Generation Control

Automatic generation control (AGC) is the name given to a control system having three
major objectives:

- To hold system frequency at or very close to specified nominal value.

- To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control.

- To maintain each unit's generation at the most economic value (e.g., 50 Hz).

Supplementary Control action:

• A load change will produce a frequency change with magnitude that depends on
the droop characteristics of the governor and the frequency characteristics of the
system load.

• Once a load change has occurred. A supplementary control must act to restore
frequency to normal value.

• This can be accomplished by adding a reset control to the governer.

• The reset control action of the supplementary control will force the
frequency error to zero by adjustement of speed reference set point.

• When large loads are added to the power system, the utility may see a
change in the system generator speed of rotation.

For example:

• If a utility were to suddenly add 100 MW load, the generators (frequency (speed)
monitors may detect a reduction in rotating speed.

• Note that this reduction of speed would only be temporary as this generator and
other system generating units have control systems to eventually return the
system speed to the normal.

Another example:

• Assume that a utility suddenly loses a large generator (one or two). This lost energy
causes under generation conditions and must be made up by other generating
resources.

• Other system generating units with each supply a share of the lost energy by
converting a portion of their rotational energy to electric energy to help supply the
generation shortage.
As you know, the power system has two types of control to maintain the frequency
either 50 or 60 Hz: the governor control system and the automatic generation
control (AGC) system.

The governor control system is designed to detect changes from the scheduled
frequency and adjust the mechanical power input to the generator to stabilize the
frequency.

For example,
A governer may detect a frequency decline from 50 HZ to 49.9 HZ, the governer
response is to rise the mechanical power input to stabilize the frequency to 49.96
HZ.
This 0.06 means a lot for the system.

But in an interconnected power systems, the governer normally will not raise the
frequency back to the standard frequency.

The AGC's system takes over where the governer leaves off.

-AGC monitors the system frequency and adjust generation to maintain a constant 50
hz power system frequency.

-The two control systems work together. When the AGC detects a frequency error, it
will adjust governer control system settings to restore the frequency to its normal value
50HZ.

- A power system load is constantly changing, so the system frequency must also
continuously change.

- In the interconnection, a frequency decline below standard frequency (e.g. 49.95

Hz) indicates a major problem. This problem could be a loss of one of the generation
units.

- When the power system is subjected to low or high frequency, the effect is that
the equipment can be damaged.

- For example, low frequency events are more common and cause more damage than
high frequency events.

-Sustained low frequency operation can damage steam generator turbines and lead
to thermal damage in large machines.

• Special protective relaying systems which is called under frequency relays are
designed to remove generators and customer load when frequency has declined
to harmful limit.

• The load that is connected to the power system will draw different amounts of
MW's, depending on the frequency and voltage of the system.

• So, we will divide all loads into two general categories:

1. Non-motor loads (non-spinning loads)

2. Motor loads (Spinning loads)

• Non-motor loads:

• The non-motor load such as heaters, light bulbs and electronic equipment will
 vary in magnitude (MW changing), depending on the voltage and frequency of the
power system to which it's connected.
- It is more dependent on voltage more than on frequency.

• Non-motor load is very dependent on the voltage of the system as well as

frequency.

Motor loads:

• When we refer to motor loads, we generally mean induction motors.

• If the voltage or frequency declined, the connected motor load magnitude will also
declined.

• The frequency has a greater impact on motor loads than the voltage.
An approximate rule of thumb:
• The connected motor load magnitude will decrease by 2%, with a frequency decrease
by 1%. We can describe that through the following figures:

Figure such that one illustrates that how the two different types of load (motor and non-
motor load) vary with frequency.

When large loads are added to the power system, the utility may see a change in the
system generator speed of rotation.

For example, if a utility were to suddenly add 100 MW load in the area close to generation
station, the generators frequency (speed) monitors may detect a reduction in the rotating
speed.

Note that this reduction of speed would only be temporary as this generator and other
system generating units have control systems to eventually return the system speed to
the normal.
Another example:

Assume that a utility suddenly loses a large generator (one or two). This lost energy
causes under generation conditions and must be made up by other generating resources.

Other system generating units with each supply a share of the lost energy by converting a
portion of their rotational energy to electric energy to help supply the generation
shortage.

