CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Objective:
• Define the discipline computer science
• Define the term computer
•Identify the several characteristics of computer that made them useful and
popular
• Application of Computers

1.1 What is Computer Science?

Computer Science is a science concerned with information i.e. representation, storage,
manipulation or processing and presentation of information. Like any other science, which
uses some devices for the practical aspect, computer Science uses a special device called
COMPUTER.
Computer science has different fields of specialization or sub-disciplines like other sciences.
There are seven sub-disciplines of computer science.

• Software engineering: Soft ware engineering – It is concerned about the

development of a better quality software by applying scientific &basic
engineering principles.

• Computer engineering (Architecture): deals with studying, analyzing and

designing of computer hardware (organization and interconnection of computer
system components) and its working principle.

• Automata theory: Automata Theory Is The study of machines or devices which

accept a certain inputs such that the out put or at least the probabilities of output s
are determined by the input.

• Formal Language Theory: Embraces the study of programs of programming

languages, which is important for the understanding, and construction of
compilers.

• Complexity theory: concerned with the study and analysis of algorithms, which
helps in measuring the efficiency of the algorithms.

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 • Data base Architecture: involves the study and design of efficient methods for
information storage, process & retrieval.

• Artificial intelligence: Is concerned with means by which Computers may perform

tasks that would be characterized as intelligent if performed by human beings.

1.2. DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs computations, and makes
logical decisions according to instructions that have been given to it; then produces
meaningful information in a form that is useful to humans.

The word ‘computer’ comes from the word ‘compute’, which means to calculate. So a
computer is considered to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic operations
at enormous speed.

More accurately, a computer may be defined as a device that operates upon data.

a) Computes are large electronic machines that can manipulate data in the
desired way by executing a detailed set of instructions called programs.

b) A computer is an electronic device used to process information.

• Electronic- very fast, operate at electronic speed.
• Processing- calculating numbers, and comparing logics, creating texts,
pictures, etc.
• Information – systematically analyzed data uses to make a decision.

c) A computer is a machine which receives an input (data), processes it

according to a predefined program or instruction, stores it, and gives an
output, i.e. provides the result in printed or visual form.

Figure 1.1 The input process, and output functions of a computer system.

Beyond calculating numbers, today, computers are used to store and manage large
amount of information in the form of words, numbers, pictures and sounds.

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1.3 The development of Computers

1.3.1. History of Computers

We have all heard stories of primitive peoples counting their sheep by moving sticks or
stones. Our base ten number system undoubtedly grew from the use of 10 fingers as
counting objects. Together with the development of people, the need to calculate and
keep track of information had become popular issue. So they soon develop a simple
computing device and had a power of storing small information. However, many
thousands of years elapsed before developing mechanical calculator.
Some of the calculating devises are mentioned bellow:

a) The Abacus

It is one of the earliest mechanical computational devices. It was in use in the Middle
East as early as 2500 BC The familiar Chinese abacus ( dating approximately 1200 AD )
is composed of a frame and a number of wires. The wires correspond to position of digits
in decimal number-units, tens, hundreds, and so on-and the beads represent digits. Beads
above the cross bar represent 5 and those bellow ,1.

Fig 1.2 abacus

The abacus shows zero, if all the bead bellow the cross bar are at the lower frame and
above are at the upper frame.
Addition of two numbers on the abacus can be performed by representing the first
number and the second number without resetting the first. On any wire showing 10 or
more, the two beads above the cross bar are moved back, and an extra 1 (the Cary) is
added two the wire on the left. This process can be easily generalized to addition and
subtraction of more than two numbers.

B) Pascal’s calculator

It is the first true mechanical calculator.

In 1642, at the age of 19, the French philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal
developed a rotating wheel calculator, the predecessor of the latter popular desktop
calculator. He built largely to assist his father, who was a tax collector in the town of
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Rouen, Pascal’s calculator has one wheel corresponding to each power of 10; each wheel
has 10 position, one for each of the digits (0,..9). Although Pascal’s calculator could only
add and subtract, it could be used indirectly for multiplication (by successive addition)
and division( by successive subtraction) as well.
C) The difference engine

It is the forerunner of the modern computer.

Charles Babbage (1792-1871), a British mathematician and engineer, is considered by
many to be the real father of today’s computer was the developer of the difference engine
and designer of the analytical engine. The difference engine also based on the rotating
wheels principle, was operated by means of a single crank. This devise has a power of
calculation and print the output without human intervention. He finally designed
significantly improved version of the difference engine (but not built) called Analytic
engine. It has different key components

- The store: A memory wheel consisting of set of counter wheels

- The mill: An arithmetic unit capable of performing the four basic arithmetic
operations. It operated on pairs of mechanical registers and produced a result
stored in another register, all of which were located in the store.

