al Technician

Par cipant Handbook

Sector
Electronics

Sub- Sector
Consumer Electronics & IT Hardware

Occupation
Manufacturing

Reference ID: ELE/Q7804, Version 2.0

NSQF Level 4

PCB Assembly
Operator
Electronics Sector Skills Council of India (ESSCI)
155, 2nd Floor, ESC House, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase 3, New Delhi - 110020, India
Email : [email protected]
Website: www.essc-india.org
Phone: +91 11 46035050, +91 8447738501

First Edi on, July 2022

Electronics Sector Skills Council of India (ESSCI)

155, 2nd Floor, ESC House, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase 3, New Delhi - 110020, India
Email : [email protected]
Website: www.essc-india.org
Phone: +91 11 46035050, +91 8447738501

This book is sponsored by Electronics Sector Skills Council of India (ESSCI)

 Skilling is building a be er India.
If we have to move India towards
development then Skill Development
should be our mission.

iii
 ELECTRONICS SECTOR SKILLS COUNCIL OF INDIA

Complying to National Occupational Standards of

"PCB Assembly Operator" QP No."ELE/7804,

NSQF Level 4”

27.01.2022
02.06.2025
Authorized Signatory
Electronics Sector Skills Council of India

iv
Acknowledgments
This participant’s handbook meant for PCB Assembly Operator is a sincere attempt to ensure the
availability of all the relevant information to the existing and prospective job holders in this job
role. We have compiled the content with inputs from the relevant Subject Matter Experts (SMEs)
and industry members to ensure it is the latest and authentic. We express our sincere gratitude to
all the SMEs and industry members who have made invaluable contributions to the completion of
this participant’s handbook.

I would like to thank the SME and the team at the ESSCI along with the industry partners for the
tireless effort in bringing the handbook in the current format.

This handbook will help deliver skill-based training in the field of PCB Assembly Operation. We
hope that it will benefit all the stakeholders, such as participants, trainers, and evaluators. We have
made all efforts to ensure the publication meets the current quality standards for the successful
delivery of QP/NOS-based training programs. We welcome and appreciate any suggestions for future
improvements to this hand book.

v
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This participant handbook has been designed to serve as a guide for participants who aim to obtain
the required knowledge and skills to undertake various activities as a PCB Assembly Operator. Its
content has been aligned with the latest Qualification Pack (QP) prepared for the job role. With a
qualified trainer’s guidance, the participants will be equipped with the following for working efficiently
in the job role:

 Knowledge and Understanding: The relevant assembling knowledge of hardware equipment

and understand to perform the required assembling task of equipment.
 Performance Criteria: The essential skills through hands-on training to perform the required
assembling of hardware equipment to the applicable quality standards.
 Professional Skills: The Ability to make appropriate assembling decisions about the complete
equipment.
The handbook details the relevant activities to be carried out by a PCB Assembly Operator. After
studying this handbook, job holders will be adequately skilled to carry out their assembling duties
efficiently according to the applicable quality standards, with minimum supervision.

The handbook has been divided into an appropriate number of units and sub-units based on the
content of the relevant QP. We hope it will facilitate easy and structured learning for the participants.
We sincerely hope that participants will obtain enhanced knowledge and skills after studying this
handbook and make career progress in the relevant and senior job roles.

The Participant Handbook is designed based on the National Skill Qualification Framework (NSQF)
aligned Qualification Pack (QP) and it comprises of the following National Occupation Standards
(NOS)/ topics:

• ELE/N7812 - Assemble Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

• ELE/N9905 – Work effectively at the workplace
• ELE/N1002 – Apply health and safety practices at the workplace
• Employability &Entrepreneurship Skills

Symbols Used

!
Key Learning Exercise Steps Tips Notes Unit
Outcomes es

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 PCB Assembly Operator

Table of Contents

S. No Modules and Units Page No.

1. Introduction and orientation to the role of a PCB Assembly Operator 1

Unit 1.1 Size and scope of the electronics industry and its various sub- sectors 3

Unit 1.2 Opportunities for PCB Assembly Operator in the industry. 5

Unit 1.3 Roles and responsibilities of a PCB Assembly Operator 7

2. Process of assembling printed circuit board (PCB) (ELE/N7812) 15

Unit 2.1 Assembly Work Flow 17

Unit 2.2 Basics of electronics and related concepts 35

Unit 2.3 Assembly Process 49

Unit 2.4 Safety & Quality Standards 56

Unit 2.5 Soldering 62

Unit 2.6 Reporting Structure 72

3. Work effectively at the workplace (ELE/N9905) 81

Unit 3.1 Effective Communication and Coordination of work 83

Unit 3.2 Work effectively and Maintaining discipline at work. 90

Unit 3.3 Maintaining social diversity at work 101

4. Apply health and safety practices at the workplace (ELE/N1002) 109

Unit 4.1 Workplace Hazards 111

Unit 4.2 Fire Safety 123

Unit 4.3 First Aid 127

Unit 4.4 Waste Management 131

5. Employability &Entrepreneurship Skills 137

Unit 5.1 Personal Strengths & Value Systems 141

Unit 5.2 Digital Literacy: A Recap 160

Unit 5.3 Money Matters 166

Unit 5.4 Preparing for Employment & Self Employment 177

Unit 5.5 Understanding Entrepreneurship 186

Unit 5.6 Preparing to be an Entrepreneur 208

vii
viii
 PCB Assembly Operator

1. Introduction and
orientation to the role
of a PCB Assembly
Operator
Unit 1.1 Size and scope of the electronics industry and its various
sub- sectors
Unit 1.2 Opportunities for PCB Assembly Operator in the industry.
Unit 1.3 Roles and responsibilities of a PCB Assembly Operator

1
1
Participant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

By the end of this module, participants will be able to:

By the end of this module, participants will be able to:

• Describe the size and scope of the electronic industry and its subsectors.
• Discuss the role and responsibilities of a PCB Assembly Operator.
• Describe various employment opportunities for a PCB Assembly Operator

2
 PCB Assembly Operator

Unit 1.1 Size and scope of the electronics industry and its various
sub- sectors
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:

1. Describe the size and scope of the Electronics industry.

2. Identify the sub-sectors of the Electronics industry.

1.1 Describe the size and scope of the

electronics industry and its various sub- sectors
The Indian Electronics System Design & Manufacturing (ESDM) industry is one of the vital sectors
of the Indian economy. The country has witnessed a substantial spike in demand for electronic
products in the last few years. Today, India is positioned as the second-largest mobile phone
manufacturer globally, with a surging internet penetration rate.
The ESDM sector is playing a vital role in the Indian government’s goal of generating US$ 1 trillion
of economic value from the digital economy by 2025. With several government initiatives aiming
to boost domestic manufacturing, India is witnessing increased production and assembly activities
across products, such as consumer electronics and mobile phones.
Market Size
• The Indian electronics manufacturing industry is projected to reach US$ 520 billion by 2025.
• In FY22 (until October 2021), imports of electronics goods stood at US$ 28.59 billion,
whereas exports stood at US$ 7.89 billion.
• The demand for electronic products is expected to rise to US$ 400 billion by 2025 from
US$ 33 billion in Fy20.
• The electronics market has witnessed a growth in demand, with market size increasing
from US$ 145 billion in FY16 to US$ 215 billion in FY19—the market witnessed a growth
of 14% CAGR from 2016-19.
• India’s exports of electronic goods were valued at US$ 11.7 billion in FY21.
• Smartphone shipments in India increased by ~82% YoY to reach 33.0 million units in the
second quarter of 2021.
• The Electronics System Design & Manufacturing (ESDM) is broadly segregated into—electronics
system and electronics design.
• The electronics system market is expected to witness 2.3x demand of its current size (FY19)
to reach US$ 160 billion by FY25.
• Electronics design segment, growing at 20.1%, was 22% of the ESDM market size in FY19;
it is anticipated to be 27% of the ESDM market size in FY25.
• India’s consumer electronics and appliances industry is expected to become the 5th largest
globally by 2025.
• According to the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, from April 2000
to June 2021, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) equity inflows stood at US$ 3,176.29 million.