These generating units would be using their inertia in energy to replace the power
shortage caused by the loss of the unit

So, this is the role of the ALFC.

-Under steady-state conditions in power systems, the power output of the generator (Pg)
is always equal to the power consumed by the load (Pload).

Any failure to meet such conditions is caused by a deficiency in the generated power
due to switching out some of the generators or the excess in power - a cause of
unbalance will occur.

This unbalance affects the speed of all the machines in the power systems
(generators and motors).

It becomes less with the -ve value ΔP:

ΔP = Pg - PLD

(PLD > Pg)

or more with +ve value of ΔP. (PLD < Pg)

The frequency reducing process continues until ΔP becomes zero (P g = PLD) at the
new attained frequency.

[Pgfinal = PLDfinal at final]

Where no power reverse is available, the magnitude by which the frequency is

reduced:

Δf(attained) = finitial - ffinal

The initial power deficit ΔP will be according to the following relationship:

ΔP%= ½K Δfattened %
Where:

𝑷𝒈−𝑷𝑳
ΔP%= ×100%
𝑷𝑳

𝒇𝒊𝒏−𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍
Δf(attained) = 𝒊𝒏

K: load frequency regulating effect

This K characterizes the changes in power drawn by the consumer including the losses in
the supply circuits caused by frequency variations in the power system.

The value of the coefficient K is dependent on the load parameters and the voltage drop
in the power system units as the frequency lowers.

The K values vary with the type of the day; it's different on workdays, days off and holidays,
also depends on yearly season.

Tests show the value of the coefficient K ranges from 1 to 3.5, the means is between

2-2.5.

ex. when fin is 50 Hz, and K = 2, then Δfatt =

Δf flat =( 0.5 ΔP / 2) %

= 0.25 (ΔP)%

The frequency changes gradually rather than instantaneously from fin value to ffinal value at
certain time constant dictated by the inertia of the rotating mass of the power system
and by the regulating effect K of the load.

Frequency varies in time approximately exponentially:

We have two cases:

1. Frequency decreases from f1 to f2.

2. Frequency increases from f1 to f2.

Case 1:

frequency decreases from

f2 = f1 - Δfatt (1 - e^(-t/τf)
Power system operation at lower frequency than the specified sustained standard
affects the quality of the power supply and is not allowed because of the following
reasons:

1. When operating at frequencies below 49.5 Hz, some types of steam turbines
undergo excessive vibrations (in certain rotor stages: low or intermediate), with
the result of metal fatigue and blade failure.

2. When the frequency falls below 49 Hz, the turbine regulating devices fully open,
and the generating unit becomes completely loaded.

3. As the frequency decreases, the exciter of the generators loses their speed, and
the generator EMF falls the voltage in the power system, this brings the
danger of the voltage avalanche and disconnection of the consumers.

Voltage avalanche drop causes aggravated frequency avalanche, causing large

breakdown in the power system, and a complete stoppage of the paralleled
stations, or division of the power system into separately operating sections with
interruption to the power supply of many consumers.

The function of the automatic frequency control (ALFC) is to prevent the power system
frequency from approaching a critical value, when a loss of active power occurs by
disconnecting parts of the loads, thereby keeping the power stations and their
auxiliaries operating.

In this case, the power supply to the majority of consumers suffers no interruption, and
the power supply to disconnected loads can be restored with a fairly short period
of time.

But, if the AFC is not available or insufficient, the consumers will be disconnected.
However, due to the stoppage of the power stations and loss of their auxiliary
services, the restoration of power to the consumers will take much time.

AFC devices disconnect the consumers so that frequency never drops below 47 Hz.

Operation of frequency below 47 Hz should not exceed 20 seconds.

Operation of frequency below 48.5 Hz should not exceed 50 seconds.

AFC must be designed so that no unnecessary tripping occurs, after the AFC devices
operate, the frequency may be below rated values (within 49-49.5 Hz) and then it is raised
to the rated values by the operator.

Case 2:

Frequency increases from f1 to f2:

f2 = f1 + Δfatt (1 - e^(-t/Tf))

Δf = ± Δfatt (1 - e^(-t/Tf))

The constant Tf:

Tf = Tsys inertia / K

Tsys inertia: the inertia constant of the power system.