1. Define an ideal gas.

An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that perfectly follows the gas laws under all conditions of
temperature and pressure. It assumes no intermolecular forces and that the volume of individual
gas molecules is negligible compared to the container volume.

2. What is Boyle's Law?

Boyle's Law states that the pressure of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
volume at constant temperature. Mathematically:

1
Pcc? or PVi =PV

3. State Charles’s Law.

Charles's Law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional
to its
absolute temperature, provided the pressure remains constant.
4. What is the ideal gas equation?
The ideal gas equation relates the pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of a
gas:

PV =nRT

where R is the universal gas constant.

5. Define the universal gas constant.

The universal gas constant R is the proportionality constant in the ideal gas equation. Its value
depends on the units used:

¢+ R=8314J/mol
| K
e« R=0.0821L = atm/mol
= K
6. What is Avogadro’s law?
Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure,
contain an equal number of molecules.
. What is the significance of the Van der Waals constants a and b?

* a: Accounts for intermolecular attractions, reducing pressure compared to ideal behavior.

e b: Corrects for the finite size of gas molecules, reducing the free volume available for
motion.

How is gas pressure related to temperature?

According to the ideal gas law, pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature when
the volume and number of moles are constant:

PxT

. What is absolute
zero?
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, where all molecular motion theoretically
ceases. It corresponds to 0 K or -273.15 °C.
10. Explain the assumptions
of the kinetic molecular theory.

Gases consist ofa large number of tiny particles in constant random motion.

Collisions between gas particles and container walls are perfectly elastic.

There are no intermolecular forces between particles.

The volume of gas particles is negligible compared to the volume of the container.

The average kinetic energy of gas particles is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
11. What are the main reasons for deviations from ideal gas behavior?
* Real gases deviate from ideal behavior because:

1. Intermolecular forces exist between gas particles.

2. Gas particles have a finite size, which reduces the free volume available.

3. At high pressures and low temperatures, these effects become significant.

12. What is the compressibility factor?

* The compressibility factor Z measures deviation from ideal gas behavior:

Z="—
nRT
13. How does the Van der Waals equation correct the ideal gas law?
* The Van der Waals equation:
(P+) (V—b) =
s a/V?2: Corects for attractive forces.
s b: Corrects for the finite size of gas particles.
14. Why do gases deviate at high pressures?
* At high pressures:

1. Gas particles are closer, and intermolecular forces become significant.

2. The finite volume of particles becomes comparable to the container volume.

15. What is critical temperature?

s The critical temperature (T}.) is the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied,
regardless of pressure.
16. Define liquefaction of gases.
» Liguefaction of gases refers to converting a gas into a liquid by cooling or compressing it below
its critical temperature.

17. What is the significance of Boyle temperature?

* The Boyle temperature (T}) is the temperature at which a real gas behaves ideally over a range
of pressures because attractive and repulsive forces balance out.
18. Why do intermolecular forces affect gas behavior?
+ Intermolecular forces (e.g., Van der Waals forces) reduce the pressure exerted by gas molecules
and cause deviations from ideal behavior.

19. How does molecular size influence gas properties?

¢ The finite size of molecules reduces the free space in the container, causing a decrease in the
effective volume available for motion.
20. Describe the physical significance of the constant b in Van der Waals
equation.
* The constant b represents the volume excluded by one mole of gas molecules due to their finite
size. It is proportional to the size of the molecules.

21. State the kinetic theory of gases.

* The kinetic theory explains gas behavior based on:

1. Gases are composed of particles in random motion.

2. Collisions are elastic.

3. Intermolecular forces are negligible.

4. Temperature is proportional to kinetic energy.

22. Derive an expression for pressure using kinetic theory.
e The pressureP of a gas is given by:

P:lpcz
3

where g is the density and ¢ is the root-mean-square velocity.

23. How does kinetic energy depend on temperature?

s The average kinetic energy (K E) of gas molecules is directly proportional to absolute
temperature (T'):

KE = ngT
 L=

24. What is the relationship between molecular speed and temperature?

* The root-mean-square speed (V) is proportional to the square root of absolute temperature:

\/3RT
VUrms=
M

25. What is the root-mean-square speed of gas molecules?

* The root-mean-square speed (Uyms) is the square root of the mean of the squares of molecular
speeds:

\/3RT
VUrms=
M

where M is molar mass.

26. Differentiate between average speed and most probable speed.
* Average speed (Vayg): The mean of all molecular speeds.

_ /8RBT
* UVayg = M

* Most probable speed (Uy,p): The speed at which the maximum number of molecules move.

_ 2RT
* Ump =4 M

27. Why are collisions in gases considered elastic?

» Collisions are elastic because gas molecules conserve kinetic energy and momentum during
collisions.
28. What is mean free path?
* Mean free path is the average distance a gas molecule travels between collisions.