- Operation cards: These cards selected one of the four arithmetic operations by
activating the mill to perform the selected function.
- Variable cards: These cards selected the memory locations to be used by the mill
for a particular operation (a source of operand and the destination of the
result).
- Out put: was to print or a card punch device.
But finally the design halt largely due to the technology of the day is not far enough too
supply the required raw materials.

Fig 1.3 Babbage engine

D) Herman Hollerith’s tabulating machine

Herman Hollerith was a statistician that in 1880 and develop his machine commissioned
by the U.S. Census Bureau to develop a technique for speeding up the processing of
census data that took at least 8 years before. He develops his machine that uses the
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punched card to punch the census the data and tabulated by using his machine. This
machine processes the 1890 American census data with in 3 years. It was really a great
development. He finally began the tabulating Machine Company, which later becomes
the International Business Machine Corporation (IBM)

E) Mark I: Developed by Howard Aiken at Harvard university (1944) which were the
one first electromechanical computer. Instruction were provided by means of punched
paper tape, which combined the functions of Babbage’s operation cards and variable
cards. Each instruction had the format
A1 A2 OP where
A1 and A2 are registers storing the operands
OP is the operation to be performed ( e.g. +,-,x,÷)
Mark I could do a single addition in 6 seconds and division in 12 seconds

F) ENIAC( Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer):

Developed by Eckert and Mauchly at the university of Pennsylvania. This was the first
electronic calculator and first general purpose digital computer. This machine was
enormous, weighing 30 tones. occupying 15,000 square feet of floor space and containing
over 18,000 vacuum tubes. When operating, it consumed over 140 kWh of power. It had
a capability of performing 5,000 addition per second. Its memory consisted of 20
“accumulators” each capable of holding a 10 digit decimal number. Each digit was
represented by a ring of 10 vacuum tubes. At any time, only one of the 10 tubes was in
ON state, representing one of the 10 digits.

➢ ENIAC did not use internally stored programs. Programs were wired on
boards similar to a telephone switch board.

➢ One of the major drawbacks of ENIAC was that it had to be programmed

manually by setting switches and plugging and unplugging cables.

Fig 1.4 ENIAC

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G) The Von Neumann Machine

The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was extremely tedious. Von
Neumann was the consultant on the ENIAC project and forward the stored program
concept, i.e designing the computer to get its instruction by reading them from memory
alongside the data and a program could be set or altered by setting the values of a portion
of a memory. Based on this concept, the first true electronic computers were developed
by the name EDVAC (electronic Discrete Variable Computer) and EDSAC( Electronic Delay
Storage Automatic Computer).

G) Commercial Computers

The 1950s saw the birth of computers industry with two companies, Spery and IBM,
dominating the market place. In 1947, Eckert and Mauchly develop their successful
commercial computer called UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer ) .
UNIVAC was division of Remington Rand (later Sperry_Rand Corporation).
IBM also the major manufacturer of punched card processing equipment ,delivered its
first electronic stored program computer, the IBM 701, in 1953.

1.3.2. Generation of Computers

Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics, computer

developments are often categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations
and major characteristics that distinguish these generations are the following;

❖ Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.

❖ Major secondary storage media used.

❖ Computer language used.

❖ Types or characteristic of operating system used.

❖ Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word or data from

memory).

Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware,

typically refold or better increases in speed and reliability.

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First generation (1950s)

• Used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit.

• Punched cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams were used for
internal storage.

• Operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could handle more

than 10,000 additions each second.

• Most applications were scientific calculations.

Second generations (early 1960s)

• Transistors were the main circuit components. (Transistors are a solid state device
made from silicon which is smaller, cheaper, faster, dissipate less energy and
more reliable than vacuum tube but work in the same way with the vacuum tube.)

• Invented by Bell Labs.

• Magnetic tapes (similar with home tape caste), used for main storage,

• Operate in microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than 200,000 additions

possible each second.

• Business applications become more commonplace, with large data files stored on
magnetic tape and disk. (Magnetic disk: is a circular platter constructed of metal
or plastic materials coated with magnetically substance.)

• High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this period.
Batch operating systems are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape
files.

Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)

Characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). (A single, self-contained
transistor is called discrete component. In early 1960 electronic equipment composed of
discrete components transistors, capacitors, resistors… They are
* manufactured separately
* Packed in their own containers and soldered (wired together) on a circuit board. So the
entire manufacturing process was cumbersome and expensive. Do to these and other
problems in 1958 the achievement that revolutionized electronics started the era of
microelectronics: the invention of integrated circuit.
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 • Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that
provide modularity (expandable storage) and compatibility (interchangeable
equipment

• New input/output methods such as optical scanning and plotters.

• Software become more important with sophisticated operating systems, improved

programming languages,

Fourth generation (late 1970s, early 1989s,)

• Greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry.
• Has a large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) which has several hundred thousand
transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip.