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Participant Handbook

1.1.2 Sub-Sectors of the Electronics System

Design & Manufacturing (ESDM) Industry

Consumer
Electronics
(CE)

Light
Industrial
Emi ng
Electronics
Diodes (LED)

ESDM

Electronics Computer
Components Hardware

Strategic Mobile
Electronics Phones

Fig. 1.1.1 Sub-sectors of the Electronics System Design & Manufacturing (ESDM) Industry

4
 PCB Assembly Operator

Unit 1.2 Opportunities for PCB Assembly Operator in the industry

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:

• Describe various employment opportunities for a PCB Assembly Operator.

1.2.1 Career Pathways of

Electrical Assembly Operator
There are different career pathways that an PCB Assembly Operator can take. Following are
some of them:

 Lateral movement in the electronic industry or other related sectors where electrical
appliances are used. The individual can work as an employee with such a company.
 With appropriate knowledge and adequate years of experience, the individual may also
become a senior operator.
 Later, the individual may become a Supervisor and even progress to a manager’s level.
 The person can even work as an entrepreneur and start own service centre.
 Similarly, with strong technical expertise, one can even become a trainer at a training
institute or start own training centre.

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Participant Handbook

1.2.2 Personal Attributes of

an PCB Assembly Operator
An PCB Assembly Operator needs to have some essential personal attributes for performing various
activities effectively. The individual should have attention to detail and problem-solving skills to quickly
identify any malfunctioning or problems with electrical components for their timely resolution. The
person should have logical thinking to analyze a situation/problem logically to find an appropriate
solution and appropriate technical expertise to perform repair and maintenance activities efficiently.
Good decision-making skills are also important for the individual to ensure the correct decision is
taken concerning the corrective measures to be taken for electric repair.

The person usually caters to clients who experience issues with their electric appliances. For this
reason, the individual needs to have good client-dealing skills and the ability to work as per their
requirement. It also includes effective communication skills, i.e. talking courteously and listening
attentively.

In a dynamic technological environment, it is also vital for the individual to stay updated with the
latest developments in the field of work by reading the relevant literature and staying in contact
with relevant persons.

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 PCB Assembly Operator

Unit 1.3 Roles and responsibilities of a PCB Assembly Operator

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
• Understand the duties of PCB Assembly Operator

1.3.1 Role and Responsibilities

of a PCB Assembly Operator
1. Assist in designing and developing printed circuit boards (PCB).
2. Use cad in preparing PCB assembly and schematic.
3. Design PCB layouts to develop high-speed and reliable circuits.
4. Analyse and resolve design related issues in a timely manner.
5. Work with project team in understanding circuit requirements and limitations.
6. Develop design documentations and requirements specifications for assigned projects.
7. Provide support to PCB engineering, manufacturing and packaging teams when required.
8. Review and recommend improvements to existing designs.
9. Assist in preparing test procedures and developing test fixtures to verify PCB functions.
10. Stay updated with latest design techniques.
11. Perform component placement and maintain integrity between components.
12. Conduct job trainings and provide assistance to junior team members when
needed.
13. Follow departmental policies and safety regulations.

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Participant Handbook

1.3.2 Job Description:

PCB Assembly Operator
The tasks a PCB Assembly Operator is expected to perform include:

• Collecting the desired components from stores as per design chart

• Mounting the components on the board
• Soldering the components
• Performing visual quality check on the soldered PCB
• Following the standard safety procedures

Key Competencies
• Knowledge of various components used in the PCBs
• Well-versed with IPC standards
• Adept with the basic characteristics of the components like resistor, capacitor, etc.
• Proficient in reading the design charts
• Proficient in comparing between ROHS & non-ROHS complaint solder
• Knowledge of solder machine operation and types of solder paste
• Well-versed with hand soldering technique, soldering phenomena, handling the soldering
iron, iron temperature, etc.
• Adept in the basics of wave soldering such as flux and their types, pre-heat conditions,
wave profile, etc.
• Knowledge of zero defect soldering, lead cutting and component lifting
• Well-versed with Electro Static Discharge (ESD) requirements and devices

1.3.3 In addition, the individual

has the following responsibilities:
 Communicating effectively at the workplace.
 Working effectively.
 Maintaining and enhancing professional competence.
 Working in a disciplined and ethical manner.
 Upholding social diversity in the workplace.
 Dealing with workplace hazards.
 Following fire safety practices.
 Following emergencies, rescue and first-aid procedures.
 Following effective waste management/recycling practices.

8
 PCB Assembly Operator

Electrical equipment industry facing skilled manpower problem

 It said that the electrical equipment industry is facing a major problem in getting skilled
and employable manpower which is technically competent, equipped with skills and ready
to be deployed.
 “The industry is facing a looming skill gap, which is widening every year. Due to lack of
skilled manpower, electrical equipment industry is suffering as it is affecting critical functions
like R&D, consultancy, design and detailed engineering work,” it added.
 The technical education system in the country does not promote innovative thinking, it said
adding training being provided in the ITIs is out dated and the students are not able to
meet the aspirations of the industry.
 “Even the qualified supervisors and engineers are not available. Those who are qualified
are not well trained to meet the technical needs of the industry. Because of the above
factors the labour productivity in India is far less than the labour productivity in China and
Korea,” the statement said.
 It said that this is one of the important reasons for making the industry non-competitive
and is also affecting the timely completion of the projects.
 The ministry said that there is an urgent need for training the work force for all the
segments of the industry and making changes in the curriculum of the polytechnics and
engineering colleges.

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Participant Handbook

EXERCISE
Short Questions
1. Explain the importance of the electronics industry.
2. Write about PCB Assembly Operator.
3. Explain briefly the problems faced by electronics industry.
Long Questions
1. Describe the size and scope of the electronics industry and its various sub- sectors.
2. Discuss the various opportunities for a PCB Assembly Operator in the electronics industry.
3. Discuss the role and responsibilities of a PCB Assembly Operator.

10
 PCB Assembly Operator

Notes

11
Participant Handbook

Notes

12
 PCB Assembly Operator

Notes

13
Participant Handbook

Notes

14
 PCB Assembly Operator

2. Process of
assembling printed
circuit board (PCB)
Unit 2.1 Assembly Work Flow
Unit 2.2 Basics of electronics and related concepts
Unit 2.3 Assembly Process
Unit 2.4 Safety & Quality Standards
Unit 2.5 Soldering
Unit 2.6 Reporting Structure

ELE/N7812

15
1
Participant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

By the end of this module, participants will be able to:

• State the work flow involved in assembly process of the company and one’s role in the
work flow.
• Explain how to use hand tools such as lead forming tools, cutter, cutting machine, soldering
station, etc.
• Explain component stocking policy.
• Explain basic electronics, component identification and characteristics of the components
such as resistor, capacitor, ICs.
• Describe various assembly processes such as thru-hole technology (THT), surface mount
technology (SMT), and mixed technology.
• List color codes and polarity of components.
• State various safety and quality standards followed in the organisation.
• Describe comparison between ROHS & Non-ROHS compliant solder.
• Explain the basics of soldering such as handling the soldering iron, iron temperature, etc.
and types of soldering such as dry and cold solder.
• State the regulation of operating speed and temperature as well as soldering shortcomings
such as solder short and dry solder.
• Explain different types of errors identified during functional test and methods to rectify the
same.
• Explain company’s reporting structure, delivery standards and personnel management and
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).

