Advanced Structural Mechanics and Steel Structures

for Transportation Engineers:

Applications in Logistics and Infrastructure

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH OF

MATERIALS
Course Lecturer: Mrs.Laila HFA,
Eng & Phd Candidate
 Ground rules for this course
1 2
Punctuality: Arrive on time. Put away your cell phones and laptops
Arriving late is a sign of unless they are part of the class
disrespect to the course lecturer and activities.
to your colleagues.

3 4
Private conversations during class are Remember, you are your most valuable
inappropriate, especially when others resource. The success of this course
are speaking. relies on it being a two-way exchange
where everyone engages actively.
 The chapter’s part objectives

● The stress-strain relationship and stress-strain diagram

● Materials properties
● Generalized Hooke’s law
● Normal stress and axial elongation
● Normal forces diagram
 01.

Elasticity and
material behavior
 Introduction
Requirements

 The concepts of stress and strain

 Their relationships to the applied load and displacements
 The equilibrium equations.

Outcomes:

 The principle of elasticity

 Hooke’s law
 The link between experimental behavior of materials and elasticity
 The concepts of limit stress, allowable stress, and safety factor.
 Normal Stress & Normal Strain
● Axial Centric Loading (Normal loading)

Normal Stress is Force per unit area perpendicular to the cut surface σ = Force / Area = N / A
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛅
Normal Strain is the elongation per unit length ε= =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐋
 Tension Test
● Is a destructive engineering and materials science test whereby controlled load ( tension) is applied to a
sample until it fully fails.

● It is used to find out how strong a material is and also how much it can be stretched before it breaks. This
test method is used to determine yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, strain hardening
characteristics, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

● These diagrams are material dependent.

 Stress-Strain Diagram
● A stress-strain diagram is a graphical representation of the relationship between the stress and strain
experienced by a material when subjected to a load. This diagram is a fundamental tool in material
science and engineering to study the mechanical properties of materials, such as strength, ductility,
toughness, and elasticity.
 Stress-Strain Diagram
● The linear elastic region and it's directly proportional, And the slope of this linear elastic region is E, or
Young's modulus, or the modulus of elasticity

● The linear region ends at the stress at the proportion limit small nonlinear range, Beyond that region,
strain is no longer directly proportional to stress, still in an elastic region where we start, where we
continue to recover all of the displacement that takes place.
 Stress-Strain Diagram
● The end of the elastic region is called the yield stress: where any stress beyond this point is going to produce
permanent yield, or permanent set, permanent deformation. The body is not going to return back to its original
position. As we go along yield stress, the region is plastically deformed, this region is called the perfectly
plastic yielding region.

● Strain hardening: the strain and stress go up again to attend the ultimate stress which is the highest amount
of stress the material can take.

● And then the specimen starts to neck down, or the diameter becomes smaller until it actually fractures, this
section is called necking.
 Stress-Strain Diagram
● (OA) : Linear Elastic zone (Proportional zone) where stress is
proportional to strain and the slope is Young’s modulus

 σ𝐩 : proportionality limit (maximum stress)

● (OB) Elastic Zone: the unloading happens elastically,

without permanent deformations when the load
is reduced until it is cancelled out.

 σ𝐞 : elastic limit (maximum stress to apply without

permament deformation)

● (BD) Plastic zone: Permanent deformation is observed in the

specimen when the test is unloaded. ● ( (DE) Strain hardening zone: the strain and stress
go up again to attend the ultimate stress which is
 σ𝐟 : the yield limit is the stress at which the material deforms the highest amount of stress the material can take.
with almost no additional stress.  σ𝐫 : The ultimate stress

● (CD) Yielding zone : The deformation increases without an ● (EF ) Necking zone: a portion of the specimen’s
appreciable increase in stress. Until reaching point D, the strain is cross section starts to shrink considerably.
uniform along the length of the specimen.
 Materials properties

● Strength: Capacity for high stress/ (ultimate stress)

● Stiffness: the slope becomes greater and greater as the material is more and more stiff  E

● Toughness: Capacity for energy absorption without deformation (area under stress-strain curve σ𝐫

● Resilience: Capacity for deforming elastically (area under elastic region)

● Ductility: Capacity for high deformation/strain

● Brittleness: Low capacity for deformation/strain

Materials properties
Let’s practice
 Hooke’s Law
● For linear elastic region: The Hooke’s law: σ= E ε ( Where E is Modulus of Elasticity or Young Modulus)
● The Hooke’s law can be extended for use in more engineering applications for situations
involving biaxial and triaxial loading.

● Hooke’s Law assumed elastic behavior, and if we add another common assumption that the material is
isotropic (having the same material properties in all directions)

Young’s modulus :E= 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸𝑧

 Hooke’s Law
● When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile loading there is an increase in length of the bar in the direction
of the load, but a decrease in the lateral dimensions perpendicular to the load. The ratio of the strain in the
lateral direction to that in the axial direction is defined as Poisson’s ratio (υ)
δ𝒍𝒂𝒕é𝒓𝒂𝒍
Lateral Strain: έ = έ
𝒘𝟎
 υ=−
ɛ
δ𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍
Longitudinal strain : ɛ = 𝑳𝟎

● If we assume that the material is isotropic (having the same material properties in all directions)
Poisson’s ration: υ = υ𝑥 = υ𝑦 = υ𝑧
Generalized Hooke’s Law for Biaxial Stress-Strain for Isotropic
Materials
Consider Biaxial Principal Stresses
Generalized Hooke’s Law for Biaxial Stress-Strain for Isotropic
Materials
Consider Biaxial Principal Stresses
Let’s practice
 02.

