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The Big Book of Therapeautic Activity Ideas for Children
and Teens Inspiring Arts Based Activities and Character
Education Curricula Joiner Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Joiner, Lindsey
ISBN(s): 9780857004475, 0857004476
Edition: Illustrated
File Details: PDF, 3.00 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
The Big Book of Therapeutic Activity Ideas
for Children and Teens
of related interest
Games and Activities for Exploring Feelings

Vanessa Rogers
ISBN 978 1 84905 222 1
How to Be Angry
An Assertive Anger Expression Group Guide for Kids and Teens
Signe Whitson
Foreword by Dr. Nicholas Long
ISBN 978 1 84905 867 4
Creating Children’s Art Games for Emotional Support

Vicky Barber
ISBN 978 1 84905 163 7
Creative Coping Skills for Children

Emotional Support through Arts and Crafts Activities
Bonnie Thomas
ISBN 978 1 84310 921 1
Creative Expression Activities for Teens

Exploring Identity through Art, Craft and Journaling
Bonnie Thomas
ISBN 978 1 84905 842 1
Helping Children to Improve their Communication Skills

Therapeutic Activities for Teachers, Parents and Therapists
Deborah M. Plummer
Illustrated by Alice Harper
ISBN 978 1 84310 959 4
Helping Children to Cope with Change, Stress and Anxiety

A Photocopiable Activities Book
Deborah M. Plummer
Illustrated by Alice Harper
ISBN 978 1 84310 959 4
The Expressive Arts Activity Book

A Resource for Professionals
Suzanne Darley and Wende Heath
Illustrated by Mark Darley
Foreword by Gene D. Cohen MD PhD.
ISBN 978 1 84310 861 0
Arts Activities for Children and Young People in Need

Helping Children to Develop Mindfulness, Spiritual Awareness and Self-Esteem
Diana Coholic
ISBN 978 1 84905 001 2
The Big Book of
Therapeutic Activity Ideas
for Children and Teens
Inspiring Arts-Based Activities
and Character Education Curricula
Lindsey Joiner
Jessica Kingsley Publishers

London and Philadelphia
Scripture on p.5 is taken from THE HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®, NIV® Copyright
© 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.
Activities on p.73, pp.236–237 and pp.238–239 are adapted by permission of Joe Ray Underwood
and Nancy Underwood.
Quotation by Duke Ellington on p.104 is reproduced by permission of Scarola Malone & Zubatov LLP.
First published in 2012

by Jessica Kingsley Publishers
116 Pentonville Road
London N1 9JB, UK
and
400 Market Street, Suite 400
Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA
www.jkp.com
Copyright © Lindsey Joiner 2012
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including
photocopying of any pages other than those marked with a , storing it in any medium by electronic
means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the
written permission of the copyright owner except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency
Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Applications for the copyright owner’s
written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher.
Warning: The doing of an unauthorized act in relation to a copyright work may

result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution.
All pages marked  may be photocopied for personal use with this program, but may not
be reproduced for any other purposes without the permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 1 84905 865 0

eISBN 978 1 84905 865 0
Printed and bound in the United States

To Win and Drake
For nothing is impossible with God.

Luke 1:37
Contents
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Chapter 1 Opening Activities: Warm-Ups, Icebreakers,

and Other Brief Activities 17
Picture Prompts 18 Journal Jars 29
Initially Yours 20 Journal Jams 30
It’s a Dog’s Life 22 Covered with Love Journals 31
What’s the Story? 24 Circle time ideas 32
Creative forms of journaling 25 Sign In and Begin 32
Gratitude Journals 26 Stories and Snacks/Chips and Chapters/
Art Journals 27 Books and Breakfast 33
UP Day, DOWN Day Journals 28 “Beanie Baby” Beginnings 34
Chapter 2 Cinematherapy and Bibliotherapy Activities 35

Cinematherapy activities 36 Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No
The Blind Side 36
Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst 49
Legally Blonde 38
The True Story of the Three Little Pigs
by Jon Scieszka 52
The Wizard of Oz 40
Purplicious by Victoria Kann and
A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry 43 Elizabeth Kann 54
Mean Girls 45 Enemy Pie by Derek Munson 57
Bibliotherapy activities 47 Rainbow Fish by Marcus Pfister 60
If by Rudyard Kipling 47
Chapter 3 Therapeutic Arts Activities 64

Timeline 65 Removing the Mask 78
City of Hope 67 Positive/Negative Word Walls 80
Mosaic Mascots 69 Soul Shine Sunshine 81
Knocking Down Negativity 71 Bead Meaning Bracelets 82
Quote Quests 72 Zoo Crew/Jungle People 83
Crush the Can’ts, Raise Your Cans 73 Creative Cookbook 84
Color Coding 74 What’s Bugging Me? 85
Dream/Goal Boards 75 Social Butterflies 87
Dear Younger Self 77
Chapter 4 Month-by-Month Character Education Calendar 89
January 90 June 115
Chinese Dragons (New Year’s Day) 90 Bead Buddies 115
“I Have a Dream” Day (Dr. Martin Luther Anger-Control Totem Poles 116
King, Jr.’s Birthday) 93 July 127
Recipe for Success/“When Dreams Come Group Sand Castles 127
True” Day (Dr. Martin Luther King,
Jr.’s Birthday) 95 Sand Art 128
February 100 August 129
Stuffed with Love (Valentine’s Day) 100 Back to School Survival Kit 129
Candy Cards (Valentine’s Day) 102 School Pride Guide 131
Rhythm and Blues (Black History Month) 104 September 132
Black History Program (Black History Month) 105 Tailgate Party 132
March 106 Family Tree (Grandparents’ Day) 134
Pot of Gold Scavenger Hunt (St. Patrick’s Day) 106 October 136
Take a (Spring) Break and Relax (Spring Safety Spiders (Halloween) 136
Break) 107 Painted Pumpkins (Halloween) 138
April 109 Scaring Away Bad Behavior (Halloween) 139
April Showers Bring May Flowers 109 November 140
Peaceful Earth (Earth Day) 110 Thankful Turkey (Thanksgiving Day) 140
May 111 Giving Back Baskets (Thanksgiving Day) 142
Growing a Garden of Mental Health December 143
(Children’s Mental Health Week) 111
Warm Hands, Warm Hearts 143
Step by Step (Gardening Activities) 113
Polar Express 145
Chapter 5 Therapeutic Day Camp Activities

and Day Program Ideas 147
Goal-setting therapeutic camp series 149 Group Cheers/Chants (Camp 1) 157
Recipe for success 149 Banking on Goal Setting (Camp 1) 158
Camp 1: Getting Excited about Goal Setting 150 Goal Progress Check (Goal Tree)
(Camps 2, 3 and 4) 159
Camp 2: Getting Our Goals on Paper 151
Positive Parachute (Camp 2) 160
Camp 3: Maintaining Motivation by
Developing Good Character 152 Poster Goal Commitment (Camp 2) 161
Camp 4: Making a Plan for Continued The Butterfly Story (Camp 2) 162
Goal Setting 153 Sticks and Stones (Camp 3) 164
Camp 5: Celebrating Good Behavior and Mirror, Mirror (Camp 3) 165
Goal Achievement 154
Excellent Egg Relay Race (Camp 3) 166
Activities 155
Dream Catchers (Camp 4) 167
Preliminary Goal Setting (Camp 1) 155
Action Steps Windsocks (Camp 4) 168
Spirit Banner (Camp 1) 156
Bead Bowl (Camp 4) 169
Good Behavior and Goal Achievement Ideas for adapting camp activities to other
Ceremony (Camp 5) 170 settings 213
Handouts and forms for goal setting with Positive-thinking and coping-skills
children at camps 172 therapeutic camp series 215
Therapeutic Camp—Goal Criteria 172 The colors of me 215
Ideas for adapting goal-setting camp Camp 1: Green Camp/Positive Thinking 216
activities to other settings 178 Camp 2: Red Camp/Self-Discovery 217
Sample Weekly Schedule for Goal-Setting Camp 3: Blue Camp/Stress Relief and
Curriculum and Activities 179 Relaxation 218
Self-esteem, anger-control, and impulse- Camp 4: White Camp/Peacemaking and
control therapeutic camp series 183 Conflict Resolution 219
Making me the best I can be 183 Camp 5: Gold Camp/Reward and Closing
Camp 1: Kick Off Summer Pep Rally 184 Ceremony 220
Camp 2: Anger Control/Afternoon Reward 185 Activities 221
Camp 3: Self-Esteem 187 Positive Planter (Camp 1) 221
Camp 4: Impulse Control/Afternoon Reward 189 Positive Words Rock Garden (Camp 1) 223
Camp 5: Reward Camp/Closing Ceremony 191 Positive Words Beading (Camp 1) 224
Activities 192 Bead Buddies (Camp 2) 225
Positive Word Wall (Camp 2) 192 Stuffed with Love (Camp 2) 226
The Color of Anger (Camp 2) 194 Potato Sack Race (Camp 2) 227
Animal Anger-Control Questionnaire (Camp 2) 196 Taste Test (Camp 2) 228
Create a Group Totem Pole (Camp 2) 198 Relaxation Music (Camp 3) 229
Pull a Duck (Camp 3) 200 Sand Art (Camp 3) 230
Carousel Ride and Face Painting (Camp 3) 202 Aromatherapy (Camp 3) 231
Silent and Verbal Water Balloon Toss (Camp 3) 203 Group Sand Castles (Camp 3) 232
Kite Decorating and Flying (Camp 3) 205 Peacing it Together (Camp 4) 234
Gardening (Camp 4) 206 Umbrella of Peace (Camp 4) 236
“Great,” “Could-Be-Better,” and Peace Sign Design (Camp 4) 238
“Unacceptable” Behavior Bean Ideas for adapting camp activities to other
Bag Toss (Camp 4) 207 settings 243
Concrete Block/Stepping Stone (Camp 4) 210 Ideas for therapeutic day programs 245
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Index of Purposes of Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Acknowledgements
It takes a village to raise a child.