29. How does molecular mass affect the speed of gas molecules?
+ Lighter molecules move faster than heavier ones because molecular speed is inversely
proportional to the square root of molar mass:
1
VX —
vM
30. Explain how the kinetic theory supports Boyle’s law.
* According to kinetic theory, reducing the volume increases collision frequency, leading to higher
pressure. This supports Boyle's law (P oc 1/V).
31. Define Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures.

e Dalton's
Law states that the total pressure
of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressuresof
each gas:
Poa=P+P+P;+...

32. What is partial pressure?

® Partial pressure is the pressure a gas in a mixture would exert if it occupied the entire volume
alone at the same temperature.
33. How is Dalton’s law applied in calculating gas mixtures?
* To find the total pressure, sum up the partial pressures of all gases:
FPiotal = Z F;
i
Each P; can be calculated using the ideal gas law for each compeonent.

34. What is Graham's Law of Diffusion?

* Graham's Law states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square
root of its molar mass:

"_1_\/@
T M,
35. Explain effusion.
» Effusion is the process by which gas particles pass through a small hole without collisions
between particles.

36. How does Graham's Law apply to effusion?

* The rate of effusion is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass of the gas:

Rate, _ /M2
Rfl-tez B M_]
37. Define the term "real gas.”
* A real gas deviates from ideal gas behavior due to intermolecular forces and the finite volume of
gas particles.

38. How is the liquefaction of gases achieved?

* Gases are liquefied by cooling to a temperature below the critical temperature and/or applying
high pressure.
39. What is the Joule-Thomson effect?

* The Joule-Thomson effect is the change in temperature of a gas when it is allowed to expand
without performing work and without heat exchange.

40. What is an isothermal process?

* An isothermal process occurs at a constant temperature. For gases, heat exchange with
surroundings maintains this constancy.
41. DeTine adiabatic process.

* An adiabatic process occurs without heat exchange with the surroundings. The temperature
changes due to internal energy variations.

42. How do ideal gases behave in an adiabatic process?

* Forideal gases, PV = constant, where <y is the adiabatic index (Cp/C\).

43. Explain the critical pressure of a gas.

» Critical pressure is the minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.
44. What is the significance of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution?
* |t describes the distribution of molecular speeds in a gas, showing that most molecules have
speeds near the most probable value.

45. What factors affect the mean free path?

* The mean free path depends on:
1. Gas density.
2. Molecular diameter.

3. Temperature and pressure.

46. How is pressure
exerted by gas molecules?
* Gas molecules exert pressure due to collisions with the container walls.

47. Define Boyle's temperature.

* Boyle's temperature is the temperature at which a real gas obeys Boyle's law over a wide range
of pressures.
48. How does temperature aftect gas viscosity?
* Viscosity increases with temperature because faster-moving molecules collide more often,
transferring momentum.

49. What is molecular diffusion?

¢ Molecular diffusion is the movement of gas molecules from a region of high concentration to
low concentration due to random motion.
50. Explain the concept of a pressure-volume diagram.
* APV diagram plots pressure against volume, showing different thermodynamic processes like
isothermal and adiabatic.

51. What is the principle of the Van der Waals equation?

* |t modifies the ideal gas law to account for intermolecular attractions (a) and molecular volume
(b).
52. How does temperature affect molecular speed distribution?
e At higher temperatures, the distribution broadens, and the most probable speed shifts to higher
values.

53. What is critical volume?

s Critical volume is the volume of one mole of a gas at its critical temperature and pressure.
54. How do intermolecular forces influence gas behavior?
* Stronger intermolecular forces cause greater deviations from ideal gas behavior, especially at
low temperatures.

55. What is a reversible process?

* Areversible process occurs so slowly that the system remains in equilibrium with its
surroundings at all stages.
56. Define thermal conductivity of gases.
* Thermal conductivity is the ability of a gas to conduct heat through collisions of its molecules.

57. How is entropy related to gases?

» Entropy measures the disorder or randomness of gas molecules, increasing with temperature
and volume.
58. What is Avogadro’s number?
* Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10%) is the number of molecules in one mole of a substance.

59. Explain the phase diagram of a substance.

* A phase diagram shows the conditions of temperature and pressure under which different
phases (solid, liquid, gas) exist.
60. What is the triple point?
* The triple point is the unique temperature and pressure at which all three phases of a substance
coexist in equilibrium.
61. How is the ideal gas equation applied to real-life problems?
* Itis used to calculate relationships between pressure, volume, temperature, and number of
moles in processes like industrial gas storage, weather forecasting, and balloon inflation.

62. What is the significance of R in the ideal gas law?

s R, the universal gas constant, ensures consistency across different units of pressure, volume,
and temperature in the gas law.
63. How is gas pressure measured?
* Gas pressure is measured using devices like manometers and barometers.

64. Explain the use of gas laws in weather balloons.

* The volume of weather balloons increases as they rise due to decreasing atmospheric pressure,
explained by Boyle's Law.
65. Why are gas laws important in scuba diving?
* Boyle's Law explains why gas volume in tanks decreases with pressure underwater. Divers also
use Dalton’s Law to avoid decompression sickness (the bends).