• Computer memory operates at speeds of nanoseconds (billionths of a second) with

large computers capable of adding 15 million numbers per second.

The fifth generation computer

is in progress. An architecture, which makes use of the changes in technology and
allows a simple and natural methodology for solving problems, is being sought. These
computers will have intelligent processors i.e., processors which can draw inferences.
Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such as English,
th
German etc. Japans are working intensively on the project for developing the 5
generation.

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 Table 1.1. Generation of computer

1.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be described by the following characteristics.

1. Storage

Computes can handle large amount of data. Once recorded, information can never be
forgotten and can be retrieved with a fraction of a second.
Its storage capacity is measured as follows:
Bit = smallest information stored in a computer (0 or 1).
• Byte = character = 8 bits.
• Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes.
• Megabyte (MB) = 1024 Kilobytes.
• Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes.
• Terabyte (TB) = 1024 Gigabytes.

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2. Speed

Computers are very fast devices. They work at an incredible speed and perform millions
of calculations and comparisons in a second.
Its speed is measured by:
Millisecond = 1/1000 of a second.
Microsecond = 1/1000,000 of a second.
Nanosecond = 1/1000,000,000 of a second.
Pico second = 1/1000,000,000,000 of a second.

3 Accuracy

Computers are very accurate. They process vast amount of data in a very high speed
without committing errors. However, the computer is capable of doing what is instructed
to do. If the input data is correct and program instructions are reliable, then the output of
a computer is accurate.

Errors can occur mainly due to humans’ incorrect input data, and program instructions
with a problem. Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable program
is often called garbage-in-garbage out (GIGO).

4 Diligence

Computers are not bored or become tired of performing many thousands of calculations
repeatedly. Human beings suffer from weakness like tiredness, lack of concentration,
become sad, depressed, bored and negligent; and it will reflect on the work they do.
Moreover, humans can not perform similar tasks over and over, again and again with the
same precision and accuracy.

Being a machine, computers are not getting tired or bored, not loose concentration etc.
They perform the tasks given to them irrespective of whether it is interesting, creative,
monotonous, boring, irrespective of whether it is the first time or the millionth time with
exactly the same accuracy and speed.

5 Versatility

One of the most wonderful things about the computer is its versatility. A computer is
capable of performing almost any task provided that the task can be reduced to a series of
logical steps.

For example, the same computer that is used to handle engineering

company’s mathematics can also be efficiently used by the company to track
inventory, process payroll, design computations etc.

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6. Durability and reliability

Computers are durable and extremely reliable devices. They can operate error-free over
long periods of time.

7 Lack of decision-making.

Computers do not have the capacity to think on their own. They lack human intelligence,
and only we impose them artificial intelligence. Their I. Q is zero and they had to be told
what to do and in what sequence. Hence, only a user can determine what tasks a
computer can perform. A computer cannot take its own decision in this regard.

1.5 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

There are different types of Computers. Their difference is depending on different
categories of characteristics.
Classification by the method of operation (processing)
They are classified into three:
1. Analog

Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues

variables; they don’t compute directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring
physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples
• Thermometer
• Voltmeter
• Speedometer

They are special purpose computers.

Analog computers have limited accuracy

2. Digital Computers

Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather
than measuring. They operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers,
letters, or other special symbols.
Examples:
• Abacus
• Desk & pocket computers
• The general purpose computers

Digital computers have higher accuracy and speed than the analog ones.

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 3. Hybrid computers

The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a
single device to form a hybrid computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by
collecting input data with analog method, convert it into digital quantities, processes the
digital values and convert the output from digital to analog form.
Example:
• In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s
heart function, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements
may then be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component
in the system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs
and to send an immediate signal to the nurse’s station. If any abnormal
readings are detected.

• Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of

pumped fuel into two measurements the price of the delivered gas and the
quantity of pumped fuel.

Classification by purpose of application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application,
they are classified as special purpose or general-purpose computers

1. Special purpose computers

They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and
function are uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
• The public telephone box
• Traffic control system
• Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
• Pocket calculators etc.
• Counters

Most analog computers are special purpose computers.

2. General-purpose computers

They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program
concept”. A program or set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored
into the memory and then executed by the computer one by one. The same computer can
be applied to solve another set of problem using different program. General purpose
computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples
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 • Micro computers
• Mini computers
• Super computers etc.

Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance

- Supercomputers
- Mainframe computers
- Minicomputers
- Microcomputers

1 Supercomputers

Supercomputers are the largest, most powerful, fast and most expensive computers
available at a given time. Their storage capacity is extremely high, and has computing
speeds several times faster than mainframe computers.
They are primarily used for processing complex scientific applications that require
enormous processing power.

They can operate or process data and instructions at speeds measured in nanoseconds and
even in picoseconds. Most supercomputers are used by government agencies. They are
for applications requiring very large programs and huge amount of data that must be
processed quickly.