African Proverb
Raising children and being a parent has been on my mind a lot lately. I am eight months
pregnant with my first child as I write these words. The upcoming birth of my own child
has caused me to consider how blessed I am to have a loving family and extended supportive
system in my life as my husband and I begin this new phase of our lives.
While we both want to be the best parents we can be, it is a comforting feeling to know
that there are grandparents, great-grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, pastors, and friends there
when extra support is needed. As I have been reflecting on raising children, I began to think
of the many ways that writing a book is like raising a child. Although my name is on the front
cover, I am indebted to so many people who guided, mentored, and supported me along the
way. This book would not be here today without each of you. I am so grateful to each of you.
• Dr. Lee Lee Marlow. Thank you for taking a chance on me as Day Treatment Supervisor.
I know I wasn’t the most likely candidate for the job, but I am forever grateful for the
opportunity, and for you as one of my best friends.
• Linda Hopkins. Thank you for showing me what it means to be creative and to be a
mentor. I learned more about counseling, creativity, and life from watching you than you
will ever know. I am sure you will recognize some of the activities in this book.
• The MAP Camp Committee (Linda, Keisha, Latina, Lashonda, John, and Latasha) and all
the staff at Weems Community Mental Health Center, Division of Children and Youth. I
learned so much from each of you. Thank you for supporting me and giving me a chance.
• The children and youth at Weems Community Mental Health Center. It is my privilege
to know each of you. Thank you for all you taught me. I am a better person for knowing
each of you.
• The staff at the Meridian Public School District, Office of Exceptional Child Education.
I am blessed to work daily with a group of knowledgeable and caring people. You each
make me want to be a better person daily.
• Dr. Julia Porter. Thank you for being a mentor in the true sense of the word. You
encouraged me several years ago to put all of the creative activities I used into a book.
Your words of encouragement went a long way.
• Rosanne Nunnery. Thank you for showing me how to be a good day treatment supervisor.
I am thankful to have you as a friend.
• Rosie Davis. Thank you to the most talented (and certainly the nicest) artist I know. The
art you provided for this book exceeded my expectations. You have made many things I
envisioned a reality and I am very grateful.
11
12 The Big Book of Therapeutic Activity Ideas for Children and Teens
• Stephen Jones and Caroline Walton. Thank you for all your guidance, encouragement,
and feedback. I am most appreciative for the opportunity to work with both of you.
• My wonderful family and friends. Thank you for all your support and love. I am especially
grateful to my grandparents, Ruth and Charles Naylor. They sacrificed to give me many
opportunities I would not otherwise have had. Words cannot express how appreciative I
am for all you have done for me.
• My husband, Win. I think you know me better than I know myself. Thank you for
believing in me when I did not believe in myself and for always having the right word
at the right time. I am truly blessed.
Introduction
All children are artists. The problem is how to remain an artist once he grows up.
Pablo Picasso
Several years ago, I was a young therapist starting out at my first job running day-treatment
programs at a local community mental health center. I had just completed my master’s degree
in counseling. I was a good student and I felt prepared by the graduate program that included
courses in group therapy, counseling theory, and counseling children. I was excited and ready
for the real world. Or so I thought.
I learned very quickly that while the academic knowledge is essential for mental-health
professionals, there is no substitute for experience. When I arrived for my first day of work to
run the two-hour day-treatment program for children with behavior problems, I realized I had
no idea what to do or what kind of activities would work. After spending several days crying
and thinking I had chosen the wrong profession, I got busy. I searched the internet and bought
as many books as I could find on working with children. Many of these books contained good
handouts and topics to discuss. With the help of those books and a good behavior plan, I made
it through my first several months of the real world.
As time went on, I discovered that while the therapeutic worksheets and handouts from
the resource books provided something for the children to do and the behavior plan helped to
manage their behavior, they did not seem excited about the group. I slowly began to venture
outside the box and try to put a therapeutic spin on creative activities. As I become more and
more comfortable using these activities, I found the participants in my group to be more excited
about coming to group. Attendance and behavior began to improve. Art and other creativity
methods seemed to be natural forms of expression for children.
Later, I accepted a position supervising all of the day-treatment programs at the community
mental health center. I had the opportunity to work with children aged 2 to 18, and learn from
many of the other therapists at the center. My knowledge of creativity therapy increased and I
encouraged other therapists to implement more expressive arts and creativity into the programs.
I also learned a lot from many of the other therapists working at the center about creative
counseling. While supervising these programs, I coordinated and implemented many of the
activities described in this book.
I recently accepted a position in our local school system working with children. Most school
counselors do not have as much time to spend with children as therapists in an outpatient
setting. As a result of this experience, I have developed and included brief activities that would
be appropriate for these settings. There are also many ideas that would be helpful in classroom
guidance situations. Most of the activities are cost-effective and easy to do.
The book is organized into five chapters to assist in quickly locating the type of activity
needed. The first chapter includes icebreaker activities that can be used to begin individual and
group counseling sessions and build rapport with children and teens. Many of these icebreakers
would also work well with adults. The second chapter includes bibliotherapy (using books,
13
poetry, and other forms of literature as part of counseling or therapy) and cinematherapy
(using movies or television shows as part of counseling or therapy) activities. The bibliotherapy
activities that accompany several children’s storybooks would work well with elementary-
school-aged children. The cinematherapy activities are appropriate for use with upper middle
school and high-school-aged adolescents. These activities would also work well with adults.
The third chapter includes a variety of art therapy activities. These activities focus on the
development of social skills, conflict-resolution skills, positive-thinking skills, and many other
important therapeutic skills through a variety of modalities including painting, interactive
activities, creative writing, and beading. The fourth chapter focuses on ideas to use for monthly
character education topics. The activities for each month coordinate with some of the common
themes and associations of the month. For example, February includes therapeutic activities
associated with Valentine’s Day, July includes ideas for Summer Sand Castle Building, and
August has ideas for Back to School Events. The final chapter includes ideas for conducting
therapeutic day camps. This section offers topic ideas for the camps, activity descriptions,
sample schedules, and handouts. It also provides ideas for making the camp activities work in
other settings.
Most of the activities in this book are applicable to a range of different settings (schools,
community agencies, day care centers, etc.) and will work with a wide range of ages, from early
elementary school to adults. These resources and activities can be adapted for individual or
group sessions. Some of the activities can be completed quickly within a single group session,
while others could be completed over several sessions as a unit or area of focus for several
sessions. Based on the needs of the child and group, many of the activities are flexible and
can be modified for use with different type of groups and within the amount of time available.
Please be creative and feel free to make any needed adjustments so that the activities will work
for the children and teens in your setting.
When first introducing some of these activities, you may encounter some resistance
(especially from adolescents) to participating and completing the activity. While it is beyond
the scope of this book to completely address the issue of resistance, there are a few things
you can do to engage children and adolescents and encourage them to participate. Begin by
presenting activities in a non-threatening way. Let the participants know that they do not have
to share their artwork with the group unless they choose to do so. If adolescents know that
they will not be “put on the spot,” they may be more likely to participate and give the activity a
chance. Remind them that they are not being judged or graded on their final product. Instead,
it is the process that is the important part. Give the participants some choice and autonomy in
completing the project. Try not to use a “one size fits all” approach or correct participants who
are not completing the activity exactly as it is designed. By allowing the participant to choose
what materials to use and how to design his or her project, you may learn of a better or more
unique way of doing things. Participate and complete the activity along with the group. If the
children and adolescents see that you are willing to do what you are asking them to do, they
may be more likely to participate. Clearly when working with young children and teenagers it
is important to ensure that none of the materials used with them contain swearing, profanity,
inappropriate sexual references, excessive violence, or any references to ideas beyond their
understanding. So it is important to always check that any books, videos, or DVDs that you
intend to use with your groups are appropriate to their age and understanding.
The use of a basic behavior plan may help in getting started with the group and with some
of the activities in the group. Allow students to earn points for displaying a good attitude,
Introduction 15
participating in the group, and attempting the project. These points can be exchanged for a
special snack or reward at the end of the group time. As the group becomes more and more
willing to participate, these rewards can be faded out. If one student is unwilling to participate,
go ahead and complete the activity with the rest of the group. Ignore this child’s behavior while
making the activity as fun and engaging as possible for the rest of the group. After watching
the fun everyone else is having, the child may become more willing to participate. Remember
to remain positive and provide consistent praise to the participants who are engaged in the
activity.
At times, some of the activities may bring up difficult feelings or emotions for the participants.
It is important to discuss this with group members at the beginning of the group session.
Confidentiality is a critical issue for groups. Complete an informed-consent process with the
group explaining the group rules, the expectations, confidentiality and limits of confidentiality,
as well as other pertinent information during the first session of the group. Let group members
know that keeping private the information discussed in group is a key to the success of the group.
Explain that you will keep all information discussed confidential, but you cannot guarantee
that other group members will do so. Remind members frequently about the importance of
confidentiality and trust within the group. Be sure to watch for conflicts and issues within the
group and discuss these in an open and honest way with the group as soon as they arise, to
prevent them from impacting the unity of the group. If a group member is struggling with a
particular issue or painful emotion, you may have to use your best judgment about how to
address the concern. At times, the staff members and other participants can provide feedback
and help the participants process the feelings within the group setting. However, some issues
that come up (abuse, neglect, trauma, etc.) may not be appropriate for addressing within the
group setting. The staff member will need to communicate with the participant’s parent or
guardian and consider a referral to more intensive counseling services. Consult with a colleague
or supervisor and consult ethical guidelines if you are unsure how to handle a difficult situation
within the group setting.
My hope is that you will find this book helpful. It is a book I wish had been available
when I first started in the mental-health field. It is a collection of activities that I have gathered
from personal experience and from watching and learning from mentors and colleagues. The
activities have served me well as I have counseled children and teens in a variety of settings. My
primary goal for the book is to assist you in making the counseling process not only productive
and therapeutic, but also fun and engaging for children and teens. I hope the activities and
resources assist in making working with children and teens an exciting, creative, and rewarding
experience for you and your clients. Thank you for choosing this book. I hope that it serves you
well in your work with children and teens.
Chapter 1
Opening Activities
Warm-Ups, Icebreakers,
and Other Brief Activities
Begin at the beginning…and go on till you come to the end: then stop.
Lewis Carroll, Adventures in Wonderland
Icebreakers do exactly what they sound like they do—they put both the child and you at ease
so that productive work can take place. Many of these activities can provide a lot of information
while making the child comfortable with you as the counselor and the counseling process.
17
Picture Prompts
Materials needed
• Card
• Old magazines (home magazines, women’s magazines, and magazines about family life
are great sources…especially the advertisements)
• Glue
Purpose of the activity

• To put the child/adolescent at ease
• To introduce self to counselor or group in a non-threatening way
• To provide a prompt for further self-exploration
• To stir the creative thought-process
• To involve uninterested or depressed adolescents in counseling (it does not require much
effort)
Description of the activity

Using old magazines (which is a great way to recycle), cut out pictures of images and phrases
that could foster memories or associations with others. The possibilities for such images are
endless, but some examples include images of families on vacation, people sitting alone, and
nature scenes. Glue these onto card, cut to the size of the pictures, and laminate if possible.
Keep a basket with a variety of images. When the child or adolescent arrives, ask him or her to
select an image that identifies how he or she is feeling. You can then ask him or her to verbally
elaborate on that choice, journal about the image, or draw a response to the image. If journaling
or drawing is chosen as a means of responding, then the counselor can process the response
with the client when complete.
Variations of the activity