66. How does gas behavior affect rocket propulsion?

+ The high-speed expulsion of gases, governed by Newton’s Third Law and the kinetic theory of
gases, generates thrust in rockets.
67. What role do gas laws play in airbags?
» Airbags inflate due to the rapid production of gases. The ideal gas law helps calculate the
volume and pressure required for effective deployment.

68. Why are gases used in refrigeration?

* Gases like ammonia and freon undergo compression and expansion cycles, absorbing or
releasing heat due to their thermal properties.
69. How does altitude affect gas pressure?
s As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases because the density of air molecules
reduces.

70. Explain the use of diffusion in separating isotopes.

* |[sotopes are separated based on differences in diffusion rates (Graham's Law), as lighter
isotopes diffuse faster than heavier ones.
71. Derive the ideal gas equation from Boyle's, Charles’s, and Avogadro’s
laws.
« Combining:
s V o 5 (Boyle's Law)
o V o T (Charles's Law)

e V o n (Avogadro’s
Law)
Resultsin
V o< 2L, or PV = nRT.
72. How is the value of R determined experimentally?
» By measuring the pressure, volume, temperature, and numberof moles of a gas, R can be
calculated using PV = nRT.

73. Solve: Calculate the volume of 1 mole of gas at STP.

e AtSTP (P = latm,T = 273.15K,n= 1):
_ nRT _ (1)(0.0821)(273.15)
14 =~ 224L
- P 1
74. Solve: What is the pressure of 2 moles of gas confined to 10 L at 300 K?
* Using
PV = nRT:

nRT _ (2)(0.0821)(300)
P= = 4.926 atm
vV 10

75. Calculate the molecular speed of nitrogen gas at 273 K.

e For No, M = 28 g/mol = 0.028 kg /mol:

T
'3RT
= \/ Y V
[(3)(8-314)(273)
0.028 ~ 493 m/s
76. A gas diffuses twice as fast as another. What is the ratio of their molar
masses?
s From Graham's Law:
—
T M, 1 M,
—=4/— s0o — =2, — =4dorMy;=4M
r2 M T2 M; !

77. Derive an expression for mean free path.

s Mean free path (\):

1
A=
vfifldzn

where d is molecular diameter and n is the number density of molecules.

78. How do you calculate compressibility factor for a real gas?
» Compressibility factor:

Z=——
nRT
Z indicates deviation from ideal behavior.

79. Solve: Calculate the rate of effusion for oxygen gas compared to
hydrogen gas.
* From Graham's Law:
80. Determine the critical constants for a gas using Van der Waals equation.
» Critical constants (T}, P,, V) are derived from:

8a a
T, “omr o Vo=

81. Why do ideal gases not exist in reality?

* Real gases have intermolecular forces and finite molecular sizes, which are ignored in the ideal
gas model.
82. How is STP defined?
» STP: Standard Temperature and Pressure:

e Temperature = 273.15K

¢ Pressure =1atm

83. Explain the difference between gas pressure and vapor pressure.
* Gas pressure: Due to collisions of gas molecules.

* Vapor pressure: Pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid or solid.
84. Why is the ideal gas equation only an approximation?
* |t assumes no intermolecular forces and negligible molecular volume, which is not true for real
gases.

85. What is the significance of Boltzmann's constant?

o kp=1.38x10"2]J /K relates temperature to molecular kinetic energy.
86. Why do gases expand to fill their containers?
¢ Gases have negligible intermolecular forces, so molecules move randomly, spreading uniformly.

87. Why does temperature increase molecular motion?

* Temperature increases kinetic energy, making molecules move faster.
88. How are pressure and force related?
= Pressure (P) is force (F) per unit area (A):

89. What is the importance of intermolecular forces in gas behavior?

* Intermolecular forces affect gas pressure, liquefaction, and deviations from ideality.
90. Why is compressibility factor unity for ideal gases?
s Forideal gases, Z = 1 because
they perfectly follow PV = nRT.

91. Derive the Van der Waals equation.

s Modifying PV = nRT"

* Correcting pressure: P + ¢
s Correcting volume: V — b
Result:

(P+ I%) (V —b)

= RT
92. How is the Joule-Thomson effect related to gases?
» |t describes temperature change in gases during expansion or compression without heat
exchange.

93. Explain critical phenomena in gases.

» At the critical point, the gas and liquid phases become indistinguishable.
94. Why do polar gases deviate more from ideal behavior?
* Polar gases have stronger intermolecular forces, causing greater deviations.

95. How does hydrogen bonding affect gas behavior?

* Hydrogen bonding increases intermolecular forces, reducing ideal gas behavior.

96. Explain the role of non-ideal behavior in atmospheric science.

* Real gas behavior influences weather prediction and atmospheric pressure calculations.
97. How is fugacity used for real gases?
* Fugacity measures the effective pressure accounting for real gas deviations.

98. What is the principle of equipartition of energy?

* Energy is equally distributed among all degrees of freedom of gas molecules.

99. How does quantum theory modify the kinetic theory of gases?
s Quantum theory introduces quantized energy levels, affecting specific heat and molecular
behavior at low temperatures.