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CHAPTER - 2: RESEARCH DESIGN, SAMPLING AND DATA COLLECTION

Definitions of Research Design - Requirements for an effective research design -

Advantages of research design –

Definitions of Research Design - Research design refers to the overall plan and
structure for conducting a research study, outlining the methods, procedures, and
strategies to address the research questions or objectives effectively.

When a research is carried-out, it follows a definite pattern or plan of action

throughout the procedure, i.e., since the problem identification to the report
preparation and presentation. This definite pattern or plan of action is called
"research design". It is a map that guides the researcher in collecting and analyzing
the data. In other words, research design acts as a blueprint that is followed
throughout the research work.

According to Green and Tull :

"A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the
information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project
that stipulates what information is to be collected from which sources by what
procedures".

According to Selltiz et al. :

"A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure".

A research design is not only a work plan, it also specifies the type of data required to
address the research problem. It ensures that the data analysis and the conclusions,
lead to answering the initial questions of researcher in a simple way. Therefore, at
research design provides the structure of a research in such a way that it provides
relevant outcomes economically.

Requirements for an effective research design

1) Objectivity :
Objectivity refers to the ability of the research instruments to give conclusions that
are free from observer's personal biases. A good research design should be able select
those instruments only that provide objective conclusions. Usually, it is believed that
maintaining objectivity is pretty easy, but it proves to be difficult during execution of
research and data analysis.
2) Reliability :
Another essential feature of a good research design is the reliability of responses. The
instruments used in research should be able to provide similar responses to a question
asked from a respondent. If the response varies, the instrument is considered
unreliable. In other words, reliability of research design is measured in terms of
consistency in responses.

3) Validity :
An important characteristic of a good research design is its ability to answer the
questions in the way it was intended to. It should focus on the objective of the
research and make specific arrangements or plan for achieving that objective.
For example, when a research is conducted to measure the effects of advertisements
in viewers, it should be able to answer this, and not the sale of a particular product.

4) Generalizability :
A research design is said to be generalizable if the outcome of the research is
applicable on a bigger population from which the sample is selected. A research
design can be made generalizable by properly defining the population properly,
selecting the sample carefully, analyzing the statistical data appropriately, and by
preparing it methodologically. Therefore, the more the outcomes are generalizable,
more efficient is the research design.

5) Sufficient Information :
Any research is conducted to gain insight of the hidden facts, figures and information.
The research design should be able to provide sufficient information to the researcher
so that he can analyze the research problem in a broad perspective. The research
design should be able to identify the research problem and research objective.

6) Other Features :
Along with the above, there are some other features also that make a research design
good. These are adaptability, flexibility. efficiency, etc. A good research design
should be able to minimize the errors and maximize the accuracy.

It is considered that a good research design should reduce the biasness while should
maximize the reliability of data being collected and analyzed. A good research design
should provide the opportunity as per the various aspects of research problem. It
should minimize the experimental error and should provide maximum information.
Hence, it can be concluded the selection of research design relies upon the research
problem and the nature of research. Following are the major features of a good
research design :
Need for Research Design.

Purpose of research design / Use of research designs are as follows :

1) Reduces Cost :
Research design is needed to reduce the excessive costs in terms of time, money and
effort by planning the research work in advance.

2) Facilitate the Smooth Scaling :

In order to perform the process of scaling smoothly, an efficient research design is of
utmost importance. It makes the research process effective enough to give maximum
relevant outcome in an easy way.

3) Helps in Relevant Data Collection and Analysis :

Research design helps the researchers in planning the methods of data collection and
analysis as per the objective of research. It is also responsible for the reliable research
work as it is the foundation for entire research. Lack of proper attention in
preparation of research design can harm the entire research work.

4) Assists in Smooth Flow of Research Operations :

Research design is necessary to give better and effective structure to the research.
Since all the decisions are made in advance, therefore, research design facilitates the
smooth flow of research operations and reduces the possible problems of researchers.

5) Helps in Getting Reviews from Experts :

Research design helps in developing an overview about the whole research process
and thus assists in getting responses and reviews from different experts in that field.

6) Provides a Direction to Executives :

Research design directs the researcher as well as the executives involved in the
research for giving their relevant assistance.