• Group Introductions—Ask each group member to select a picture and use the picture to
introduce him- or herself to the group
• Picture Pair Share—Divide the group into pairs and give each pair an image. Ask
everyone to think about a memory or association with the picture, and ask them to share
their associations with their partners. When this is complete, ask them to introduce their
partners to the group and tell them about their response to the picture.
• Now and Later—Ask the child to select a card that reminds him or her of how things
are now and how he or she wants things to be later. Allow the child to draw, journal, or
collage about the activity and then discuss with the child.
Opening Activities: Warm-Ups, Icebreakers, and Other Brief Activities 19
• Now and Then—Ask the adolescent to choose a card to represent how things are now
and how things were in the past. Allow the child to draw, journal, or respond to the
pictures and then discuss.
• Me As I Want To Be—Let the child select a card to represent how he or she wants to “be”
in the future, discuss what steps the child would need to take to be like the picture, and
allow the child to take the picture as a visual reminder of his or her goal.
• Behavior Reminder—For a child who has difficulty maintaining a certain behavior at
school (such as staying in his or her seat), find a picture of a child of similar age and
background exhibiting the behavior appropriately and tape the picture to his or her desk
as a visual reminder.
• Picture This—Counselors can use this variation to provide encouragement to children.
If an adolescent is close to meeting a goal (such as graduating from high school), the
counselor could give the adolescent a picture of a graduate cap or diploma, and a short
message or inspiring quote could be written on the back of the image. These are often
very meaningful to clients. This could also be used after a goal has been reached, to
“commemorate” the occasion.
• Calming Card—For children with anxiety or anger issues, assist them in selecting a
picture of something soothing and calming to them (the beach, a dog, etc.). Discuss ways
to self-soothe and relax. Let them take the picture as a reminder of how to calm down
and focus when feeling anxious or upset.
Initially Yours
Materials needed
• Paper
• Markers

• To begin the counseling session with an activity using familiar aspects of self
• To promote self-esteem and self-expression
• To build rapport between the counselor and child

Most individuals are comfortable with their own names and initials. After all, we use them
numerous times a day! Begin by giving the adolescents a sheet of paper and pack of markers
(or other drawing materials). Ask them to write their initials on the paper and then turn them
into a meaningful picture. Tell them that all of their initials can be used or just one initial. They
can make the initials as big or small as they choose. Share with the group (if used in a group
setting). See the above illustration for an example of this activity. Can you see the initials “LMJ”
in the butterfly? (Hint: Check the wings and body!)

• ABC, Easy as 123—Complete the above activity but use the first initial of their name
and the number of their birth month. For example, my name starts with L and I was born
in June so I would use an “L” and a “6” to complete the activity.
• Name Game—Complete the above activity but use the participant’s first name or last
name.
• Block Letter Shape—Provide group members with large alphabet stencils. Have members
cut out one or all of their initials and decorate as they choose. They can make designs or
draw symbols of things that represent themselves.
• Designs for U—Provide pony beads (round, solid colored beads available at craft stores,
or see the Resources section at the end of this book for websites that offer craft supplies),
alphabet beads (also available at craft stores) and cord. Let the group make name jewelry
(bracelets, anklets, necklaces, etc).
It’s a Dog’s Life

Materials needed
• Paper
• Markers, crayons, pencils
• Pictures and descriptions of different breeds of dogs (visit www.nationalkennelclub.com
for a large list/description of different dog breeds)

• To build rapport in a fun, creative way
• To identify various aspects of personality
• To introduce self to the group and learn about other group members

Most children love animals, especially dogs. Begin the activity by giving out paper, markers,
and the descriptions of dogs (for example, “Labrador Retrievers are friendly, loyal, and hard
workers”). If you are not familiar with the different aspects of each dog breed, you can look
these up on a computer search engine. Ask each child to identify which type of dog he or she
is most like and write or draw a picture depicting why he or she identifies with that particular
dog breed. Share these with the group. This activity could also be completed on large banner
paper and made into a mural.

• What Puts You in the Dog House?—Ask children to identify behaviors they exhibit that
get them into trouble at home or school. Ask children to sketch a dog house and have
them write or draw these behaviors inside the house.
• What Gets You a Bone?—Ask children to identify behaviors that get them praise and
rewards. Ask children to draw a dog bone and write some of the positive behaviors that
get them rewards on the inside of the bone. Discuss the differences in the behaviors and
rewards/consequences.
• Dog Movie Therapy—There are numerous dog movies with therapeutic messages that
can be viewed (as a whole or in segments) and discussed as a group. A few examples
include All Dogs Go to Heaven, Marley and Me, and Lady and the Tramp.
• Puppy Love—Discuss different types of love with the group. Adapt the discussion for
children or adolescents. With children, discuss different ways to show love to family,
friends, and others. Provide an outline of a heart and have the child draw or collage ways
to show love. With adolescents, discuss love in relationships, infatuation, and related
topics. Provide them with the heart outline and ask them to make a collage of ways to
show love to others or what love means to them.
• Dog Days Week—Devote a week to discussing dogs from a therapeutic perspective,

complete the above activities, take a trip to an animal shelter and deliver dog treats, and
any other activities you can think of.
• Different Animal—Choose a different animal (for example cats, birds, sea animals) and
modify the above activities to fit this animal.
What’s the Story?

Materials needed
• Brown paper bag full of different items such as tape, soap, socks, etc. (any items found
around the house or school will work)
OR
• Brown paper bag full of words (be sure to include nouns, verbs, and adjectives)
• Paper
• Pencils, markers, crayons

• To develop creative thinking and critical thinking skills
• To provide a fun beginning to the group
• To get to know other group members

Distribute paper and pencils or art supplies. Explain to the group that they are going to create
a poem or short story based on some items (or words, depending on which bag you use) pulled
from a bag. Ask one of the participants to come, close his or her eyes, and pull a certain number
of items out of the bag. Hold up the items (or call out the words) for all of the group members
to see. Ask them to create a poem or story that includes all of these items (or words). Share the
stories or poems with the group when complete.

• Individual Story Pull—Allow each child to pull their own items or words from the bag
so that each poem or story is about different items.
• Draw the Story—Instead of writing a story or poem, ask them to draw a picture that
includes all the items.
• Create a Hidden Picture—Many children love to do hidden picture searches. Ask them
to make their own hidden pictures by drawing a picture and “hiding” the items pulled
from the bag by drawing them somewhere in the picture.
• Pull a Shape—Have a bag of shapes in different colors. Pull a shape from the bag and ask
participants to draw a picture entirely made up of that shape.
Creative forms of journaling

Journals are already widely used in therapeutic settings. In fact, when I ran day-treatment
programs, I started each day with journals. Journals are a daily log or diary of an individual’s
feelings, experiences, and observations about his or her life. Journals can be used daily, every
other day, weekly, or on an “as needed” basis (when the person feels like writing in it). Journals
should be a private place in which a person can release feelings and express personal thoughts.
Children and adolescents should not be forced to share from their journals. However, they can
be encouraged to talk about an experience, paraphrase what they wrote, or share when they
feel comfortable. Using the same form of journaling each day can quickly become routine so I
often tried to use different types of journaling activities each day. Listed below are some of the
journals I used.
Gratitude Journals
Materials needed
• Notebooks
• Pens, pencils, or markers
• Thank-you notes (store-bought or handmade)

• To identify and focus on the positive aspects of life
• To show gratitude to others in appropriate ways
• To develop self-esteem and self-expression skills

Once a week (or as desired, but not daily as this will make it “routine” instead of “special”),
distribute notebooks designated as gratitude journals. Ask children to identify three things that
they are grateful for this week and write or draw about these things in their journal. Once a
month or every few weeks, ask children to identify someone in their gratitude journal who has
done something nice for them and either write them a note on a store-bought thank-you note
or create a handmade thank-you note. Have children mail or deliver the thank-you note to the
recipient.
Art Journals
Materials needed
• Notebooks
• Art materials (old magazines, markers, glue, scissors, paint, etc.)

• To develop creative thinking skills
• To learn to express feelings and thoughts in a variety of ways
• To teach coping skills

Once a week (or as desired, but not daily as this will make it “routine” instead of “special”),
distribute art journals and various art supplies and allow the children or adolescents to create
art for journal time. You may give them a prompt or simply have them create whatever art they
desire. Provide time to share with the group if desired.
UP Day, DOWN Day Journals

Materials needed
• Card, typing paper
• 3-hole punch
• Yarn or string to bind journals
• Pens, pencils, markers, etc.
Purpose of activity
• To learn to handle “bad” days in an appropriate and healthy way
• To ventilate and express thoughts and feelings
• To develop coping skills and anger management

This style of journaling was used in several day-treatment programs at the facility I worked at,
and many of the children really liked this type of journal. To create the journals, each child
would get two pieces of card. One piece will serve as the front cover for UP days (good days)
and one piece will serve as the back cover for DOWN days (bad days). They can be decorated
as the child chooses. Next, punch holes in the card and typing paper and tie together using
yarn or string. Each day as the child comes in, he or she will get the journal and choose the
side to journal on in order to write or draw about his or her day. After finishing, the child can
share with the group and leave the bad day on the DOWN side. This helps children to develop
coping skills and anger management. It also helps to look back at the journal and compare UP
days to DOWN days. Most children have more good days than bad days. The journal helps to
reinforce the need for a positive attitude and letting go of negativity.
Journal Jars
Materials needed
• Notebooks
• Jar filled with quotes, questions, and prompts
• Pens, pencils, markers

• To develop creativity and critical-thinking skills
• To develop healthy self-expression and self-esteem
• To develop appropriate social skills and listening skills

The counselor will fill a jar with meaningful quotes, questions, and other journal prompts on
small strips of paper. Each day, one of the adolescents will be asked to pull from the jar and read
the quote or question on the strip of paper. All members of the group will then write or draw
their response to the quote or question in their journal. When completed (about 15 minutes is
usually enough), each group member could share his or her response with the group.
Journal Jams
Materials needed
• Journals
• CD player and music (avoid any swearing)
• Pens, pencils, markers

• To learn to express self through a creative outlet
• To develop coping skills and social skills
• To ventilate feelings through journaling and listening to music

The counselor will distribute journals to the group and then ask them to listen to the song
playing. Try to select some popular songs and also some less familiar songs to expose adolescents
to new types of music over the course of the time in which they use these journals. Start off
with popular songs that the adolescent will relate to easily. Be careful to avoid music containing
swearing or vulgarity. Play the song for the group and ask them to respond to the song in their
journal. Ask the group members to share their responses with the group.
Covered with Love Journals

Materials needed
• Several different patterns of brightly • Ruled paper and typing paper
colored fabric—approx. 3 feet • Scissors
(1 meter)
• Fabric glue (see Resources section)
• Three-ring binders
• Yarn or ribbon