16
 PCB Assembly Operator

Unit 2.1 Assembly Work Flow

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
• State the work flow involved in assembly process of the company and one’s role in the
work flow.
• Explain how to use hand tools such as lead forming tools, cutter, cutting machine, soldering
station, etc.
• Explain component stocking policy.

2.1.1 Work flow involved in assembly

process and one’s role in the work flow
 An assembly line is a manufacturing process in which interchangeable parts are added to a
product in a sequential manner to create an end product. In most cases, a manufacturing
assembly line is a semi-automated system through which a product moves. At each station
along the line some part of the production process takes place. The workers and machinery
used to produce the item are stationary along the line and the product moves through
the cycle, from start to finish.
 Assembly line methods were originally introduced to increase factory productivity and efficiency.
Advances in assembly line methods are made regularly as new and more efficient ways of
achieving the goal of increased throughput (the number of products produced in a given
period of time) are found. While assembly line methods apply primarily to manufacturing
processes, business experts have also been known to apply these principles to other areas
of business, from product development to management.
 Electronics are an integral part of our daily lives. Everything from our smart phones to our
cars includes electronic components. At the heart of these electronics is the printed circuit
board, also known as a PCB.
 Most people recognize printed circuit boards when they see them. These are the small
green chips covered in lines and copper parts you’ll find at the heart of gutted electronic
devices. Made with fiberglass, copper lines and other metal parts, these boards are held
together with epoxy and insulated with a solder mask. This solder mask is where that
characteristic green color comes from.
 However, have you ever observed those boards with components solidly stuck on? Never
regard them as just decorations of a PCB board. An advanced circuit board won’t be able to
give its functionality until components are mounted on it. A PCB with components mounted
on is called an assembled PCB and the manufacturing process is called PCB assembly or
PCBA for short. The copper lines on bare board, called traces, electrically link connectors
and components to each other. They run signals between these features, allowing the circuit
board to function in a specifically designed way. These functions range from the simple to
the complex, and yet the size of PCBs can be smaller than a thumbnail.

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Participant Handbook

PCB Design Basics

The PCBA process always starts out with the most basic unit of the PCB: the base, which consists
of several layers, and each one plays a significant role in the functionality of the final PCB. These
alternating layers include:

• Substrate: This is the base material of a PCB. It gives the PCB its rigidity.
• Copper: A thin layer of conductive copper foil is added to each functional side of the PCB
— on one side if it’s a single-sided PCB, and on both sides if it’s a double-sided PCB. This
is the layer of copper traces.
• Solder mask: On top of the copper layer is the solder mask, which gives each PCB its
characteristic green color. It insulates copper traces from unintentionally contacting other
conductive materials, which could result in a short. The solder, in other words, keeps
everything in its place. Holes in the solder mask are where solder is applied to attach
components to the board. Solder mask is a vital step for smooth manufacturing of PCBA
since it stops soldering from taking place on unwanted parts with shorts avoided.
• Silkscreen: A white silkscreen is the final layer on a PCB board. This layer adds labels to
the PCB in the form of characters and symbols. This helps indicate the function of each
component on the board.
These materials and components remain largely the same across all PCBs, with the exception of
the substrate. The substrate material of a PCB changes according to the specific qualities — such
as cost and bendability — each designer is looking for in their finished product.

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 PCB Assembly Operator

The three primary PCB types include:

• Rigid PCB: The most common type of PCB base is a rigid one that accounts for majority of
PCBAs. The solid core of a rigid PCB gives the board rigidity and thickness. These inflexible
PCB bases consist of a few different materials. The most common is fiberglass, otherwise
designated as “FR4”. Less expensive PCBs are made with materials like epoxies or phenolics,
though these are less durable than FR4.
• Flexible PCB: Flexible PCBs offer a bit more pliability than their more rigid counterparts.
The material of these PCBs tends to be a bendable, high-temperature plastic like Kapton.
• Metal Core PCB: These boards are yet another alternative to the typical FR4 board. Made
with a metal core, these boards tend to spread heat more efficiently than others. This
helps dissipate heat and protect more heat-sensitive board components.
There are two types of mounting technologies are prevailing in the modern PCBA industry:

Surface Mount Technology: Sensitive components, some very small, such as resistors or diodes are
placed automatically onto the surface of board. This is called SMD assembly, for surface mount
device. Surface mount technology can be applied on small size components and integrated circuits
(ICs). For example, PCBCart is capable of mounting package with min. size 01005, which is even
smaller than the size of a pencil point.

Thru-Hole Technology: works well on components with leads or wires that have to be mounted on
board by plugging them through holes on board. The extra lead part has to be soldered on the
other side of the board. This technology is applied on PCB assemblies containing large components
such as capacitors, coils to be assembled.

Due to distinctions between THT and SMT, they have to go through different assembly processes
as well. The following article will discuss other material and design considerations beyond the
base of the PCB as they apply to the PCB assembly process in relation to THT, SMT and mixed
technologies.

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Participant Handbook

Before the Assembly Process

A few preparatory steps have to happen before real PCBA process even begins. This helps PCB
manufacturers assess the functionality of a PCB design, and primarily includes a DFM check.

• Most companies specializing in PCB assembly need the design file of the PCB to start out,
along with any other design notes and specific requirements. This is so the PCB assembly
company can check the PCB file for any issues that may affect the PCB’s functionality or
manufacturability. This is a design for manufacturability check, or DFM check, for short.
• The DFM check looks at all the design specifications of a PCB. Specifically, this check looks
for any missing, redundant or potentially problematic features. Any of these issues may
severely and negatively influence the functionality of the final project. For example, one
common PCB design flaw is leaving too little spacing between PCB components. This can
result in shorts and other malfunctions.
• By identifying potential problems before manufacturing begins, DFM checks can cut
manufacturing costs and eliminate unforeseen expenses. This is because these checks cut
down on the number of scrapped boards. As part of our commitment to quality at a low
cost, DFM checks come standard with every PCB Cart project order. PCB Cart provides FREE
DFM and DFA check with, however, priceless values because Valor DFM/DFA check PCB Cart
depends on is an automatic system contributing to high speed and accuracies.

Actual PCBA process steps

Step 1: Solder Paste Stenciling
The first step of PCB assembly is applying a solder paste to the board. This process is like screen-
printing a shirt, except instead of a mask, a thin, stainless-steel stencil is placed over the PCB. This
allows assemblers to apply solder paste only to certain parts of the would-be PCB. These parts
are where components will sit in the finished PCB.

fig. 2.1.1(A) Solder paste composition

The solder paste itself is a greyish substance consisting of tiny balls of metal, also known as solder.
The composition of these tiny metal balls is 96.5% tin, 3% silver and 0.5% copper. The solder
paste mixes solder with a flux, which is a chemical designed help the solder melt and bond to
a surface. Solder paste appears as a grey paste and must be applied to the board at exactly the
right places and in precisely the right amounts.