Meaning of Sample and Sampling

A sample is a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a

larger population using a pre-defined selection bias method .Creating a sample is
an efficient method of conducting research. Researching the whole population is
often impossible, costly, and time-consuming. Hence, examining the sample provides
insights the researcher can apply to the entire population.

For example, if a cell phone manufacturer wants to conduct a feature research study
among students in US Universities. An in-depth research study must be conducted if
the researcher is looking for features that the students use, features they would like to
see, and the price they are willing to pay.

This step is imperative to understand the features that need development, the features
that require an upgrade, the device’s pricing, and the go-to-market strategy.

In the year 2016/17 alone, there were 24.7 million students enrolled in universities
across the US. It is impossible to research all these students; the time spent would
make the new device redundant, and the money spent on development would render
the study useless.

Creating a sample of universities by geographical location and further creating a

sample of these students from these universities provides a large enough number of
students for research.

Typically, the population for market research is enormous. Making an enumeration of

the whole population is practically impossible. The sample usually represents a
manageable size of this population. Researchers then collect data from these samples
through surveys, polls, and questionnaires and extrapolate this data analysis to the
broader community

- Process of Sampling Introduction and meaning

Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a

population for the purpose of determining the characteristics of the whole population.
In other words, the process of selecting a sample from a population using special
sampling techniques called sampling. It should be ensured in the sampling process
itself that the sample selected is representative of the population.
Population OR Universe: The entire aggregation of items from which samples can
be drawn is known as a population. In sampling, the population may refer to the
units, from which the sample is drawn. Population or populations of interest are
interchangeable terms. The term “unit” is used, as in a business research process,
samples are not necessarily people all the time. A population of interest may be the
universe of nations or cities. This is one of the first things the analyst needs to define
properly while conducting a business research. Therefore, population, contrary to its
general notion as a nation’s entire population has a much broader meaning in
sampling. “N” represents the size of the population.

Census: A complete study of all the elements present in the population is known as
a census. It is a time consuming and costly process and is, therefore, seldom a
popular with researchers. The general notion that a census generates more accurate
data than sampling is not always true. Limitations include failure in generating a
complete and accurate list of all the members of the population and refusal of the
elements to provide information. The national population census is an example of
census survey.

Precision: Precision is a measure of how close an estimate is expected to be, to the

true value of a parameter. Precision is a measure of similarity. Precision is usually
expressed in terms of imprecision and related to the standard error of the estimate.
Less precision is reflected by a larger standard error.

Bias: Bias is the term refers to how far the average statistic lies from the parameter
it is estimating, that is, the error, which arises when estimating a quantity. Errors from
chance will cancel each other out in the long run, those from bias will not. Bias can
take different forms.

Process of Sampling

An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:

1.Defining the target population.

2.Specifying the sampling frame.

3.Specifying the sampling unit.

4.Selection of the sampling method.

5.Determination of sample size.

6.Specifying the sampling plan.

7.Selecting the sample.

1.Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling
process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit,
extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the objectives of the
research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a survey to
ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population as ‘all women
above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few men cook)’. However this
definition is too broad and will include every household in the country, in the
population that is to be covered by the survey. Therefore the definition can be further
refined and defined at the sampling unit level, that, all women above the age 20, who
cook and whose monthly household income exceeds Rs.20,000. This reduces the
target population size and makes the research more focused. The population
definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where the researcher has
to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.

A well defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents who
do not fit the research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is defined
as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a
large number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the
sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may
be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a
database that contains all the households that have a monthly income above
Rs.20,000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame
that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers use
easily available sampling frames like telephone directories and lists of credit card and
mobile phone users. Various private players provide databases developed along
various demographic and economic variables. Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures
are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame
is one that entire population and lists the names of its elements only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately
represent the total population or when some elements of the population are missing
another drawback in the sampling frame is over —representation. A telephone
directory can be over represented by names/household that have two or more
connections.
3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements
of the population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit
and all women above the age of 20 years living in that particular house become the
sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target audience of the
business research, every individual element would be a sampling unit. This would
present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a convenient and better means of
sampling would be to select households as the sampling unit and interview all
females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case of secondary sampling
unit.