• To create a personal journal/diary to be used outside of the therapeutic setting
• To develop healthy coping skills
• To create a “safe” place to ventilate thoughts and feelings

Cut fabric to the correct size to cover the binder—about 15 inches (40 centimeters) of a
44/45 inch (110 centimeters) length for a standard 1 inch (2 centimeter), 3 ring binder. Give
each child the opportunity to choose his or her fabric to cover the binder. After everyone has
selected fabric, instruct the group to work slowly and carefully. Ask them to put a small amount
of fabric glue on the binder and then press the fabric on top of it while slowly smoothing
the fabric to remove any wrinkles or bubbles. Keep repeating this procedure until the whole
binder is covered in fabric. Cut the ribbon to fit the binder and attach to serve as a bookmark.
Once complete, fill the first section with ruled paper and the second section with typing paper.
Explain to the children that this journal will be one they keep at home and do not share with
others unless they choose to. They can write or draw in it whatever they choose—it will be
their creation.
Circle time ideas

Sign In and Begin
Materials needed
• Large piece of paper (taped to the wall)
• Markers

• To develop routine and structure for the group
• To establish group unity
• To provide a record of the group experience

At the first session (or whenever you begin to use this sign-in wall), explain to the participants
that at the beginning of each meeting they will sign in on the wall as they arrive. They
can write their names, a quote describing how they feel, or draw a symbol or picture. After
everyone has arrived and signed in, the group members can make observations about others’
signature or drawings and discuss them as a group. It is helpful to set ground rules for this
activity and discuss these as a group, especially with adolescents (examples of ground rules
include no swearing, no vulgar symbols, no gang signs, etc.). Encourage the adolescents to
respect others and their contributions to the sign-in wall. Adolescents can be very sensitive
and may shut down if they feel that others are disrespecting them or their contributions to the
sign-in wall. Most teens really like this way of beginning group and checking in at each session.
It also becomes a visual symbol of the group’s connection. With groups that have changing
members, this activity should be used carefully as confidentiality could be broken and new
group members could feel alienated by a well-developed group sign-in mural.
Stories and Snacks/Chips and

Chapters/Books and Breakfast
Materials needed
• Book, short story, poem, or chapter with a therapeutic topic or message
• Food (based on the above slogan use either snacks, chips or breakfast)

• To expose participants to a new form of relaxation and coping
• To promote enjoyment of reading
• To introduce a therapeutic discussion topic

Many children are not frequently read to at home, but books can present a therapeutic topic
in a way that discussion alone cannot. During circle time, distribute food (based on the slogan
chosen above) and ask children to get comfortable and relaxed. Read them the chosen short
story. Ask questions when the book is finished to check listening (give out stickers or small
candy as a prize for answering the question). Next, discuss the book’s message or lesson as a
group. Often, a supplemental activity can be developed to go along with the book (see the
Bibliotherapy section in Chapter 2 for ideas).

• Music Slogans—Complete the above activity with music instead of books (develop catchy
slogans for this such Lunch and Lyrics, Songs and Snacks, or Music and Munchies).
• Movie Slogans—Complete the above activity with movies instead of books (develop
catchy slogans for this such as Movie Clips and Chips, Cinema and Cookies, or Movies
and Munchies).
“Beanie Baby” Beginnings

Materials needed
• Beanie Babies or other small stuffed animals

• To put children at ease
• To help children verbalize feelings more easily
• To develop social skills and communication skills

This is a great use for Beanie Babies and works well with younger children. Keep an assortment
of Beanie Babies in a basket or container. At the beginning, ask all the children to pick one
of the Beanie Babies to represent themselves. Tell them to name their Beanie Baby and think
about how the Beanie Baby is feeling today. Go around the group and get each child to tell
the name of his or her Beanie Baby and how the Beanie Baby is feeling. Ask any questions
directly to the Beanie Baby and have the child respond for it. At the end of Circle Time, return
the Beanie Babies to the container to take a nap.

• Beanie Family—In individual sessions, let children pick Beanie Babies to represent mem-
bers of their family and friends. Discuss why particular ones were chosen to represent
certain family members (for example, “Grandmother is a bear with a heart on the chest
because she loves me;” “Dad is a lion because he is loud and mean”).
• Create a Beanie Story—Ask the child to pick a Beanie Baby (or Babies) and make up a
story about the Baby. Discuss and process.
Chapter 2
Cinematherapy and
Bibliotherapy Activities
There is creative reading as well as creative writing.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
35
Cinematherapy activities
The Blind Side
Materials needed
• DVD of The Blind Side movie (Warner Brothers, 2009)
• Access to a DVD player and a TV
• Paper (colored construction paper and white paper)
• Pencils, markers, crayons

• To promote positive thinking and self-confidence
• To express gratitude and appreciation to others for support
• To learn to release negativity and hurtful words
Plot summary
The Blind Side is based on the true story of Michael Oher. The movie looks at how Michael, an
underprivileged Memphis, Tennessee teenager, came to be part of a wealthy family and how
then, as a result of his extraordinary talent, hard work, and the help of his family, he became
a pro football player in the American NFL (National Football League). The movie provides an
opportunity for groups to discuss overcoming negativity, family issues (including what defines a
family), the importance of hard work and support from others, and issues relating to differences
in socioeconomic backgrounds, race, and culture.

As a group, view the movie The Blind Side. After viewing the movie, ask all participants to
journal about their thoughts, feelings, and questions concerning the movie. Discuss as a group.
Sample discussion questions

• Would Michael’s story be different if he was not so extraordinarily talented in football?
Why?
• What do you think would have happened to Michael if he had not attended the private
school or met the Tuohys?
• Who benefited more from Michael going to live with the Tuohys—Michael or the
Tuohys? Why?
• What do you think about the accusations that the Tuohys only helped Michael because
of his football talent?
Cinematherapy and Bibliotherapy Activities 37
• What obstacles did Michael have to overcome to get where he is today? What character-
istics and traits did he have to develop along the way?
• Who was the most important member of Michael’s support team? What did this person
do to encourage and help Michael?
• What would Michael’s life have been like if he had not been able to let go of anger and
resentment about his childhood?
• What stereotypes do you see in the movie? Are these stereotypes accurate depictions of
reality?
• How could you relate to Michael’s story?
• Who are you grateful to in your own life for encouraging you and believing in you?
• What obstacles and negativity have existed or currently exist in your life? How did you
overcome the obstacle or let go of the negativity or how do you plan to overcome the
obstacle or let go of the negativity?

• Thank You for Believing in ME—Ask all participants to think of someone who has
encouraged, supported, and believed in them and write a thank-you note to that person
(store-bought or handmade). Deliver to the person if possible.
• Overcoming Obstacles and Negativity—Ask all participants to draw or write about what
the obstacles and negativity in their lives look like and how they make them feel. Next,
ask the participants to write or draw a picture of themselves overcoming the obstacle or
negativity and reflecting belief in themselves. Discuss the responses as a group.
Legally Blonde
Materials needed
• DVD of Legally Blonde movie (MGM, • Markers
2001) • Pencils
• Access to DVD player and a TV • Scissors
• Access to a video camera • Glue
• Typing paper • Old magazines

• To encourage self-awareness and self-acceptance
• To understand the importance of hard work, goal setting, and perseverance
• To develop self-confidence and belief in overcoming obstacles and difficult circumstances
Plot summary
Legally Blonde tells the story of Elle Woods, a popular Californian girl, whose biggest concern
is what to wear on her date with her boyfriend who she believes is going to propose to her.
When he breaks up with her because he is going to Harvard Law School and doesn’t think
she is clever enough to be with him, Elle decides that she will show him. She applies to
Harvard Law School and is accepted. Elle is far from the traditional Harvard student and must
overcome several obstacles on her way to achieving her goal. Through hard work, dedication,
and encouragement from her friends she becomes the valedictorian (highest achiever) of her
class while still remaining true to herself. The movie provides groups with an opportunity to
discuss issues related to overcoming obstacles, celebrating individuality, believing in yourself
when others may not, showing kindness to others, and pursuing goals and dreams.

As a group, view the movie Legally Blonde. After viewing the movie, ask each participant to
journal about thoughts, feelings, questions, and reactions to the movie. Discuss as a group.

• Compare Elle at the beginning of the movie to Elle at the end of the movie. What is the
same about Elle? What has changed about Elle?
• How did Elle’s goals and motivation for achieving her goals change throughout the
movie?
• Assumptions and first impressions play a big role in the relationship between Elle
and Vivian, her ex-boyfriend’s new girlfriend. How have your first impressions or
assumptions about others been correct or incorrect in the past? How have other people’s
first impressions or assumptions about you been correct or incorrect in the past?
• What obstacles and circumstances did Elle have to overcome to achieve her goals?
• Elle is not your typical Harvard law student. Have you ever been in a situation when you
felt out of place or like you didn’t belong? How did you handle it? Did the movie give
you any ideas for handling situations where you feel out of place in the future?
• At the beginning of the movie, Elle is dependent on her boyfriend and her identity seems
to be somewhat based on being his girlfriend. How do you feel about this? Can you
relate? What happens when our identity and self-worth are connected to our relationships
with others and their opinions of us?
• What do you find as the most encouraging or inspiring part of the movie? What lessons
do you take from viewing the movie and discussing it?

• Admission Application—Ask each participant to create an admission application for
the college or other program of his or her choice. The application should include an
essay describing his or her strengths, goals for the future, unique qualities, and why
the individual feels he or she is a good fit for the college. The application should also
include a 2–3 minute oral presentation summarizing the information in the essay and the
individual’s personality. Encourage participants to be creative. If possible, videotape the
presentations and view and discuss them as a group.
• Unlikely Friendships—Elle has several friendships with “unlikely” people who do not
seem to have much in common with her. Think about your friendships. Write a poem or
make a collage about what makes a good friend. What are the characteristics of a good
friendship? How important is it to have things in common?
• True Values—Spend some time reflecting on the traits and characteristics of your
personality that you are unwilling to change for any other person or opportunity. Write
a brief life-mission statement to reflect these non-negotiable aspects of self and current
goals. Share these with the group if desired.
The Wizard of Oz
Materials needed
• DVD of The Wizard of Oz movie • Mural paper
(MGM, 1939) • Pencils
• Access to DVD player and a TV • Markers
• Enough copies of the Home Handout • Old magazines
for all group members
• Glue
• Paper
• Scissors

• To discuss goals and the decision-making process
• To develop self-awareness and self-confidence
• To understand the importance of dealing with problems instead of avoiding them
Plot summary
The Wizard of Oz tells the story of Dorothy and her dog, Toto, who are transported from
Kansas to the Land of Oz by a tornado. Dorothy begins to follow the yellow brick road to try
to meet the Wizard of Oz because she believes he can send her home to Kansas. Along the way,
Dorothy meets several friends including the Cowardly Lion, the Tin Man, and the Scarecrow.
Dorothy’s friends also want to see the Wizard of Oz because they believe he can provide them
with things they are missing (courage for the Lion, a heart for the Tin Man, and a brain for
the Scarecrow). As they continue on their journey and overcome enemies and challenges along
the way, they finally reach the Wizard of Oz but soon discover they each had what they were
looking for all along. The movie provides groups with an opportunity to discuss issues relating
to friendships, searching for things from others, inner strength and fulfillment, overcoming
challenges, and the importance of home (as well as what defines a home).