In a professional PCBA line, a mechanical fixture holds the PCB and solder stencil in place. An
applicator then places solder paste on the intended areas in precise amounts. The machine then
spreads the paste across the stencil, applying it evenly to every open area. After removing the
stencil, the solder paste remains in the intended locations.

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 PCB Assembly Operator

Step 2: Pick and Place

After applying the solder paste to the PCB board, the PCBA process moves on to the pick and
place machine, a robotic device places surface mount components, or SMDs, on a prepared PCB.
SMDs account for most non-connector components on PCBs today. These SMDs are then soldered
on to the surface of the board in the next step of PCBA process.
Traditionally, this was a manual process done with a pair of tweezers, in which assemblers had
to pick and place components by hand. These days, thankfully, this step is an automated process
among PCB manufacturers. This shift occurred largely because machines tend to be more accurate
and more consistent than humans. While humans can work quickly, fatigue and eyestrain tends to
set in after a few hours working with such small components. Machines work around the clock
without such fatigue.

fig. 2.1.1(B) Surface mount technology

The device starts the pick and place process by picking up a PCB board with a vacuum grip and
moving it to the pick and place station. The robot then orients the PCB at the station and begins
applying the SMTs to the PCB surface. These components are placed on top of the soldering paste
in pre-programmed locations.
Step 3: Reflow Soldering

Once the solder paste and surface mount components are all in place, they need to remain there.
This means the solder paste needs to solidify, adhering components to the board. PCB assembly
accomplishes this through a process called “reflow”.

After the pick and place process concludes, the PCB board is transferred to a conveyor belt. This
conveyor belt moves through a large reflow oven, which is somewhat like a commercial pizza
oven. This oven consists of a series of heaters which gradually heat the board to temperatures
around 250 degrees Celsius, or 480 degrees Fahrenheit. This is hot enough to melt the solder in
the solder paste.

fig. 2.1.1(C) reflow soldering

Once the solder melts, the PCB continues to move through the oven. It passes through a series
of cooler heaters, which allows the melted solder to cool and solidify in a controlled manner. This
creates a permanent solder joint to connect the SMDs to the PCB.

Many PCBAs require special consideration during reflow, especially for two-sided PCB Assembly.
Two-sided PCB assembly need stenciling and reflowing each side separately. First, the side with
fewer and smaller parts is stenciled, placed and reflowed, followed by the other side.

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Participant Handbook

Step 4: Inspection and Quality Control

Once the surface mount components are soldered in place after the reflow process, which doesn’t
stand for completion of PCBA and the assembled board needs to be tested for functionality. Often,
movement during the reflow process will result in poor connection quality or a complete lack of
a connection. Shorts are also a common side effect of this movement, as misplaced components
can sometimes connect portions of the circuit that should not connect.

fig. 2.1.1(D) inspection & quality control methods

Checking for these errors and misalignments can involve one of several different inspection methods.
The most common inspection methods include:

• Manual Checks: Despite upcoming development trend of automated and smart manufacturing,
manual checks are still relied on in PCB assembly process. For smaller batches, an in-person
visual inspection by a designer is an effective method to ensure the quality of a PCB after
the reflow process. However, this method becomes increasingly impractical and inaccurate
as the number of inspected boards increases. Looking at such small components for more
than an hour can lead to optical fatigue, resulting in less accurate inspections.
• Automatic Optical Inspection: Automatic optical inspection is a more appropriate inspection
method for larger batches of PCBAs. An automatic optical inspection machine, also known as
an AOI machine, uses a series of high-powered cameras to “see” PCBs. These cameras are
arranged at different angles to view solder connections. Different quality solder connections
reflect light in different ways, allowing the AOI to recognize a lower-quality solder. The AOI
does this at a very high speed, allowing it to process a high quantity of PCBs in a relatively
short time.
• X-ray Inspection: Yet another method of inspection involves x-rays. This is a less common
inspection method — it’s used most often for more complex or layered PCBs. The X-ray
allows a viewer to see through layers and visualize lower layers to identify any potentially
hidden problems.
The fate of a malfunctioning board depends on PCBA company’s standards, they will be sent back
to be cleared and reworked, or scrapped.

Whether an inspection finds one of these mistakes or not, the next step of the process is to test
the part to make sure it does what it’s supposed to do. This involves testing the PCB connections
for quality. Boards requiring programming or calibration require even more steps to test proper
functionality.

Such inspections can occur regularly after the reflow process to identify any potential problems.
These regular checks can ensure that errors are found and fixed as soon as possible, which helps
both the manufacturer and the designer save time, labour and materials.

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 PCB Assembly Operator

Step 5: Through-Hole Component Insertion

Depending on the type of board under PCBA, the board may include a variety of components
beyond the usual SMDs. These include plated through-hole components, or PTH components.

A plated through-hole is a hole in the PCB that’s plated all the way through the board. PCB
components use these holes to pass a signal from one side of the board to the other. In this
case, soldering paste won’t do any good, as the paste will run straight through the hole without
a chance to adhere.

Instead of soldering paste, PTH components require a more specialized kind of soldering method
in later PCB assembly process:

• Manual Soldering: Manual through-hole insertion is a straightforward process. Typically, one

person at a single station will be tasked with inserting one component into a designated
PTH. Once they’re finished, the board is transferred to the next station, where another
person is working on inserting a different component. The cycle continues for each PTH
that needs to be outfitted. This can be a lengthy process, depending on how many PTH
components need to be inserted during one cycle of PCBA. Most companies specifically
try to avoid designing with PTH components for this very purpose, but PTH components
are still common among PCB designs.
• Wave Soldering: Wave soldering is the automated version of manual soldering, but involves
a very different process. Once the PTH component is put in place, the board is put on yet
another conveyor belt. This time, the conveyor belt runs through a specialized oven where
a wave of molten solder washes over the bottom of the board. This solders all of the
pins on the bottom of the board at once. This kind of soldering is nearly impossible for
double-sided PCBs, as soldering the entire PCB side would render any delicate electronic
components useless.
After this soldering process is finished, the PCB can move on to the final inspection, or it can run
through the previous steps if the PCB needs additional parts added or another side assembled.

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Step 6: Final Inspection and Functional Test

After the soldering step of the PCBA process is finished, a final inspection will test the PCB for
its functionality. This inspection is known as a “functional test”. The test puts the PCB through its
paces, simulating the normal circumstances in which the PCB will operate. Power and simulated
signals run through the PCB in this test while testers monitor the PCB’s electrical characteristics.

fig. 2.1.1(E) functional test

If any of these characteristics, including voltage, current or signal output, show unacceptable
fluctuation or hit peaks outside of a predetermined range, the PCB fails the test. The failed PCB
can then be recycled or scrapped, depending on the company’s standards.

Testing is the final and most important step in PCB assembly process, as it determines the success or
failure of the process. This testing is also the reason why regular testing and inspection throughout
the assembly process is so important.
After PCBA
Soldering paste leaves behind some amount of flux, while human handling can transfer oils and
dirt from fingers and clothing to PCB surface. Once all is done, the results can look a little dingy,
which is both an aesthetic and a practical issue.