4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected.
The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business
research, availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the
problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct
heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways
of classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold
primary importance and are worth mentioning are whether the technique deals with
fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based on traditional or Bayesian
methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb
rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the decision, number
of variables, nature of analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major
role in sample size determination. In the case of probability sampling, however,
formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and
level of confidence are specified. The details of the various techniques used to
determine the sample size will be explained at the end of the chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the
research process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the
households are the sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the
sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It includes
issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the houses.
What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the recontact
procedure for respondents who were unavailable? All these and many other questions
need to be answered for the smooth functioning of the research process. These are
guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of the process. As the
interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most of the time, a proper
specification of the sampling plans would make their work easy and they would not
have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational problems.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample
elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the
rules outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research. This step
involves implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan to select a
sample required for the survey.

Methods of Sampling –
The sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the
population by gathering information and analyzing that data. It is the basis of the data
where the sample space is enormous.

There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided
into two groups. All these methods of sampling may involve specifically targeting
hard or approach to reach groups.

Various sampling Techniques

In Statistics, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results
from the population. The two different types of sampling methods are::
•Probability Sampling
•Non-probability Sampling
What is Probability Sampling?
The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this
method, all the eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the
whole sample space. This method is more time consuming and expensive than the
non-probability sampling method. The benefit of using probability sampling is that it
guarantees the sample that should be the representative of the population.

Probability Sampling Types

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered
sampling. Let us discuss the different types of probability sampling methods along
with illustrative examples here in detail.

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and
likely chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely
depends on the chance, this method is known as “Method of chance Selection”. As
the sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it is known as
“Representative Sampling”.
Example:
Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school.
Here, we can assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500
and use a random number generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.

Systematic Sampling
In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population
by selecting the random selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed
sample interval. It is calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired
population size.
Example:
Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical
order. To select a sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to choose some
15 students by randomly selecting a starting number, say 5. From number 5 onwards,
will select every 15th person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a
sample of some students.

Stratified Sampling
In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to
complete the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few
characteristics in the population. After separating the population into a smaller group,
the statisticians randomly select the sample.
For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has
50 balls, bag B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of
balls from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B
and 20 balls from bag C.

Clustered Sampling
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the
population set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an
equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses simple random
sampling for the cluster of population.
Example:
An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the
number of students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other
things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use
random sampling to select three or four branches as clusters.
All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the
figure given below. The figure contains various examples of how samples will be
taken from the population using different techniques.
What is Non-Probability Sampling?
The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects
the sample based on subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this
method, not all the members of the population have a chance to participate in the
study.Non-Probability Sampling Types
Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling,
snowball sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in
detail.

Convenience Sampling
In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population
directly because they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are
easy to select, and the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire
population.
Example:
In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few
customers to complete a survey on the products after the purchase. This is a
convenient way to collect data. Still, as we only surveyed customers taking the same
product. At the same time, the sample is not representative of all the customers in that
area.
Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation. The
researcher picks a single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the
researcher researches for a period of time to analyze the result and move to another
group if needed.

Quota Sampling
In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the
individuals to represent the population based on specific traits or qualities. The
researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring the useful collection of data that
generalizes the entire population.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s
knowledge. As their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are the
chances of obtaining highly accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is
also known as judgmental sampling or authoritative sampling.

Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this
method, the samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member
of a population is asked to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also
belong to the same targeted population.

Probability sampling vs Non-probability Sampling Methods

The below table shows a few differences between probability sampling methods and
non-probability sampling methods

https://byjus.com/maths/sampling-methods/

Primary and Secondary Data

1. Primary Data
• The data collected by the investigator from primary sources for the first time
from scratch is known as primary data.
• This data is collected directly from the source of origin.
• It is real-time data and is always specific to the researcher’s needs.
• The primary data is available in raw form.
 • The investigator has to spend a long time period in the collection of primary
data and hence is expensive also.
• However, the accuracy and reliability of primary data are more than the
secondary data. Some examples of sources for the collection of primary data
are observations, surveys, experiments, personal interviews, questionnaires,
etc.
2. Secondary Data
• The data already in existence which has been previously collected by someone
else for other purposes is known as secondary data.
• It does not include any real-time data as the research has already been done on
that information. However, the cost of collecting secondary data is less.
• As the data has already been collected in the past, it can be found in refined
form. The accuracy and reliability of secondary data are relatively less than the
primary data.
• The chances of finding the exact information or data specific to the
researcher’s needs are less. However, the time required to collect secondary
data is short and hence is a quick and easy process.
• Some examples of sources for the collection of secondary data are books,
journals, internal records, government records, articles, websites, government
publications, etc.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data & secondary Data