As a group, view The Wizard of Oz movie. After the movie is over, ask participants to journal
about their thoughts, feelings, questions, and reactions concerning the movie. Discuss the
responses as a group.

• Dorothy started out running from a problem (her neighbor trying to hurt her dog) and
ends up with bigger problems (in a land far away from home). Have you started out
trying to avoid one problem and ended up with bigger and more serious problems? What
happened?
• Each of the characters in the movie already has what they are searching for, but does not
believe it. Have you ever gone looking for or become obsessed with finding something
that you already had?
• Dorothy and her friends think the Wizard can help them find the things they are looking
for, but the Wizard turns out to be just a man. Have you ever put all your hope or belief in
another person to only be let down? What happened? Discuss the issue of connectedness
with others versus unhealthy dependence.
• Who was your favorite character in the movie? What did you relate to about the character?
• Dorothy is trying to get home to Kansas in the movie. Discuss the topic of home. Is home
a place? Is home the people that live there? What is each person’s personal definition of
home?
• At the end of the movie, Dorothy and her friends all achieved their goals and found what
they were looking for in Oz. What obstacles did they face in reaching their goals? How
did they make decisions about what to do next? Despite the obstacles, do you think they
felt the end result was worth it?

• Yellow Brick Road Mural—This activity can be completed individually or as a group.
Give each person/group a large piece of mural paper, and paint or markers. Ask them to
create their own yellow brick road mural depicting their journey toward their goals. They
can use symbols or short phrases to depict challenges, obstacles, high points, significant
events, and their goals along the road. Encourage them to be creative and have fun. Share
with the group when complete.
• “No Place Like Home” Collage—Distribute copies of the Home Handout, glue, scissors,
and old magazines. Ask group members to make a collage about what home means to
them inside the Home template on the handout. If desired, they can cut the home out
when complete. Share and discuss with the group.
• Symbol of Achievement—Even though the Wizard does not have the power to give
each character what he or she desires (because they already have it!), he does give each
character a tangible symbol (a diploma for the Scarecrow, a medal of valor for the Lion,
and a heart-shaped watch for the Tin Man). Create your own tangible symbol as a
reminder of a goal you worked hard for and achieved. Allow participants to use various
art methods to create their symbols (drawing, painting, collage, modeling clay, writing
poem or song, etc.). Share results with the group.

Home Handout
42 Copyright © Lindsey Joiner 2012

A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine

Hansberry
Materials needed
• DVD of A Raisin in the Sun movie • Paper
(Sony Pictures, 2008) • Markers, pens, pencils
• Access to DVD player and a TV • Old magazines
• Copies of the play A Raisin in the Sun • Scissors
(obtain from online book retailers)
• Glue

• To discuss and understand the importance of hope and positive thinking
• To understand and discuss family roles and relationships
• To express dreams and ways to deal with delayed progress and rejection
Plot summary
A Raisin in the Sun tells the story of the Younger family. The Youngers are a working-class
African-American family living in Chicago, Illinois, in the 1950s. The Youngers are about to
receive a payment from the life insurance policy for the deceased Mr. Younger. Each of the adult
Youngers would like to spend the money in a different way. Mrs. Younger (the grandmother
and wife of the deceased Mr. Younger) would like to buy a home for the family, Beneatha (Mrs.
Younger’s daughter) would like to use the money for her medical school tuition, and Walter
Lee (Mrs. Younger’s son) would like to use the money to buy a liquor store with a friend. As the
Younger family tries to decide what to do, the bonds of family are tested, but the family comes
out stronger and more united at the end. The movie allows groups to discuss family roles,
dealing with conflicts and disagreements, overcoming racism and discrimination, dealing with
delays and lack of progress, and the importance of hope in the face of adversity.

As a group, view the movie A Raisin in the Sun. After viewing the movie, give group members
some time to reflect on the movie and journal about thoughts, reactions, questions, or feelings
concerning the movie. Discuss as a group.

• Each family member has a different idea of what to do with the money based on his or
her dreams. Have you ever been in a situation where your goals and dreams conflicted
with the goals and dreams of someone close to you?
• Which character did you most identify with? Why?
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
5. ARISTARCHUS.
With a system of revolving spheres accepted by the