After months of remaining on a PCB, flux residue starts to smell and feel sticky. It also becomes
somewhat acidic, which can damage solder joints over time. Additionally, customer satisfaction
tends to suffer when shipments of new PCBs are covered in residue and fingerprints. For these
reasons, washing the product after finishing all the soldering steps is important.

A stainless-steel, high-pressure washing apparatus using deionized water is the best tool for removing
residue from PCBs. Washing PCBs in deionized water poses no threat to the device. This is because
it’s the ions in regular water that do damage to a circuit, not the water itself. Deionized water,
therefore, is harmless to PCBs as they undergo a wash cycle.

After washing, a quick drying cycle with compressed air leaves the finished PCBs ready for packaging
and shipment.

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2.1.2 Use hand tools such as lead forming tools,

cutter, cutting machine, soldering station, etc.
1. Hand Tools
These tools are manually operated without any power source.
(a) Driving Tools
Driving tools are usually used in projects while dealing with tightening, loosening, and
removing the screws. These are also used to remove bits, screws, nuts, and bolts from
surfaces and require manual force during operation.
Screwdrivers:

Fig. 2.1.2.(A) A set of screwdrivers used in Electronics Projects

 Screwdrivers can be availed in different shapes and size, mainly including:

 Standard/Flat Screw Driver: It is a wedge-shaped driver resembling a negative sign at the
tip and is used for driving screws with a single slot head.
 Philips Screw Driver: It has a cross tip resembling a positive (+) sign and used to drive
screws with cross slot heads.
 Stubby Screw Driver: It has a short shank or blade and is used in tight spaces where a
standard screw driver can’t be used.

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Wrench:

Fig. 2.1.2.(B) Allen Wrench Set

   A wrench is used to turn objects, usually rotary fasteners like nuts and bolts, or to keep
them from turning. In other words, it is used to drive screws in places where regular screw
drivers don’t work.
(b) Cutting Tools
These tools are used for removing certain parts of materials from a work piece by means
of operations like deforming, turning, or shaping.
Utility Knife:

Fig. 2.1.2.(C) Utility Knife

 It’s one of the essential elements while dealing with electronics as it can cut through most
of the materials. It’s portable, practical, and even has a belt clip for convenient carrying.
Hacksaw:

Fig. 2.1.2.(D) Hacksaw

It’s a fine-toothed saw made for cutting metals but it can also cut various materials like
plastic and wood. These can be either manual or powered and come in different varieties.

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Pliers:  

Fig. 2.1.2.(E) Pliers

Pliers are multi-purpose tools including the following categories:

Nose Pliers: These come handy when you have to hold components with short leads that need to
be soldered onto or desoldered from the PCB but cannot be held with bare hands.

Side Cutting Pliers: These can also be used to trim off excess components on the circuit boards
or to cut wires into shorter length before being used.

Channel Lock Pliers: These are used to tighten Romex connectors in electrical boxes, removing
knockouts from the boxes and adjusting expansion-type ceiling fan boxes.

Linesman Pliers: These can cut, twist wires together and grip wires for pulling. They have a squared
off end that is great for twisting wires, a center cutting blade and a grip area to pull wires.
Wire Stripper:

Fig. 2.1.2.(F) Wire Stripper Tools

It’s a hand-held tool for removing the electrical insulation off the wires without damaging the
interior wire.

These tools are equipped with different sized cutting teeth for various sized wires and have a
cut-off portion in order to cut the wire.

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(c) Surgical Tools

Fig. 2.1.2.(G) Surgical Tools

There are certain surgical tools that can be sometimes used as electronic tools like tweezers,
forceps, and scissors. In electronics settings these tools can help in dealing with the circuits and
breadboard while performing soldering or desoldering.
(d) Boring Tools

Fig. 2.1.2.(H) Portable Electric Drill

The process of drilling and boring implies making holes with the help of revolving tools. These
tools include:

Portable electric drill: boring holes in plastic or metal chassis with drill bits

Mini drill: drilling holes in printed circuit boards

Metal files: contain a narrow, pointed and parallel ridges at one end to which a handle can be
fitted.

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2. Soldering Tools
While working with printed circuit boards and breadboards one needs to use some soldering tools
to connect the circuits with wires and components. For this, there are soldering and de-soldering
tools as follows:
(a) Soldering Iron

Fig. 2.1.2.(I) Soldering Iron

  A soldering iron is a device for applying heat to melt solder to form an electrical and
physical connection between two surfaces.

(b) Soldering Station

Fig. 2.1.2.(J) Soldering Iron Stand

  The soldering tool stand is used to keep the soldering iron in a place away from flammable
materials. The station also comes with a sponge to clean the tip of the soldering iron.
(c) Desoldering Tools

Fig. 2.1.2.(K) Desoldering Pump

  These tools are used to remove the soldered wires and components on printed circuit
boards for repair and troubleshooting usually when there is a fault in the connections.
These include pumps and copper braid wicks. A desoldering pump draws solder away with
a quick vacuum action.

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3. Measurement Tools
With almost every electronic project, one needs to measure certain parameters associated with
the device or circuit like voltage, resistance, current, or some signals, etc. For this purpose, one
is required to have the following tools:

(a) Multimeter:

Fig. 2.1.2.(L) Multimeter

A multimeter is quite important as it measures voltage, current, resistance, and other aspects
of electricity and circuits.
(b) LCR Meter

Fig. 2.1.2.(M) LCR Meter

  LCR meters are used for measuring inductance, capacitance, and resistance involved in an
electronic setup.

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(c) Oscilloscope

Fig. 2.1.2.(N) Oscilloscope

  An oscilloscope displays time-varying signals like voltage waveform patterns on a screen

which help in visualizing the circuit functions.
(d) Signal Generator

Fig. 2.1.2.(O) Signal Generator

  It’s a device that generates electronic signals and waveforms which are either repetitive or
non-repetitive, depending upon the requirement and field of applications.

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4. Prototyping Tools
For the beginners, it is recommended to use breadboards and zero boards for establishing
connections. These prototyping tools include:

(a) Breadboard

Fig. 2.1.2.(P) Breadboard

A breadboard is used to build prototype versions of sophisticated electronic circuits by

plugging wires, resistors, capacitors and other devices. This is helpful in practicing as the
connection is not permanent so that the wires can be plugged in and out as per the needs.
(b) Jumper Wires

Fig. 2.1.2.(Q) Jumper Wires

  Jumper wires are used on the breadboard to make connections among all the components.
These can be connected to separate boards or devices as they are generally compatible
with 2.54 mm or 2mm headers.

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(c) Zero PCB

Fig. 2.1.2.(R) Zero PCB

  A Zero Board or Zero PCB is a board with copper patches devoid of any connections. In
order to work on such a board, the user has to either solder the components or connect
them by soldering their legs to the wire.
5. Auxiliary Tools
Apart from the above-mentioned tools, there are some miscellaneous tools that are required in
every electronic setup- including hobbyist as well as professional level projects. These are:

– Magnifying Glass
– Paint Brush
– Measuring Tape
– Hammer
– Flashlight

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2.1.3 Component stocking policy

One of the major flaws in most spare parts management systems is the absence of a clear spare
parts stocking policy that provides guidance on when to stock an item and when not to stock
an item.

The absence of these guidelines forces your team into a process of ad-hoc and inconsistent decision
making.

The result of this is that you stock items that don’t require stocking and don’t stock items
(sometimes critical items) that should be stocked.

The effect of this is two-fold.

First stock outs occur. The plant stays down, production is lost, blame apportioned, and the ability
of maintenance to maintain the plant becomes a focus of management attention – again!

