### 2.

**Stream Ciphers:**

**Overview:**

Stream ciphers are a class of symmetric key encryption algorithms that encrypt plaintext one bit
or byte at a time. Instead of dividing the data into fixed-size blocks, stream ciphers generate a
continuous stream of bits (key stream) and combine it with the plaintext to produce ciphertext.

**How Stream Ciphers Work:**

1. **Key stream generation:** A key stream is generated using the encryption key and an
initialization vector (IV). The key stream is combined with the plaintext using bitwise XOR
operation.

2. **Encryption and decryption:** The key stream is generated once, and the same stream is
used for both encryption and decryption. The plaintext is XORed with the key stream to
produce ciphertext. For decryption, the ciphertext is XORed with the same key stream to
retrieve the plaintext.

**Key Characteristics of Stream Ciphers:**

- **Efficiency:** Stream ciphers are well-suited for real-time communication and applications
that require fast encryption and decryption of continuous streams of data (e.g., audio or video).

- **Low memory usage:** Stream ciphers do not require the storage of large amounts of data,
unlike block ciphers.

**Common Stream Cipher Algorithms:**

- **RC4:** A widely used stream cipher, though it has some known vulnerabilities and is
considered insecure for modern applications.

- **Salsa20 and ChaCha20:** Modern and secure stream ciphers that are often used in
cryptographic protocols like TLS and IPsec.

1
**Advantages and Disadvantages:**

- **Advantages:** Stream ciphers are faster than block ciphers for encrypting data streams and
have less memory overhead.

- **Disadvantages:** Stream ciphers can be vulnerable to certain attacks if the key stream is
not securely generated or reused.

---

### 3. **Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC):**

**Overview:**

Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) is an asymmetric encryption algorithm based on the

mathematics of elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC provides a high level of security with
relatively smaller key sizes compared to traditional public-key algorithms like RSA.

**How ECC Works:**

1. **Elliptic curve:** ECC operates over the set of points on an elliptic curve, a type of
mathematical curve defined by an equation of the form \(y^2 = x^3 + ax + b\), where \(a\) and
\(b\) are constants.

2. **Private and public keys:** ECC generates a public key from a private key by performing
scalar multiplication on a point on the elliptic curve. The private key is a random number, and
the public key is a point on the curve derived from the private key.

3. **Key exchange:** ECC is widely used for secure key exchange protocols like ECDH (Elliptic
Curve Diffie-Hellman), which allows two parties to establish a shared secret over an insecure
channel.

**Advantages of ECC:**

2
- **Smaller key sizes:** ECC provides the same level of security as RSA but with much smaller
key sizes. For example, a 256-bit ECC key is equivalent in security to a 3072-bit RSA key.

- **Efficiency:** The smaller key sizes result in faster computation and less memory usage,
making ECC particularly useful for mobile devices and IoT applications.

- **Security:** ECC is resistant to various attacks, including those targeting traditional

cryptographic algorithms like RSA.

**Common ECC Algorithms:**

- **ECDSA (Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm):** Used for digital signatures.

- **ECDH (Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman):** Used for secure key exchange.

- **ECIES (Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption Scheme):** Used for encryption.

---

### 4. **Quantum Cryptography & BB84 Protocol:**

**Overview:**

Quantum cryptography leverages principles of quantum mechanics, such as superposition and

entanglement, to secure communications. Quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols allow two
parties to exchange encryption keys securely, even in the presence of an eavesdropper.

**BB84 Protocol:**

The BB84 protocol, introduced by Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard in 1984, is one of the first
quantum key distribution protocols. It enables two parties (Alice and Bob) to securely share a
secret key by exchanging photons that are polarized in different bases.

**How BB84 Works:**

3
1. **Quantum states:** Alice sends Bob photons that are polarized in one of four states:
horizontal (\|0\rangle), vertical (\|1\rangle), diagonal (+45°), or anti-diagonal (-45°).

2. **Measurement:** Bob measures the photons using one of two possible bases: the standard
basis (horizontal/vertical) or the diagonal basis (+45°/-45°). He does not know which basis Alice
used, so his measurements have a 50% chance of being correct.

3. **Key generation:** After sending the photons, Alice and Bob compare their chosen bases
over a classical channel. They discard the measurements where their bases do not match and
use the remaining results to generate a shared secret key.

4. **Security:** Any eavesdropper (Eve) who tries to intercept the photons will disturb their
quantum states, causing detectable errors. This allows Alice and Bob to detect the presence of
an eavesdropper and abort the key exchange if necessary.

**Advantages of Quantum Cryptography:**

- **Unconditional security:** The security of quantum cryptography is based on the laws of

quantum mechanics rather than the computational difficulty of certain mathematical problems
(e.g., factoring large numbers in RSA).

- **Detection of eavesdropping:** Any attempt to measure quantum states disturbs them,

allowing the communicating parties to detect eavesdropping and ensure secure
communication.

**Challenges:**

- **Practical implementation:** Quantum cryptography requires specialized hardware (e.g.,

single-photon sources and detectors) and is not yet widely available for large-scale use.

- **Limited distance:** Quantum communication is limited by the distance over which photons
can travel without being disturbed. Quantum repeaters are needed to extend the range.

---

These detailed tutorials can be saved to a document for future reference. Let me know if you'd
like any adjustments or further explanations!