mathematical astronomers, and sanctioned by the great philosopher
Aristotle, it may be thought that we are within sight of our goal, the
system of Greek astronomy which was to dominate the scientific
world for many centuries, including the age of Dante. But so
exacting had the careful observers become that the system of
Eudoxus must be completely transformed, by aid of two quite new
hypotheses, before it would satisfy their demands. Also, about half a
century after the consultation of Calippus and Aristotle in Athens, a
strange new theory was propounded, the boldest and strangest of
all.
Nearly two thousand years before Galileo was Aristarchus c. b.c.
summoned before the Inquisition, and forced to 281.
recant upon his knees his “most damnable heresy” that the earth
goes round the sun, Aristarchus of Samos was accused of impiety by
his countrymen for the same crime. But he met an even sadder fate
than Galileo—neglect. His daring scheme was almost ignored by his
contemporaries, and but for a casual mention by Archimedes and by
Plutarch, we should know nothing about it.[42]
He was, however, very famous as a mathematician, and also as
an observer. Ptolemy quotes his determination of the summer
solstice of the year b.c. 281, and this tells us the date at which he
flourished. He was renowned for a very ingenious method by which
he tried to discover how much further from us the sun is than the
moon. When the moon is half full the angle sun-moon-earth is a
right angle, and if the angle sun-earth-moon be measured, by
pointing the astrolabe first to sun and then to moon, the third angle,
at the sun, may be computed, and then the ratio sun-earth to moon-
earth will be known. The method is perfect theoretically, and if the
sun were comparatively near, say about ten times the moon’s
distance, it would be practicable; but the distance is really so much
greater that the angle at the sun almost vanishes, and a very small
error in estimating it causes an error equal to many millions of miles
in the result. It is also impossible to determine from looking at the
moon the exact time when the division between light and dark is a
straight line. Aristarchus made the angle at Earth 87° instead of 89°
50′, and this gave the sun a distance of about 19 times as far as the
moon, instead of 400 times, which is the true value.
Fig. 20. Method of Aristarchus for finding the distance of the sun.
The foolish fad (as they thought it) about Earth’s motion, held by
this otherwise great man, is described quite clearly by the two
writers above-mentioned. He suggested that the stars might be
immoveable, and Earth be turning on her axis at the same time that
she moves in a circle round the sun. Moreover realizing all that this
implies with regard to the immense distance of the stars, he said
that the circle in which Earth revolves round the sun, compared with
the sphere of the stars, is as the centre of a sphere compared with
its circumference. That is, not only Earth, but Earth’s whole orbit,
shrinks to a point when compared with the infinite distance of the
stars.
We have unfortunately absolutely no information as to the way in
which Aristarchus was led to these remarkable truths, and can only
make conjectures from what we know of his times. Evidently the
Central Fire theory was a suggestive step, and so was another
theory which was afloat about this time, and has been called the
“Egyptian system” on the authority of Macrobius in his commentary
on Cicero’s Dream of Scipio. No one really knows where it arose, but
it is ascribed with much probability to Heracleides of Pontus.
According to this, the two planets Mercury and Venus circled round
the sun, and all three together circled round Earth, which still
remained the centre of the Universe and of the other celestial
motions. It was an idea which might have occurred to any
unprejudiced observer, since the oscillations of Mercury and Venus
from side to side of the sun are more striking than their movements
through the stars. They never go far from him in the sky, like the
other planets, and seem to belong to him.
Further, the clear understanding of the periodic motions of Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn, and the accurate observation which had been
introduced by Eudoxus, must have revealed the fact that the loops in
the orbits of these planets are connected with the apparent
movement of the sun; and the varying brightness (especially
noticeable with Mars) is inconsistent with the assumption of
unvarying distance from Earth.
The great importance of the sun, above all the other planets, had
of course always been recognised, and it is possible that Aristarchus
was struck by an unconscious suggestion in Aristotle’s advice to the
Pythagoreans to examine the nature and place of the sun, “that
other centre of the Universe,” for that was also a point of origin, and
a noble one.[43] His own work, too, would lead him to attribute a
commanding position to the sun, for as it was nineteen times as
distant as the moon, it must also be nineteen times as large (since
they appear equal), so he must have felt certain that it was a very
great size, probably much the largest of all bodies in the Universe.
It was the grandest and truest of all the Greek astronomical
theories. But it was not accepted, it was hardly even discussed, and
we can scarcely be surprised at this. Such an improbable theory
needed many more convincing proofs than Aristarchus could bring
forward. Observation, calculation, comparison of theory with facts,
this was what was needed before safe ground could be won for
belief, and in this Eudoxus was a true pioneer. But freedom of
thought and courage in imagination is needed also in science, and
Aristarchus seems to have been almost the last to possess this.
A certain Babylonian, named Seleucus, who Seleucus b.c. 160.
lived about b.c. 160, perhaps on the Tigris, and an Aryabhata born
a.d. 467.
Indian astronomer, Aryabhata, of the fifth century
a.d., both taught that Earth turns on her axis, but Aristarchus stood
alone in suggesting that she also has a movement of revolution
round the sun. The possibility of Earth’s motion was alluded to but
seldom by classical and mediæval writers, and then almost always as
a foolish fancy hardly worth discussion;[44] until at last Copernicus,
hardly daring to publish his bold idea in sixteenth century Europe,
for fear of persecution, sought and found among the followers of
Pythagoras, and in Aristarchus of Samos, kindred spirits with his
own.
6. THE SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA.
The spheres of Eudoxus would not work. The system was already
overladen, and more variations in velocity were becoming known.
Observation shows, too, that the planets, especially Mars and Venus,
vary greatly in brightness, in regular periods which correspond with
their movements, and this could not be accounted for by any
possible number or arrangement of spheres if all were to remain
concentric to Earth, so that every planet remained always at a
uniform distance. Yet Aristotle had said that Earth must be at the
centre of the Universe. The new philosophers of the Stoic school
agreed with him, and among mathematicians only Aristarchus dared
to disagree.
But they were not long at a loss. The homocentric spheres[45]
were thrown aside, and during the third century two new
hypotheses were suggested (beside that of Aristarchus), and
although we do not certainly know by whom, there is little doubt as
to the place in which they originated. By a strange fate, Egypt, the
home of astronomy many centuries before, became the seat of the
latest, most brilliant, and most successful astronomical school of
ancient times, and the knowledge won there in the five centuries
between b.c. 300 and a.d. 200 spread, following in the wake of
Alexander’s conquests, over the whole of the civilized world.
It was a purely Greek school, however. Greece lost her
independence under Alexander, and was finally crushed by Rome in
146 b.c., but never was Greek learning and culture so much
honoured and sought after as in this age. In Egyptian Alexandria,
Greek men of science found a welcome, and opportunities of
research which did not exist in any other place in the world. In the
Museum, founded and liberally endowed by the royal Ptolemies, was
a great library whose custodians were bidden to obtain every book
that had ever been written, and it is said that when any stranger
arrived with a new book it was taken from him and copied for the
Museum, and the copy returned to the owner. Within the great
marble colonnaded building were lecture-halls, and reading rooms,
and laboratories; there were gardens for botanists and zoologists,
and observatories for astronomers. These astronomers were all
Greeks, and though now living in Egypt they do not seem to have
learned anything more from the Egyptians. Perhaps the priests
resented the intrusion, and kept their secrets jealously to
themselves; perhaps Eudoxus and his immediate followers had
learned all they had to teach. This seems the more probable
because, although the Greeks of this age did use Babylonian records
of eclipses to form a lunar theory, they complained of the insufficient
accuracy of all available planetary records. Moreover, they were not
hindered from learning astrology: the sacred books of the Egyptians
which taught its principles were translated into Greek about 300 b.c.;
but it was always treated by them as quite a separate branch of
study. Their geometrical methods were entirely their own. They
introduced a system of notation which greatly simplified
calculation[46]; their discovery of the principles of spherical
trigonometry inaugurated a new era in astronomy; and they
invented a new class of astronomical instrument.
We know what these instruments were like, and it is even
possible to give an illustration; for, from descriptions in Ptolemy’s
Almagest, we find that the “well-made copper circles,” the gnomons,
and the celestial globes, which were set up in the Square Portico of
the Museum, were of the same pattern as instruments which existed
in Pekin, in the ancient observatory on the ramparts, until they were
looted by the Germans during the late Chinese war. The Alexandrian
instruments were not supported on their stands by beautiful bronze
dragons, but on the other hand the circles were more accurately
divided, which after all was of more importance from the
astronomers’ point of view. Fig. 21 gives a general view of the Pekin
Observatory, and Fig. 22 one of their astrolabes dating from the 13th
century a.d.
At first glance there seems to be here absolutely nothing like our
modern observatories. Ancient and mediæval astronomers had
indeed no telescopes, being ignorant of the properties of lenses:
therefore they were unable to study the features of any heavenly
body except the moon, and they had no way of finding out anything
about their physical constitution; but they had many ways of
measuring their distances and motions, and even the angular sizes
of sun and moon, and their instruments were the forerunners of our
sextants, micrometers, and transit instruments, our chronometers
and sidereal clocks.
[To face p. 114.
PEKIN OBSERVATORY.
From a photograph taken in 1888, and published in the “Bulletin de
la Société belge d’Astronomie”.
The gnomon has been already described[47], and it was one of
the most valuable instruments used by the Greeks. The Pekin
gnomon at the right of figure 21 was more than 40 feet in height,
and on the top had a little plate of copper which was pierced by a
hole as fine as the eye of a needle: the observations made with this
were much more exact than observations of the end of the shadow,
which must always be vague, and the Chinese records of the sun’s
movements made with this instrument between 1270 and 1280 a.d.
are of great value in modern research. Ptolemy explains that his
gnomon was made accurately vertical by the use of a plumb-line,
and that one way of testing the level of the surface on which the
shadow fell was to flood it with water.
Clepsydras, or water-clocks, were used by the Greeks, and many
kinds of sundials for telling the time by day. Tables were also made
of the risings of bright stars which served for clocks by night.
The instrument in the middle of the platform is a quadrant, and
beyond this on the left is a large celestial globe, which, however,
only dates from the Jesuit missionaries of the seventeenth century.
Ptolemy says that his globe was made the colour of the night sky;
Sirius being marked in his proper place, all other stars were placed
relatively to him, and in their own colours as nearly as might be; the
Galaxy was drawn, and the figures of the constellations outlined.
The globe was arranged to turn on either the poles of the ecliptic or
of the equator; circles of wood represented the horizon and
meridian, and the pole could be arranged at any altitude according
to the latitude of the place.[48]
But perhaps the most interesting are the astrolabes, and these
owe their origin to the Greeks. The essential part of any instrument
for determining angular distances is a divided circle and a pointer:
the pointer is directed first to one object then to another, and the
angle between them is then read off on the circle. In the astrolabe,
the pointers themselves were also circles, provided with little
perforated rods for “sights.” (These are not visible on the instrument
in Fig. 22, and have probably been broken off.) There were two fixed
circles, set in the plane of the ecliptic and perpendicular to it. Three
other circles could be rotated round the poles of the ecliptic. One of
these was directed (by means of the sights), to some body whose
position was already known, another to the body whose position was
to be ascertained, and the angle between them was read off on the
ecliptic circle; on the third the angular distance north or south of the
ecliptic circle could be read. This last and the ecliptic circle were
both divided into 360 degrees, and as many fractions of a degree as
space and skill would allow.
The equinoctial astrolabe was similar, but the fixed circle was in
the plane of the equator, instead of the ecliptic. One of each of these
is seen in the view of the Pekin Observatory.
But how did the old astronomers know how to find the ecliptic
and the equator in the sky, and set their circles in those planes? This
they did by means of the sun’s motion. The gnomon told them the
day of the equinox (see p. 25), and on that day the sun was in the
equator: therefore, if a circle was set up so that the shadow of the
upper part fell symmetrically upon the lower, with a little line of light
each side, it must be exactly in the plane of the equator. In the
Square Porch such a circle was erected, a large one of copper, and
when once correctly adjusted it was a standard plane, and also
showed the date of the equinoxes, as accurately as the gnomon
itself. Since the ecliptic is the path of the sun as seen in the sky, it is
obvious that it could be determined from a number of different
observations of his position at different times of the year.
[To face p. 116.
A PEKIN ASTROLABE OF THE 13th CENTURY, a.d.

From a photograph taken in 1888, and published in the “Bulletin de
la Société belge d’Astronomie”.
Finally, accurate solar tables were drawn up, showing the sun’s
position in the sky in degrees for different dates, and then from
these it was possible to find the places of planets and stars. They
could not of course be compared directly, but the position of sun and
moon were compared during the day, when both were in the sky,
and then after dark the planets and stars were compared with the
moon, allowing for her motion among the stars in the meantime. Or
secondly, when the moon was eclipsed, and therefore known to be
in the ecliptic and exactly opposite the sun, the places of stars could
be found directly.
This very brief description will give some idea of the chief
instruments and methods used, and when we see how very rough
and elementary they were, and remember that the Greeks had to
work out their observations without algebra, or decimal notation, we
are amazed at their results, and their far-reaching ambitions.
Already in the very early days of the Museum, Eratosthenes b.c.
Eratosthenes, a celebrated geographer, made a 276-194.
bold attempt to utilize observations of the sun measuring the size of
the earth. It was known that in Syene (the modern Assuan) on the
day of the summer solstice at noon no shadows were thrown, and
the bottoms of wells could be seen: evidently therefore the sun was
in the zenith. Eratosthenes found that the sun’s distance from the
zenith in Alexandria at noon on the same day was 7° 12′, or one-
fiftieth of the circumference of the heavenly sphere, consequently
the two towns must be distant from one another (assuming them to
be nearly in the same meridian) one fiftieth of the circumference of
the earth. The distance from Alexandria to Meroe was known, and
from Meroe to Syene had been paced by the king’s professional
pacers; the whole was 5000 stadia. 50 times 5000 = 250,000. The
figure always quoted by the ancients is however 252,000. If the
stadium used by Eratosthenes was the measure generally used for
long distances which have been paced, this estimate is equal to
24,662 miles, only about 200 miles less than the modern value. It
was partly by luck that Eratosthenes got such a good result, for he
was evidently only working with round numbers, and the extra 2000
stadia seem to have been added in order to make one degree equal
to exactly 700 stadia. But in any case it was a highly creditable
performance.
There were celebrated mathematicians and Euclid c. b.c. 300.
geometers at Alexandria, whose work was most Apollonius c. b.c.
270.
useful to astronomy, such as Euclid, and Apollonius
of Perge. The latter is specially mentioned by Ptolemy in connection
with the new theory of “moveable eccentrics,” which was invented to
account for the varying brightness of the planets, as well as their
peculiar movements.
Fig. 23 explains this theory. Let P A be a great revolving circle
upon which Mars is fixed. (In the hands of the Alexandrian
mathematicians the spheres almost disappear, and they deal
practically only with circles.) If the earth were at its centre, as
Eudoxus demanded, Mars must always be at the same distance, but
if we make the circle eccentric to Earth, by putting its centre at C
while Earth is at E, then the distance and consequently the
brightness will constantly vary, and Mars will be brightest when at
perigee P (point nearest Earth), and faintest when in apogee A
(point furthest from Earth).[49]
Fig. 23. The Moveable Eccentric.