Second, stocking items that don’t need to be stocked provides easy fodder for accountants and
consultants who then focus on the symptom, not the cause.

To avoid all this you simply need to develop and implement specific guidelines to aid decision
making on when to stock an item and when not to stock an item. This will help prevent ad-hoc
decision making and the consequential flow-on effects

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Unit 2.2 Basics of electronics and related concepts

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:

• Explain basic electronics, component identification and characteristics of the components

such as resistor, capacitor, ICs.

2.2.1 Fundamentals of electricity

Ohms law

The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC electrical circuit was firstly
discovered by the German physicist Georg Ohm.

Fig. 2.2.1 ohm law

Georg Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the electrical current flowing through a fixed linear
resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, and also inversely proportional
to the resistance. This relationship between the Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the basis
of Ohms Law and is shown below.

Ohms Law Relationship

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By knowing any two values of the Voltage, 22urrent or Resistance quantities we can use Ohms
Law to find the third missing value. Ohms Law is used extensively in electronics formulas and
calculations so it is “very important to understand and accurately remember these formulas”.

To find the Voltage, ( V )

[ V = I x R ] V (volts) = I (amps) x R (Ω)

To find the Current, ( I )

[ I = V ÷ R ] I (amps) = V (volts) ÷ R (Ω)

To find the Resistance, ( R )

[ R = V ÷ I ] R (Ω) = V (volts) ÷ I (amps)

Ac and DC

Figure 2.2.1(A) Electrical Signals

• There are two types of electrical signals , those being alternating current (AC), and direct
current (DC).
• With alternating current, the direction electricity flows throughout the circuit is constantly
reversing. You may even say that it is alternating direction. The rate of reversal is measured
in Hertz, which is the number of reversals per second. So, when they say that the US
power supply is 60 Hz, what they mean is that it is reversing 120 times per second (twice
per cycle).
• With Direct Current, electricity flows in one direction between power and ground. In this
arrangement there is always a positive source of voltage and ground (0V) source of voltage.
You can test this by reading a battery with a multimeter.
• Speaking of voltage, electricity is typically defined as having a voltage and a current rating.
Voltage is obviously rated in Volts and current is rated in Amps. For instance, a brand new
9V battery would have a voltage of 9V and a current of around 500mA (500 milliamps).
• Electricity can also be defined in terms of resistance and watts. We will talk a little bit
about resistance in the next step, but I am not going to be going over Watts in depth. As
you delve deeper into electronics you will encounter components with Watt ratings. It is
important to never exceed the Wattage rating of a component, but fortunately that Wattage
of your DC power supply can easily be calculated by multiplying the voltage and current
of your power source.

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Series vs. Parallel

Figure 2.2.1 (B) 1 Series Wiring Figure 2.2.1 (B) 2 Parallel Wiring

Figure 2.2.1 (B) 3 Parallel motor & Series Wiring

• There are two different ways in which you can wire things together called series and parallel.
• When things are wired in series, things are wired one after another, such that electricity
has to pass through one thing, then the next thing, then the next, and so on.
• In the first example, the motor, switch and battery are all wired in series because the only
path for electricity to flow is from one, to the next, and to the next.
• When things are wired in parallel, they are wired side by side, such that electricity passes
through all of them at the same time, from one common point to another common point
• In the next example, the motors are wired in parallel because the electricity passes through
both motors from one common point to another common point.
• In the final example the motors are wired in parallel, but the pair of parallel motors,
switch and batteries are all wired in series. So, the current is split between the motors in
a parallel fashion, but still must pass in series from one part of the circuit to the next.

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2.2.2 Basic electronics components

Basic Components

Figure 2.2.2 (A) Basic components

In order to build circuits, you will need to become familiar with a few basic components. These
components may seem simple, but are the bread and butter of most electronics projects. Thus,
by learning about these few basic parts, you will be able to go a long way.

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Resistors

Figure 2.2.2 (B) Resistors

• As the name implies, resistors add resistance to the circuit and reduces the flow of electrical
current. It is represented in a circuit diagram as a pointy squiggle with a value next to it.
• The different markings on the resistor represent different values of resistance. These values
are measured in ohms.
• Resistors also come with different wattage ratings. For most low-voltage DC circuits, 1/4
watt resistors should be suitable.
• Values are read from left to right towards the (typically) gold band. The first two colors
represent the resistor value, the third represents the multiplier, and the fourth (the gold
band) represents the tolerance or precision of the component. You can tell the value of
each color by looking at a resistor color value chart.
• Anyhow... a resistor with the markings brown, black, orange, gold will translate as follows:
1 (brown) 0 (black) x 1,000 = 10,000 with a tolerance of +/- 5%
• Any resistor of over 1000 ohms is typically shorted using the letter K. For instance, 1,000
would be 1K; 3,900, would translate to 3.9K; and 470,000 ohms would become 470K.
• Values of ohms over a million are represented using the letter M. In this case, 1,000,000
ohms would become 1M.

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Capacitors

Figure 2.2.2 (C) Capacitors

 A capacitor is a component that stores electricity and then discharges it into the circuit
when there is a drop in electricity.
 Capacitors are measured in Farads. The values that you will typically encounter in most
capacitors are measured in picofarad (pF), nanofarad (nF), and microfarad (uF).
 The most commonly encountered types of capacitors are ceramic disc capacitors that look
like tiny M&Ms with two wires sticking out of them and electrolytic capacitors that look
more like small cylindrical tubes with two wires coming out the bottom (or sometimes
each end).
 Electrolytic capacitors are typically polarized. This means that one leg needs to be connected
to the ground side of the circuit and the other leg must be connected to power. If it is
connected backwards, it won’t work correctly.
 Electrolytic capacitors have the value written on them, typically represented in uF. They
also mark the leg which connects to ground with a minus symbol (-). This capacitor is
represented in a schematic as a side-by-side straight and curved line. The straight line
represents the end which connects to power and the curve connected to ground.

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Diodes

Figure 2.2.2 (D) Diodes

 Diodes are components which are polarized. They only allow electrical current to pass
through them in one direction. This is useful in that it can be placed in a circuit to prevent
electricity from flowing in the wrong direction.
 Another thing to keep in mind is that it requires energy to pass through a diode and this
results in a drop of voltage. This is typically a loss of about 0.7V. This is important to keep
in mind for later when we talk about a special form of diodes called LEDs.
 The ring found on one end of the diode indicates the side of the diode which connects
to ground. This is the cathode. It then follows that the other side connects to power. This
side is the anode.

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Transistors

Figure 2.2.2 (E) Transistors

 A transistor takes in a small electrical current at its base pin and amplifies it such that a
much larger current can pass between its collector and emitter pins.
 The amount of current that passes between these two pins is proportional to the voltage
being applied at the base pin.
 There are two basic types of transistors, which are NPN and PNP. These transistors have
opposite polarity between collector and emitter.
 NPN transistors allow electricity to pass from the collector pin to the emitter pin. They are
represented in a schematic with a line for a base, a diagonal line connecting to the base,
and a diagonal arrow pointing away from the base.
 PNP transistors allow electricity to pass from the emitter pin to the collector pin. They are
represented in a schematic with a line for a base, a diagonal line connecting to the base,
and a diagonal arrow pointing towards the base.

