There are three major buses inside the computer

Address Bus: - is a unidirectional bus over which digital information is transferred to

identify either a particular memory location or particular I/O address.
Data Bus: - a bus system which interconnects the CPU, memory and all the peripheral
Input / Output devices of a computer system for the purpose of exchanging data.
Control Bus: - a bus used to select and enable an area of main storage and transmit
signals required to regulate the computer operation.

2.2 Computer Software

• Are precise instructions for the hardware to solve problems.
• The finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a given job is
called a program.
• Software: - Is a collection of programs.
• Software also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures.
• Software acts as intermediate between the user and the electronic components of the
computer.

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 USER
Software
Hardware

Computer software is classified into two

1. System software
2. Application software

1. System software

• Are programs which facilitate the work of the computer hardware.

• It organizes and manages the machine’s resources, handles the input/output devices.
• It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldn’t have to or are
unable to handle.
• System programs make complex hardware more user friendly.
• It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as means of
communication between user and a computer.
The important categories of system software are:
A). Operating system
B). Language software

A). Operating system

• Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer.
• An operating system has three major functions.
i. Controlling operations (control program)
ii. Input/output Management
iii. Command Processing (command Interpreter)
i. Controlling operations (control program)
❖ Coordinates, or supervises the activity of the computer system.
❖ Decides where programs and data should be stored in the computer memory.
❖ Handles communications among the computer components, applications software and
the user.
❖ Controls the saving and retrieving of files to and from disks in the disk drive.
❖ It performs all its controlling tasks with out the involvement or awareness of the user.

ii. Input/output Management

❖ The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside world, flow
of data to the display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and from the
key board or other input devices.
❖ Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
❖ Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing task
of a file.
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iii. Command Processing (command Interpreter)

❖ It interprets the commands or what you enter using the keyboard or other input
devices.
❖ If you write an internal command it carries out the function of that command if it is
external command or other executable file it searches for the corresponding file in the
default (current disk) or the user specified disk, loads the file into memory and
transfers control to that program. Once this program is terminated, control returns to
command.com and the program for that command or file is discarded from memory.
Types of Operating Systems
Operating systems can be classified by:
➢ The number of programs they can handle at a time and
➢ The number of users they serve at once at one or different stations (i.e. terminals
or micro-computers connected to a central computer).

i. Single tasking operating systems

With single tasking operating systems only one program can be run on a computer
at a time.
.In order to run another program, one must remove the first program loaded in the
computers main memory and load the other one(i.e. it can’t handle two or more programs
at a time)
➢ These types of operating systems are single user or can serve only one user at a time.

ii. Multi user operating system

➢ .It supports a number of work stations connected to a central system.

➢ .A number of users can use the resources of one high capacity computer by the help of
terminals.

iii. Real Time Operating System

➢ .A real time is a system that is capable of processing data so quickly that the results
are available to influence the activity currently taking place.

Example: - Air plane seat reservations and computer controlled plant.

- Its primary characteristics is that it responds to an event within a well defined
time.

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B). Language Software.
- Are software which are used by programmers to develop application softwares and
translate programs to machine code.
- Language software is a generic name consisting of various programs that serve as
editors & translators to develop programs in a number of programming languages.
- Includes: - Translators, general purpose routines and utilities & high level languages
Translator: - is a program that converts one or more languages to another language.
Three types of translators are assemblers, Compilers & interpreters.
♦ Assemblers: - is a program that translates assembly languages into machine code.
♦ Compiler: - is a program that translates a high level language into machine code.
(Pascal, FORTRAN COBOL)
♦ Interpreter: - is a program that translates each instruction of high level language &
executes the instruction before translating the next instruction.
o The general-purpose routine and utilities include programs which are used to handle
file processing, editing and debugging.
o High level language software are software which have their own compilers to detect
syntax errors of the users program code.

Example:-COBOL, FORTRAN, Pascal. Etc.

Application Software

➢ Is software that is designed to perform tasks for the specific area or areas. But for use
in more than one installation.
➢ Are usually called application packages as they may include a number of programs
along with operating instruction, documentation and so forth.
➢ Depending on their function or task they are categorized in to the following.

1. Word Processors/ Word processing

- is a computerized typewriter which permits the electronic creation, editing, formatting,

filing and printing text.
- Is the most common application of microcomputers?
- Until recently, word processing could be done only dedicated word processors. A
dedicated word processor is a computer that denies its users the opportunity to execute
any other program.
Example: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word

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2. Spreadsheet

- is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU.

- Until recently, financial analysis and other mathematical calculation were done by
entering numbers on pages of an accountants ruled ledger pad.
- You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels,
numbers & formulas.
- Using the programs built-in function you can perform complicated calculations such as
net percent value, internal rates of return, and monthly payments on a loan.

Example: Lotus1-2-3, MicrosoftExcel, Quatropro

3. Database management system.

- Allow you to store information on a computer, retrieve it when you need it and update it
when necessary.
- You can do this with index cards, but database management programs do them more
quickly and easily.
- Example: You can store large mailing list, inventory record or billing and collect
information in lists stored in files and manipulate this information, one file at a time with
database management program.
- You can record or create a database about employee information as

Name sex Marital status salary Date of Birth

Date of employment Post Department Level of education
Field of study etc.
Then you can ask the computer the following question
- How many female workers are there?
- List employees with a salary of birr 500 and above
- List those employees who are department head and have Bachelor
degree or higher and so on.

Example: Dbase IV, FoxPro, Microsoft Access.

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