But, as the Greeks had discovered, Mars attains his greatest
brilliance at different points of the zodiac, so P must be made
moveable, and it always happens when he is opposite the sun,
therefore P must keep pace with the sun’s apparent motion in the
zodiac and P E always point towards him. This was accomplished by
making P C A turn round upon the fixed point E, so that for instance
when the sun had moved through a quarter of his circle (in three
months) P A had moved to P′ A′, and the whole eccentric had moved
into the new position shown in the diagram, its centre C being now
at C′. In other words, the centre of the eccentric moves round Earth
in the same time and in the same direction as the sun, that is in one
year, and “with the signs” (from west to east).
At the same time, Mars is moving in an opposite direction on the
eccentric, and without entering into all the details of the problem,
we may add that the Greek geometers found that by determining
the proper relative sizes of the large and the small circle they could
make the two motions neutralize one another when the planet
reached its stationary points, and the retrograde motion prevail over
the direct when it retrograded. A similar arrangement was made for
Jupiter and Saturn.
In this very ingenious way the varying brightness as well as the
varying motions of these three planets were accounted for, without
violating the principle of uniform circular motion, and without
removing Earth from the centre of the Universe. She was also still
the centre of planetary motion, in a certain sense; but to place the
true centres of these planets’ spheres outside Earth and in the
direction of the sun was a very suggestive step, and may well have
helped Aristarchus to his bold hypothesis. For he had only to put the
sun, not at some indefinite point along the line E A, but exactly at
the point C, and it became the centre of motion for Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn, just as in the “Egyptian theory” it was the centre of
motion for Venus and Mercury. In this way he would arrive at the
conception of the sun circling round Earth and carrying all the
planets with him, (a theory which was held by the great astronomer
Tycho Brahé in the sixteenth century a.d.). Then a flash of insight
may have revealed to him the fact that this motion of the sun is
apparent only, being but the reflection of Earth’s own motion; for
she is circling round the sun like all the other planets.
It is, however, only a guess that the Moveable Eccentrics played
this part in the theory of Aristarchus. They did not long hold the
field, because they were not applicable to Venus and Mercury, which
are never seen in opposition to the sun. So they were thrown aside
for another system, the Epicycles, which illustrates much more
simply the stations and retrogressions of the planets, and can be
used for them all.
Later on, when more irregularities of motion were discovered, it
was found necessary to combine eccentrics and epicycles, and by
means of this joint system it became possible at last to represent
completely, and as accurately as they could be observed, all the
apparent movements of the heavens. First, however, an immense
amount of work had to be done, and new methods devised, both in
observation and mathematics. The man who contributed most, in
both ways, to make it possible, was Hipparchus.
7. HIPPARCHUS.
Of this great man we know scarcely anything Hipparchus c. 140

but what can be gathered from the work he did, b.c.
and this corroborates Ptolemy’s description of him: “Hipparchus,
lover of toil and truth φιλοπονον και φιλαληθεα.” He lived about b.c.
140, since this is the date of the only book of his still extant, and his
work was not done in Alexandria, though he may have studied there
in his youth, and he used the Museum records. We count him among
the Alexandrians, as he belongs to this era, but he seems to have
been a private astronomer, who set up an observatory of his own in
Rhodes, his native place. Here we seem to see him, surrounded by
his primitive instruments and his papyrus books, patient, eager,
modest, seeking no fame and no reward but the joy of his work. By
day he would keep watch over the sliding shadow of his gnomon,
would write up his observations, make long calculations, and devise
new methods in mathematics, improve and modify his astrolabes
and his clepsydras; at night he would spend long hours with moon,
planets, and stars, making up for the defects and shortcomings of
his instruments by the skill and care with which he applied them to
measure positions in the sky. Nothing but the most loving and
conscientious care could have raised his work to such a pitch of
accuracy, and made such rude means suffice for such splendid
achievements.
The book we possess, apparently an early one, is chiefly
concerned with the positions, the risings and the settings, of stars,
and at the end is a list of sixteen which came to the meridian at
intervals of an hour: from this list and the knowledge of spherical
trigonometry which he possessed, it would be possible to calculate
the time at night to within about a minute.
Hipparchus was able to construct a satisfactory theory of the sun
and to some extent of the moon, but he found more irregularities in
the planetary motions than Eudoxus had suspected. The records of
his predecessors were not accurate enough for him to construct a
theory for the planets, and he soon realized that one life-time would
not be long enough to collect all the data necessary, so, as Ptolemy
tells us, “Hipparchus, who loved truth above all things,” quietly set to
work to make as good and as many observations as possible, leaving
it to his successors to complete and explain them.
In the same spirit he undertook the laborious task, of which Pliny
speaks with awe as a presumptuous scheme, even for a god, “rem
etiam Deo improbam,” of numbering the stars. Pliny says he was led
to do this by the appearance of a New Star, which blazed out
suddenly in the constellation of Scorpio in b.c. 136, just as Nova
Persei did in Perseus in February 1901. He saw that even in the
upper regions of the eternal heavens, which Aristotle had supposed
absolutely changeless, changes may occur, and in order that even
the least of these should not pass unnoticed, he set to work to note
the number, brightness, and position of all he could see. This great
catalogue of 1080 stars, copied by Ptolemy in his Almagest, was the
basis for all succeeding catalogues, from Spain to Turkestan, until
quite modern times. In it, for the first time, the places of the stars
were not merely described according to their position in the
constellation figures, but were noted in degrees on the sphere, as is
done to-day.
One day, when comparing his notes with those Timocharis c. b.c.
of Timocharis, who had worked at Alexandria about 280.
a century and a half earlier, he found that the brilliant star Spica, the
Ear-of-Corn which the Virgin carries in her hand, had apparently
moved nearer to the autumnal equinox by about 2°. (Two degrees is
about four times the angular diameter of the sun). Of course he or
Timocharis might have made a mistake, or Spica might really be
moving among the stars, or she might be carried along with the rest
by a slow movement of the whole star sphere. Apparently
Hipparchus satisfied himself that he could rely upon Timocharis’
observation, and took pains to verify his own; the second hypothesis
could be disproved by the fact that Spica does not change her place
perceptibly among her neighbours; and finally it became clear that
her motion is part of a slow apparent movement of the whole
heavens.
Fig. 24. The movement of Spica.

Here was a discovery of first importance, an unexpected reward
of patient accuracy, of which the white Spica, flashing down from
summer skies, may always remind us. Hipparchus had discovered
the grand cycle which we call the “Precession of the Equinoxes,” and
before Spica returns to the same position in which he saw her then,
when she led him to his great discovery, she will have been watched
by generations of astronomers for another twenty-four thousand
years. No notice of the cycle has been found as yet among the
records of any other nation, although it seems as if the astronomers
of Babylon and Egypt, and other countries where observations had
been carried on for many centuries, must have been aware of it. We
can only imagine that at long intervals of time they found that the
stars had somehow changed, and made corrections accordingly, but
without understanding the nature of the change. What Hipparchus
thought about its cause we cannot tell: probably he left all
speculations to future astronomers, and confined himself to noting
the fact.
The displacement of Spica which he observed is shown in the
diagram.
Both Timocharis and Hipparchus evidently measured her position
indirectly by comparing it with that of the moon, which was eclipsed
at the time,[50] and therefore known to be in the ecliptic and
opposite the sun. To find the sun’s distance from the equinox was an
easy matter, since his yearly course had long been carefully studied,
and the days on which he passed the equinoxes were regularly
observed with the gnomon. Spica, then, had moved eastward along
an arc parallel to the ecliptic, and since celestial latitude and
longitude are referred to the ecliptic, we may define her apparent
movement in astronomical language by saying that while her latitude
had remained constant, her longitude had increased by about two
degrees; and further, as the celestial equator is oblique to the
ecliptic, this implied that her declination (position north or south of
the equator) had also varied. The diagram shows that she had a less
northerly declination than before.
At this rate, Spica, which was now only 6° from the autumnal
equinox, would reach it in less than five hundred years, and
thereafter would lie east instead of west of it; and that she has in
fact done so, may be seen by consulting a modern star atlas. She is
now 22½° of longitude east of the autumnal equinox, and nearly
11° south of the equator. Her south declination will continue to
increase for about five thousand years, after which she will come
north again.
Ptolemy says that Hipparchus examined other stars, and found
that they also were increasing their longitude at what appeared to
be the same rate as Spica. The yearly amount of the movement,
derived from the Spica observations, is within a few seconds of arc
of the true value, which is 50¼ seconds; but Hipparchus would not
fix any value until it had been tested by further observation, and
merely stated that it could not be less than one degree in a century
i.e. 36 seconds per annum.
This is a very uncomfortable phenomenon for astronomers, since
every star is for ever changing its measured position on the celestial
sphere. Take three stars, one at the north pole, another on the
equator, and a third in the southern hemisphere. After some years,
the first will no longer be a pole star, the second no longer an
equatorial star, and the third may have so far increased its south
declination that it will be invisible at latitudes in our northern
hemisphere where formerly it used to rise above the horizon. One
compensation for this inconvenience is that if we know what star
was near the pole, or which stars lay along the equator, on any
given occasion, we can calculate the date. Thus it is believed that
the Great Pyramid was built when Alpha Draconis was the Pole Star,
that is, nearly 3000 years b.c.; and by a similar method Mr Maunder
determines the epoch at which the ancient southern constellations
were invented, as we have already seen.
The greatest inconvenience, and also the greatest historical
interest, attaches to stars like Spica which belong to constellations of
the zodiac, for if they are not stationary with regard to the equinoxes
and solstices they are not such simple guides to the length of the
solar year as the ancients supposed them to be. The scheme of the
Babylonians for beginning their month Nisan when the stars of
Dilgan rose just before the sun was an excellent one for a time, but
if they had continued it for many centuries they would have found
that their year was too long, and the months were all falling in the
wrong seasons. This has actually happened with Hindus and Parsis,
who now keep their New Year in the middle of our April, although
when their calendar was fixed, about thirteen hundred years ago,
the years began at the spring equinox. For the sun is like a runner in
a circular race-course who thinks he has completed a lap when he
returns opposite a group of spectators originally standing at the
starting-point, but after several laps he finds that the spectators and
the goal no longer coincide; either they, and also all the others
surrounding the course are walking away from it, or an unseen hand
has been moving the flag towards him, and so shortening the lap.
It is the flag which must count, in any case, not the spectators,
and with the sun it is the equinox which must count, and not the
stars, for this is the point at which he crosses the equator, making
day and night equal, and from this we count the beginning and
ending of our seasons. So our year is counted from equinox to
equinox, and is twenty minutes shorter than the “sidereal,” or star
year, of the ancient Babylonians. Hipparchus, from observations of
equinoxes and solstices, made the year 365 days 5 hours and nearly
55 minutes, which is only 6 minutes longer than the correct value.
Fig. 25. The Sun and the Equinox.