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Integrated Circuits

Figure 2.2.2 (F) Integrated circuit

 An integrated circuit is an entire specialized circuit that has been miniaturized and fit onto
one small chip with each leg of the chip connecting to a point within the circuit.
 These miniaturized circuits typically consist of components such as transistors, resistors, and
diodes.

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Potentiometers

Figure 2.2.2 (G) Potentiometers

 Potentiometers are variable resistors. In plain English, they have some sort of knob or slider
that you turn or push to change resistance in a circuit.

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LEDs

Figure 2.2.2 (H) Led

 LED stands for light emitting diode. It is basically a special type of diode that lights up
when electricity passes through it.
 Like all diodes, the LED is polarized and electricity is only intended to pass through in one
direction.

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Switches

Figure 2.2.2 (I) Switches

 A switch is basically a mechanical device that creates a break in a circuit.

 When you activate the switch, it opens or closes the circuit. This is dependent on the type
of switch it is.
 Normally open (N.O.) switches close the circuit when activated.
 Normally closed (N.C.) switches open the circuit when activated.
 As switches get more complex they can both open one connection and close another when
activated. This type of switch is a single-pole double-throw switch (SPDT).

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Batteries

Figure 2.2.2 (J) Battery

 A battery is a container which converts chemical energy into electricity.

 By placing batteries in series you are adding the voltage of each consecutive battery, but
the current stays the same. For instance, a AA-battery is 1.5V. If you put 3 in series, it
would add up to 4.5V. If you were to add a fourth in series, it would then become 6V.
 By placing batteries in parallel the voltage remains the same, but the amount of current
available doubles. This is done much less frequently than placing batteries in series, and
is usually only necessary when the circuit requires more current than a single series of
batteries can offer.

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Wire

Figure 2.2.2 (K) Wires

 Wires are nice because they allow you to connect things without adding virtually no
resistance to the circuit.
 This allows you to be flexible as to where you place parts because you can connect them
together later with wire.
 It also allows you to connect a part to multiple other parts.

Inductors
These are passive components that store energy in the form of a magnetic field. An inductor simply
consists of a coil of wire wound around some kind of core. The core could be a magnet or air.
When current passes through the inductor, a magnetic field is created around it. The magnetic
field is stronger if a magnet is used as the core.

Transformers
Built with two coils of wire, transformers are commonly used to step up or step down power

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Unit 2.3 Assembly Process

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
• Describe various assembly processes such as thru-hole technology (THT), surface mount
technology (SMT), and mixed technology.
• List color codes and polarity of components.

2.3.1 Describe various assembly processes such as thru-hole technology

(THT), surface mount technology (SMT), and mixed technology
Thru-Hole Technology (THT) Assembly Process
As a traditional PCB assembly method, thru-hole mounting process is accomplished through
collaboration of manual procedure and automatic procedure.

• Step 1: Components Placement - This step is achieved manually by professional engineering

staff. Engineers need to quickly, yet precisely place components on corresponding positions
based on client’s PCB design files. Component placement must conform to regulations and
operation standards of thru-hole mounting process to guarantee high quality end products.
For example, they have to clarify polarity and orientation of components, to stop operating
component from affecting ambient components, to make completed component placement
compatible with corresponding standards and to wear anti-static wristbands when dealing
with static-sensitive components like ICs.
• Step 2: Inspection & Rectification - Once component placement is completed, the board is
then placed in a matching transport frame where board with components plugged in will
be automatically inspected so as to determine whether components are accurately placed.
If issues concerning component placement are observed, it’s easy to get them rectified
immediately as well. After all, this takes place prior to soldering in PCBA process.
• Step 3: Wave Soldering - Now the THT components should be accurately soldered onto
circuit board. In the wave soldering system, the board moves slowly over a wave of liquid
solder at high temperature, approximately 500°F. Afterwards, all leads or wires connections
can be successfully obtained so that thru-hole components are firmly attached to the board.

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Surface Mount Technology (SMT) Assembly Process

Compared with thru-hole mounting process, surface mounting process stands out in terms of
manufacturing efficiency because it features a totally automatic mounting PCB assembly process
from solder paste printing, pick and place and reflow soldering.

• Step 1: Solder Paste Printing - Solder paste is applied on the board through a solder paste
printer. A template ensures that solder paste can be accurately left on correct places where
components will be mounted, which is also called stencil or solder screen. Because quality
of solder paste printing is directly associated with quality of soldering, PCBA manufacturers
focusing on high quality products usually carry out inspections after solder paste printing
through a solder paste inspector. This inspection guarantees printing has achieved regulations
and standards. If defects are found on solder paste printing, printing has to be reworked
or solder paste will be washed off prior to second printing.
• Step 2: Components Mounting - After coming out of solder paste printer, PCB will be auto-
sent to pick-and-place machine where components or ICs will be mounted on corresponding
pads in the effect of tension of solder paste. Components are mounted on PCB board
through component reels in the machine. Similar to film reels, component reels carrying
components rotate to provide parts to the machine, which will quickly stick parts to the
board.
• Step 3: Reflow Soldering - After every component is placed, the board passes through a
23-foot-long furnace. A temperature of 500°F causes the solder paste to liquefy. Now the
SMD components are bound firmly to the board.
Mixed Technology
With the development of modern science and technology, electronic products are becoming
increasingly complex, driving complicated, integrated and smaller size PCB boards. It is almost
impossible for PCBAs containing only one type of component taking part in.

Most boards carry Thru-hole components and SMD components, which requires collaboration of
thru-hole technology and surface mount technology. Nevertheless, soldering is a complicated process
that tends to be affected by too many elements. Thus, it becomes extraordinarily significant to
better arrange the sequence of thru-hole tech and surface mount technology.

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PCBA with application of mixed technologies should be carried out in the following situations:
• Single Side Mixed Assembly: Single side mixed assembly conforms to the following
manufacturing procedure: Note: Hand soldering can be applied instead of wave soldering
when only a small quantity of THT components is required in this type of assembly.

• One Side SMT & One Side THT: Note - This type of PCB assembly procedure is not
recommended since adhesives will burden the total cost of PCBA and possibly lead to some
soldering issues.

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• Double Side Mixed Assembly: In terms of double side mixed assembly methods, there are
two alternatives: PCBA with application of adhesives and PCBA without. The application of
adhesives increases the overall cost of PCB assembly. Moreover, during this PCBA process,
heating has to be carried out for three times, which tends to lead to low efficiency.

Based on the comparison between mixed assembly procedures introduced above, it can be concluded
that hand soldering works well for PCB assembly that requires with many components on both
sides among which SMD components are more than THT components. Therefore, confronted with
the situation when a small number of THT components are needed, it is wave soldering that is
suggested.

PCB assembly has to go through such a complicated and technical process that numerous elements
have to be taken into careful consideration and a little modification may cause huge change on
cost and product quality. Descriptions concerning PCB assembly process in this article just center
on typical PCBA procedures and technologies. Practical manufacturing process is largely determined
and influenced by design files and specific requirement of customers. As a result, how to evaluate
a reliable PCB assembler becomes a crucial question customers have to think it over prior to their
PCBA order.

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2.3.2 List color codes and polarity of components

 An electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components,
usually for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, diodes and others.