Some application areas of supercomputers are:

- For weather forecasting in Meteorological centers.

- Oil exploration in the petroleum industry.
- Design new materials (Material scientists & Physicists)
- Weapons research (Military Industry)
- Large-scale simulation in Aerospace & Automobile industry etc,

2. Main frame computers

Mainframe computers are large computers frequently used in large organizations. Some
organizations like banks, insurance companies, hospitals, railways & airline reservation
etc, need to process large number of transactions online and require computer system
having massive data storage and processing power. Mainframe computers are computer
systems mainly handling the bulk of data and information processing of such
organizations.

They are also used in an environment where a large number of users need to share a
common computing facility. They are housed in a central location with several user
terminal connected to them. Mainframes are large, room size computers, usually housed
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in a controlled environment. They are also expensive and process several million
program instructions per second.

The main difference between a mainframe and a super computer is that a super computer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, where as a
mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.

3. Minicomputers

Minicomputers are general purpose computers who’s CPU are contained on a single
board or a few boards. Minis are large and more powerful than micros. Minicomputers
are used with a wide variety of input-output devices and more memory and storage
capacity. Minis can be accessed by more than one user at a time and are used in many
application areas.

• It is similar but less powerful than mainframe

• A mainframe having smaller configuration (small hosts, less storage space and
fewer user terminals) is often referred to as minicomputer.
• Also known as Mid-range computers.
• Used in small and minimum size companies or institutions like departments of
institutions or universities.

4. Microcomputers

A microcomputer or Personal computer (PC) is a small single user computer system

based on a microprocessor. Micros are generally equipped with a keyboard, display unit,
floppy diskette/hard disk derives. A microcomputer with a powerful microprocessor and
a high quality monitor is called a workstation.

Yet another type of microcomputers is known as portable computers which are further
classified as laptop, notebook, and personal digital assistant (PDAs). As the name
implies, portable computers can be easily carried around making it easier to use a
computer anywhere.

• Also known as personal computers (pc).

• Use Microprocessors inside it.
• It is a general purpose computer that can easily fit on a normal size office table.
• Generally designed to be used by one person at a time. (Single user).
• They have limited input and output capacities and little storage capacity.
• On the other hand, they are cheap and easy to use.

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Two physical models of PCs are:
▪ Desktop model
▪ Tower model
❖ Other portable PCs are: Laptop, Notebook, sub note book, palmtop
etc.

Fig 1.5 Palmtop computer

1.6 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Why we use Computers?

Today computes can find a role in nearly every aspect of our lives. In our every day
activities they can help us get things done better and faster, making humans’ life simple
and easy.
The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use
Computers.
➢ Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
➢ Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
➢ Simulate events;
➢ Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
➢ Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
➢ Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;

The main areas of computer applications can be listed as follows:

- IN OFFICES: - Type writers are being replaced by computers.

- IN EDUCATION: - Computers are widely used in educational fields; for

instruction and administration /Interactive education/
CAL- Computer Aided Learning
CAI- Computer Assisted Instruction

- IN MEDICINE: - Medical diagnostic technologies and computer-based medical

imaging represents one of the fastest-growing areas in the computer field. E.g.
Telemedicine.
- Computers can be used to hold details of patient’s history and to aid diagnosis and
treatment procedures.
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- IN LBRARIES: - Computers has been a powerful tool for libraries, providing
users access to bibliographic information. It provide on-line catalog, information
about available books & other materials, and whether or not they are currently
checked out or not.

IN COMMUNICATION:- Computers can be used in different ways for

Communication purpose between users. This can include:
- Fax- hard copy - Usenet
- Electronic mail - Internet
- Teleconferencing - Video conferencing

IN MANUFACTURING
Computers can be used in production process, from the design stage to the
manufacturing stage.
CAD- Computer-Aided Design
CAM- Computer-Aided Manufacturing.

IN BUSINESS:-
Computers are used to record sales, maintain information about inventories,
payroll records, generate paychecks, and advertise goods or products.

IN RESEARCH
Computers use to analyze and process data. E.g. EPI, SPSS.

ADVANCED APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Artificial Intelligence (AI) are computer programs that utilize special programming
routines that make decisions based on available evidence rather than hard and fast rules.
The computers have the capability to learn from past events. These programs are
expected to give computers new capabilities for understanding the human voice and for
interpreting users’ natural language responses to programs.

- Natural Language processing and speech recognition.

- Computer vision – ability to understand what they see. E.g. X-ray results read by
a computer.
- Problem solving – computers designed to give solutions by themselves.
- Expert system- AI programs that use the same rules as human experts to make
decisions based on available evidence.
E.g. Robotic system is a science of using a machine (robot) that is programmable,
capable of operating on its own without human intervention. Automatic machines that
operate without computer program control do not qualify as robots.

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