Normal stress
and strain
 Normal stress
● Normal stress: stress by force is acting perpendicularly / normally/ to the cross sectional area. The
normal stress in a member of cross-sectional area, A subjected to an axial or normal load P.
● We make a fictitious cut in a beam with a cross-sectional area S , located at a distance x from point A
between the two ends A and B. This beam is subjected to a normal force P at both of its ends. The cut
reveals the internal forces within the beam.
● The normal force N applied to the cross-section S is expressed as: N=‫ = 𝑆𝑑𝜎 𝑆׭‬σ𝑛𝑖=1 ∆𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃
 Normal stress
● Assuming Saint-Venant's principle is satisfied, the stress 𝜎 caused by the normal force 𝑁 is given by:
𝜎=𝑁/𝐴.

● An axial load is represented by a force perpendicular to the cross-section of the beam. This force is
applied at the centroid of the cross-section.

● In the following figure:P is an axial load for section 1-1. However, it is not an axial load for section 2-2
because it does not pass through its centroid, and it generates a moment 𝑀=𝑃⋅ℎ at this section.
 Axial elongation
● Consider a beam made of a homogeneous and isotropic material with a variable cross-section S, subjected to
an axial force P.
● Assuming Bernoulli's hypothesis is satisfied, all fibers of an element with length dx elongate by a length dδ,
𝒅𝜹
and their relative elongation ε is defined as: 𝜺𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙

𝑁(𝑥)
● By considering Hooke's law and the definition of stress: 𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 𝑒𝑡 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑆(𝑥)
𝑳 𝑵(𝒙)
● The total elongation of the beam is: : ∆𝑳 = ‫𝟎׬‬ 𝒅𝒙 For a beam with a constant cross-section, the
𝑬𝑺(𝒙)
𝑵𝑳
elongation becomes: ∆𝑳 = ​.
𝑬𝑺
𝑵
● And the stress is expressed as: 𝝈 = 𝑺
 Lateral Contraction (Poisson's Ratio)
● A beam subjected to a normal force P elongates in its main direction x by the amount:

∆𝑳 = 𝜺𝑳

● In the other two directions (axes y and z), the beam contracts by the amounts:

∆𝑳𝒚 =−ν𝜺𝑳𝒚 & ∆𝑳𝒛=−ν𝜺𝑳𝒛

Where ν is Poisson's ratio. Its value ranges between 0.2 and 0.4 for the vast majority of materials.
 Stresses in an inclined section
Consider a beam under tensile loading with an inclined section S at an angle α, where the normal vector is
n⃗and the tangent vector is t⃗.

● The normal force and tangential force on the inclined section are given by: 𝑵𝜶 =F cos 𝜶 et 𝑽𝜶 = 𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶.

● Assuming that Saint-Venant's principle is satisfied, the stresses 𝜎𝑛 ​ are identical at every point and
parallel to the axis (neutral axis) of the beam. The projection of 𝜎𝑛 onto n⃗and t⃗ respectively gives the
normal stress on the section 𝜎𝛼 and the tangential stress 𝜏𝛼 .

● The inclined section SSS is related to a normal (perpendicular) section S0S_0S0​ by the relation:
𝑺𝟎 = 𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
 Stresses in an inclined section
𝑭 𝑵𝜶 𝑵𝜶 𝑭
● The normal stress on a perpendicular section is: 𝝈𝟎 = 𝑺 We can write: 𝝈𝜶 = = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 = 𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔²𝜶
𝟎 𝑺 𝑺𝟎 𝟎

𝑉𝛼 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
● Thus: 𝝈𝜶 = 𝝈𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔²𝜶 and 𝜏𝛼 = =
𝑆 𝑆0

● Then : 𝝉𝜶 = 𝝈𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶

𝜎0
● We can conclude that the normal stress 𝜎𝛼 is maximal for 𝛼 = 45° ( 𝜏𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Τ2).

● For a structure made of a material with low shear strength, failure under tension or compression
occurs on an inclined plane at 45°, where the shear stresses 𝝉𝜶 are maximal.
● In contrast, if the resistance to normal force is weaker, failure occurs on a perpendicular section
(α=0∘)
 Stresses in an inclined section
𝑭 𝑵𝜶 𝑵𝜶 𝑭
● The normal stress on a perpendicular section is: 𝝈𝟎 = 𝑺 We can write: 𝝈𝜶 = = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 = 𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔²𝜶
𝟎 𝑺 𝑺𝟎 𝟎

𝑉𝛼 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
● Thus: 𝝈𝜶 = 𝝈𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔²𝜶 and 𝜏𝛼 = =
𝑆 𝑆0

● Then : 𝝉𝜶 = 𝝈𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶

𝜎0
● We can conclude that the normal stress 𝜎𝛼 is maximal for 𝛼 = 45° ( 𝜏𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Τ2).

● For a structure made of a material with low shear strength, failure under tension or compression
occurs on an inclined plane at 45°, where the shear stresses 𝝉𝜶 are maximal.
● In contrast, if the resistance to normal force is weaker, failure occurs on a perpendicular section
(α=0∘)
 Normal Force Diagram (NFD)
● A Normal Force Diagram (NFD) provides the values of the normal force in all sections perpendicular to
the axial force.

● An NFD is obtained using the method of sections by making a cut between each concentrated force or
through each distributed load.

● Sign Convention: Tension: +, Compression: −

● To construct an NFD:

 Create the Free Body Diagram (FBD).

 Apply the static equilibrium equations to each analyzed section.N
 Note: Be careful with the direction of the forces.
 03

Applications
 Thanks!
See you next
week !
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