After Hipparchus had made his discovery, astronomers agreed
upon a somewhat clumsy and very confusing device, by which the
zodiac was divided into twelve equal “signs” of 30 degrees, which
bear the same names as the zodiacal constellations, but whose
beginning is always reckoned from the vernal equinox. These twelve
“signs of the zodiac,” therefore, do not now agree with the twelve
constellations of the zodiac, and our present “first point of Aries,”
which marks the vernal equinox, is in the constellation of Pisces.
What is the true cause of this strange phenomenon? Are the
stars really all in motion, or is it the equinox which moves?
The successors of Hipparchus, who believed that the stars were
fixed on a sphere, found no great difficulty in conceiving that this
sphere had a very slow easterly motion, round the poles of the
ecliptic, completing a revolution once in 36,000 years (i.e. one
degree in century). To us, however, it is impossible to believe that
the stars, which we have found to be at enormous and varied
distances, are all revolving at one rate, parallel to the ecliptic. The
ecliptic, to us, is simply the plane of Earth’s own orbit, and as she
moves in it she has a very slow “wobbling” motion on her axis, as
well as the rapid spinning of the diurnal motion, like the “wobble” of
a spinning top. The top has this motion because gravity is trying to
pull it down from its upright position; the earth because the sun is
trying to drag her slightly protuberant equator into the plane of her
orbit.
The resulting motion is not a revolution of the earth, nor an
apparent revolution of the star sphere round Earth: what really
happens may be illustrated with the traditional orange and knitting
needle.
Ignoring all motions but the one we are speaking of, let the
points of the knitting needle (Earth’s axis of rotation) trace out small
circles in space, and the equator of the orange will be seen to alter
the direction of its tilt, but without turning round (Fig. 26). Stick a
pin in the equator, and others in north or south latitudes, between
equator and pole; these will always remain facing you, but while the
pole makes its small circle, the equatorial pin will be seen to move
up and down, while the tropical and temperate pins trace out
ellipses. These are the movements which we see reflected in the
stars; and if Earth’s diurnal rotation were suddenly to cease, while
her revolution in her orbit and the movement of “precession”
continued, we should see Spica, for instance, sink slowly lower in the
southern sky and after ages rise again northwards, but there would
be very little preceptible movement east or west.
The movement observed by Hipparchus, then, was not a
movement of Spica and other stars, but a movement of the equinox.
For the celestial equator is simply a reflection of Earth’s equator in
the skies, and as it keeps changing the direction of its tilt in the way
described, it changes the point at which it cuts the ecliptic. This may
best be seen by taking two rings or hoops (two large curtain rings,
for instance), one of which just fits inside the other. Tilt the inner
ring, so that half of it is above and half below the other ring, and
they touch at two points, 1 and 2 (Fig. 27). The outer ring is the
Ecliptic, the inner the Equator, and where they touch each other are
the Equinoxes. Now move the inner ring, not sliding it round, nor
making any difference in the angle between the two, but simply so
that they touch at fresh points, 1′ and 2′. In this way you may make
the points of contact revolve entirely round. This is what the real
equinoxes are doing: while the equator opposite the group of stars
in figure 25 rises and falls, the equinox travels on, and finally returns
to the same place.
Fig. 26. The movement of Earth’s axis,
which is the true cause of Precession.
V is the vernal equinox, at the intersection of the
equator and plane of the ecliptic: APX the earth’s axis,
which always preserves the same inclination (23½%)
to the plane of the ecliptic. As APX slowly revolves
round T in the direction of the arrow, the vernal
equinox is gradually shifted to V′, and so on.
(From Young’s “Manual of Astronomy,” 1902.)
The phenomenon is called “precession of the equinoxes,”

because they thus move on to meet the sun in his yearly course.
Fig. 27. Precession of the equinoxes.

The discovery of precession is what has chiefly made Hipparchus
famous, but the invention of the astrolabe and of spherical
trigonometry, both believed to be due to him, his star catalogue, and
his many observations, more accurate than any made before, were
so valuable as pioneer work that Ptolemy justly called him the Father
of Astronomy. If Hipparchus could visit one of our observatories to-
day, and see the clock-driven equatorials, the transit instruments,
the beautifully divided circles read with microscopes, and the
sidereal clocks, one wonders whether he would be more astonished
at the advance on his astrolabes and clepsydras or at the homage
paid to him as one in whose footsteps all astronomers are proud to
tread.
8. PTOLEMY.
Claudius Ptolemœus. I know that I am mortal and

ephemeral, but when I scan the multitudinous circling
spirals of the stars, no longer do I touch Earth with my
feet, but sit with Zeus himself, and take my fill of the
ambrosial food of the gods.
For more than two centuries after Hipparchus very little original
work was done in astronomy, and no one seems to have had the
courage to take up his unfinished task and study seriously the
difficult problem of planetary motions.
Posidonius the Stoic, who lived for some years Posidonius c. 135
in Rhodes, made a fresh determination of the b.c. to c. 50 b.c.
earth’s circumference, basing it not on observations of the sun, like
Eratosthenes, but of the star Canopus, which in his time was just
visible at Rhodes while in Alexandria it rose “a quarter of a sign” (i.e.
7½ degrees) above the horizon. By his method, the earth was a
little smaller, (240,000 stadia instead of 250,000), but it must have
been difficult to measure the distance between Rhodes and
Alexandria over the sea, and it is impossible to say when a star is
exactly on the horizon. Posidonius also observed the tides in the
Mediterranean, and showed that “Ocean follows the movements of
the heavens,” and especially of the moon, having daily and monthly
periods.
A little later Geminus wrote an Introduction to Geminus c. 70 b.c.
Astronomy, which was an excellent little book as far as it went, but
although he was apparently a native of Rhodes, and speaks of
Hipparchus, he seems to know nothing of his work, for he does not
quote his careful determination of the length of the year, nor his
discovery of precession.
Nor were other writers, such as Cleomedes and Cleomedes c. 20
b.c.
Theon of Smyrna, better informed, and they added
nothing new to the advance of astronomical science.
But at last a worthy successor arose at Theon of Smyrna
c. 100 a.d.
Alexandria, the immortal Ptolemy, whom Dante met
in that Limbo of antique spirits which was almost Ptolemy c. 140
Elysium, although on the brink of the Inferno. a.d.
We do not know when Ptolemy was born nor when he died, nor
where was his native town: we only know that his first recorded
observation was made in the eleventh year of the Emperor Hadrian,
that is a.d. 127, and his latest in a.d. 150, and that he lived and
studied in Alexandria. He had splendid opportunities for carrying on
the work of Hipparchus, for besides the use of the instruments in the
Museum Observatory, he had at hand all the Museum records, which
included the writings of Hipparchus. Ptolemy was not so painstaking
and accurate an observer as Hipparchus, but he was a very able
mathematician to whom it was evidently a joy to handle figures and
work out problems. By examining a number of observations spread
over several centuries, and combining them with his own, he was
able to accomplish the task in which so many others had failed, and
to frame a system which embraced all the celestial motions then
observed. The monumental summary in which he set forth this
system contains a great deal of interesting information about his
methods and instruments, and about the work of Hipparchus, for
whom he always expresses the most generous admiration. The
original name of his book was the “Mathematical System of
Astronomy,” but his admirers having called it the “Great System,”
Megiste Syntaxis, the Arabs affixed their article al and gave it the
name it preserves to this day, of Almagest. It remained the standard
treatise on astronomy until the De Revolutionibus Orbium Celestium
of Copernicus appeared in 1543.
The name of his book indicates the scope of Ptolemy’s work. It
was to represent all the observed motions of the heavenly bodies by
means of a mathematical system, so that they became amenable to
calculation; but to explain the causes of these motions was thought
to lie quite outside an astronomer’s province. It was not for a mere
observer and calculator to determine which motions were real and
which apparent, else Ptolemy must have decided in favour of Earth’s
rotation, for he says that it would be much easier to account for
celestial motions on this assumption. Nor was it his business to
investigate the substance of the stars. Little did he dream that
astronomers would one day solve such problems, and uphold their
conclusions in the face of all the world: for him, as for his
contemporaries, the decisions of the philosophers, and especially of
Aristotle, were final, and his task was to describe what he saw in the
light of their teaching.
He brings forward, in the introduction to his book, a few
arguments against the absurd notion, taught by some, that Earth is
in motion, turning on her axis or moving through space; but all that
he proves is the immense difficulty, even to a trained mind, of
accepting these theories, and the great authority of the philosophers
who denied them on abstract principles. Educated Greeks might still
discuss the nature of the heavenly bodies, as in Plutarch’s delightful
dialogue On the Face of the Moon, (written about half a century
before the days of Ptolemy), and might ridicule the law of gravity,
laughing at the absurdity of supposing that if the middle of a man’s
body were at the middle of the earth, his feet as well as his head
would be “up,” and that falling weights if they reached this point
would stop short, or oscillate to and fro. Yet even they all agreed
that the fixed stars do most probably move “in a circle of eternal and
never-ending revolution,” and that they are of a pure and eternal
substance unlike Earth; and for the professional astronomers of
Alexandria these axioms were assumed as the basis of all their work.
Earth must be immoveable at the centre of the Universe because the
heavy stuff of which she is made sinks necessarily to the centre and
there remains in globular form without need of support; the
heavenly bodies must be in motion, because, being of ethereal
substance, it is their nature to revolve eternally in circles.
This being granted, we can feel nothing but admiration for the
extent of Ptolemy’s knowledge, the comprehensiveness of his
scheme, and the skill and patience with which he overcame its
difficulties.
Earth, according to Ptolemy, is but a point compared with the
immense surrounding sphere in which the stars are set, and this
turns always round us, communicating its motion (he does not
inquire how) to sun, moon and planets, so that day follows night,
and the heavenly bodies daily rise and set. For the slow movement
of precession, which also affects all heavenly bodies, Ptolemy
accepted the least value of Hipparchus, one degree in a century,
only testing it in rather a perfunctory way, which was a great pity, for
he might have determined it much more closely after an interval of
some 250 years. But one man cannot do everything, and he
doubtless thought it best to spend more time on the planets, whose
intricacies had baffled Hipparchus and gave him also a great deal of
trouble.
He retained the great spheres which were supposed to carry
them round Earth, inside the star sphere, but the chief feature of his
system is the use of small spheres, which were fixed on the larger,
and therefore called “epicycles,” while the large were known as
“deferents” or carriers. The general principle of epicycles is very
simple, as may be seen by comparing the two diagrams.
Fig. 28 shows the path of Mars as we saw it among the stars of
Pisces in the year 1909. Throughout July the planet was travelling in
its usual direction, “with the signs,” but on August 22nd it came to a
stop, then turned and travelled backwards “against the signs” until
October 26th, when it stopped again, reversed its direction once
more, and during the rest of the year moved rapidly forward.
Fig. 29 shows the principle on which Ptolemy would have
explained this curious track. Each planet was supposed to be fixed
on a small circle, the epicycle, and this was fixed upon a large circle,
or deferent, upon which it travels in the direction shown by the
arrow, at a uniform speed, returning to the same place in the
sidereal period of the planet. Thus Mars, as seen from Earth, which
is near C the centre of the deferent, makes a great circle through all
the zodiac in two years, Jupiter in twelve, and so on. But meanwhile
the epicycle is rotating round its own centre, C1, and when the
planet reaches the point marked S, the two motions neutralize one
another, so that it appears stationary, as Mars did on August 22,
1909. After this, the motion of the epicycle more than counter-
balances the motion of the deferent, and the planet seems to
reverse its direction until it reaches the point on the epicycle marked
S′. After this the two motions are once more in the same direction,
so the planet is seen to move rapidly forward, as Mars did after
October 26.
Fig. 28. The Path of Mars among the Stars, 1909.

Fig. 29. The Epicycle.
Ptolemy’s method of accounting for movements such as those shown
in Fig. 28.
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