1. Questionnaires and surveys

While researchers often use the terms “survey” and “questionnaire” interchangeably,

the two mean slightly different things.A questionnaire refers specifically to the set of

questions researchers use to collect information from respondents. It may include

closed-ended questions, which means respondents are limited to predefined answers,

or open-ended questions, which allow respondents to give their own answers.A

survey includes the entire process of creating questionnaires, collecting responses,

and analyzing the results.

2. Interviews
An interview is a conversation in which one participant asks questions and the other

provides answers. Interviews work best for small groups and help you understand the

opinions and feelings of respondents.Interviews may be structured or unstructured.

Structured interviews are similar to questionnaires and involve asking predetermined

questions with specific multiple-choice answers. Unstructured interviews, on the

other hand, give subjects the freedom to provide their own answers. You can conduct

interviews in person or via recorded video or audio conferencing.

3. Focus groups
A focus group is a small group of people who have an informal discussion about a

particular topic, product, or idea. The researcher selects participants with similar

interests, gives them topics to discuss, and records what they say.Focus groups can

help you better understand the results of a large-group quantitative study. For

example, a survey of 1,000 respondents may help you spot trends and patterns, but a

focus group of 10 respondents will provide additional context for the results of the

large-group survey.

4. Observation
Observation involves watching participants or their interactions with specific

products or objects. It’s a great way to collect data from a group when they’re

unwilling or unable to participate in interviews — children are a good example.You

can conduct observations covertly or overtly. The former involves discreetly

observing people’s behavior without their knowledge. This allows you to see them

acting naturally. On the other hand, you have to conduct overt observation openly,

and it may cause the subjects to behave unnaturally.

5 Experiments
Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect on
another variable. This method is commonly used in scientific research to establish
causal relationships between variables. Experiments can be conducted in controlled
environments (laboratories) or natural settings (field experiments).Example:A
pharmaceutical company conducting clinical trials to test the efficacy of a new drug.

Secondary data-collection methods

• Secondary data collection involves retrieving already available data from

sources other than the target audience.

• When working with secondary data, the researcher doesn’t “collect” data;

instead, they consult secondary data sources.Secondary data sources are

broadly categorized into published and unpublished data. As the names

suggest, published data has been published and released for public or private

use, while unpublished data comprises unreleased private information that

researchers or individuals have documented.

Below are some examples of secondary data sources:

1. Online journals, records, and publications

Data that reputable organizations have collected from research is usually published

online. Many of these sources are freely accessible and serve as reliable data sources.

But it’s best to search for the latest editions of these publications because dated ones

may provide invalid data.

2. Government records and publications
Periodically, government institutions collect data from people. The information can

range from population figures to organizational records and other statistical

information such as age distribution. You can usually find information like this in

government libraries and use it for research purposes.

3. Business and industry records

Industries and trade organizations usually release revenue figures and periodic

industry trends in quarterly or biannual publications. These records serve as viable

secondary data sources since they’re industry-specific.Previous business records,

such as companies’ sales reports and revenue figures, can also be useful for research.

While some of this information is available to the public, you may have to get

permission to access other records.

4. Newspapers
Newspapers often publish data they’ve collected from their own surveys. Due to the

volume of resources you’ll have to sift through, some surveys may be relevant to

your niche but difficult to find on paper. Luckily, most newspapers are also published

online, so looking through their online archives for specific data may be easier.

5. Unpublished sources
These include diaries, letters, reports, records, and figures belonging to private

individuals; these sources aren’t in the public domain. Since authoritative bodies

haven’t vetted or published the data, it can often be unreliable.