Resistors
Color band system
To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D
Figure 2.3.2 (A) colour band bands:

A. The first significant figure of component value (left side)

B. The second significant figure (some precision resistors have a third significant figure, and
thus five bands).
C. The decimal multiplier (number of trailing zeroes, or power of 10 multiplier)
D. If present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

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• Precision resistors may be marked with a five band system, to include three significant digits,
a power of 10 multiplier (number of trailing zeroes, and a tolerance band. An extra-wide
first band indicates a wire-wound resistor.
• All coded components have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are
optional.
The standard color code per IEC 60062:2016 is as follows:

Temperature
Ring color Tolerance
Significant coefficient
Multiplier
RAL[nb figures Percent
Name Code Letter [ppm/K] Letter
1]
[%]
None – – – – ±20 M –
Pink PK 3015 – ×10−3[8] ×0.001 – –
Silver SR – – ×10−2 ×0.01 ±10 K –
Gold GD – – ×10−1 ×0.1 ±5 J –
Black BK 9005 0 ×100 ×1 – 250 U
Brown BN 8003 1 ×101 ×10 ±1 F 100 S
Red RD 3000 2 ×102 ×100 ±2 G 50 R
Orange OG 2003 3 ×103 ×1000 ±0.05 W 15 P
Yellow YE 1021 4 ×104 ×10000 ±0.02 P 25 Q
Green GN 6018 5 ×105 ×100000 ±0.5 D 20 Z[nb 3]
Blue BU 5015 6 ×106 ×1000000 ±0.25 C 10 Z[nb 3]
Violet VT 4005 7 ×107 ×10000000 ±0.1 B 5 M
Grey GY 7000 8 ×108 ×100000000 ±0.01 L (A) 1 K
White WH 1013 9 ×109 ×1000000000 – –

Table 1 colour code

• Resistors use various E series of preferred numbers for their specific values, which are
determined by their tolerance. These values repeat for every decade of magnitude: ...
0.68, 6.8, 68, 680, ... For resistors of 20% tolerance the E6 series, with six values: 10, 15,
22, 33, 47, 68, then 100, 150, ... is used; each value is approximately the previous value
multiplied by 6√10. For 10% tolerance resistors the E12 series, with 12√10 as multiplier, is
used; similar schemes up to E192, for 0.5% or tighter tolerance are used. The separation
between the values is related to the tolerance so that adjacent values at the extremes of
tolerance approximately just overlap; for example, in the E6 series 10 + 20% is 12, while
15 − 20% is also 12.
• Zero ohm resistors, marked with a single black band, are lengths of wire wrapped in a
resistor-like body which can be mounted on a printed-circuit board (PCB) by automatic
component-insertion equipment. They are typically used on PCBs as insulating “bridges” where
two tracks would otherwise cross, or as soldered-in jumper wires for setting configurations.

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Capacitors
• Capacitors may be marked with 4 or more colored bands or dots.
• The colors encode the first and second most significant digits of the value in picofarads,
and the third color the decimal multiplier.
• Additional bands have meanings which may vary from one type to another. Low-tolerance
capacitors may begin with the first 3 (rather than 2) digits of the value. It is usually, but not
always, possible to work out what scheme is used by the particular colors used. Cylindrical
capacitors marked with bands may look like resistors.
DC
Operating EIA/
Significant Tolerance working
Color Multiplier Characteristic temperature vibration
digits [%] voltage
[°C] [Hz]
[V]
Black 0 1 — — — −55 to +70 10 to 55
Brown 1 10 ±1 B 100 — —
Red 2 100 ±2 C — −55 to +85 —
Orange 3 1000 — D 300 — —
10 to
Yellow 4 10000 — E — −55 to +125
2000
Green 5 100000 ±0.5 F 500 — —
Blue 6 1000000 — — — −55 to +150 —
Violet 7 10000000 — — — — —
Grey 8 — — — — — —
White 9 — — — — — EIA
Gold — — ±5 — 1000 — —
Silver — — ±10 — — — —
Table 2 capacitor colour band

• Extra bands on ceramic capacitors identify the voltage rating class and temperature coefficient
characteristics.
• A broad black band was applied to some tubular paper capacitors to indicate the end
that had the outer electrode; this allowed this end to be connected to chassis ground to
provide some shielding against hum and noise pickup.

Inductors
Standards IEC 60062 / EN 60062 do not define a color code for inductors, but manufacturers of
small inductors use the resistor color code, typically encoding inductance in microhenries. A white
tolerance ring is used by TDK to indicate custom specifications.

Diodes
The part number for small JEDEC “1N”-coded diodes—in the form “1N4148”—is sometimes encoded
as three or four rings in the standard color code, omitting the “1N” prefix. The 1N4148 would
then be coded as yellow (4), brown (1), yellow (4), grey (8).

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Unit 2.4 Safety & Quality Standards

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:

State various safety and quality standards followed in the organisation.

2.4.1 Electrical Safety

Electrical Safety Protective Methods
Use of Protective Equipment
Employees working in areas where there are potential electrical hazards must be provided with
and use electrical protective equipment appropriate for the parts of the body to be protected and
the work performed. Protective equipment must be maintained in a safe, reliable condition and be
periodically inspected or tested as required by 29 CFR 1910.137, Electrical Protective Devices. Where
the insulating capability of protective equipment is subject to damage during use, the insulating
material must be protected by covering with leather or other appropriate materials. Nonconductive
head protection must be worn wherever there is danger of head injury from electrical shock or
burns due to contact with exposed energized parts. Protective equipment for the eyes must be
worn where there is danger of eye and/or face injury from electric arcs and flashes or flying
objects resulting from electrical.
General Protective Equipment and Tools
Insulated tools and handling equipment must be used by employees working near exposed energized
conductors or circuit parts if the tools and/or equipment may make contact with the conductors
or parts. The insulating material of tools and equipment must be protected where it is subject to
damage. Fuse handling equipment, insulated for the circuit voltage, must be used to remove or install
fuses when the fuse terminals are energized. All ropes and hand lines used near exposed energized
parts must be nonconductive. Protective shields, protective barriers, or insulating material must be
used to protect employees from shock, burns, or other electrical related injuries while employees
are working near exposed energized parts which might be contacted or where dangerous electric
heating or arcing might occur. When normal enclosed live parts are exposed for maintenance or
repair, the parts must be guarded to protect unqualified persons from contact with the live parts.

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Alerting Techniques
Alerting techniques must be used to warn and protect employees from electrical shock hazards,
burns, or failure of electric equipment parts. Safety signs, safety symbols, or accident prevention
tags must be used where necessary to warn employees about electrical hazards which may endanger
them. Barricades should be used in conjunction with safety signs where necessary to prevent or
limit employee access to work areas exposing employees to un-insulated energized conductors
or circuit parts. Conductive barricades must not be used where they might cause an electrical
contact hazard. An attendant should be stationed to warn and protect employees where signs and
barricades do not provide sufficient warning and protection.

Arc Flash Personal Protective Equipment

This Personal Protective Equipment provides protection after an arc flash incident has occurred
and should be viewed as the last line of protection. Selection of the appropriate PPE for the
task to be performed is based upon hazard categories found in NFPA 70E – 2004, which should
appear on labeled electrical panels and equipment.

The following table is provided as a quick reference. Workers must ensure that they have
reviewed all appropriate safety requirements before work begins.

Personal Protective Equipment Requirements for Arc Flash Protection

Category Energy Level PPE Requirements
0 ≤ 2 cal/cm² Non-melting or untreated natural fiber
1 4 cal/cm² Fire Resistant (FR) shirt and pants
2 8 cal/cm² Fire Resistant shirt and pants, cotton underwear
3 25 cal/cm² Two layers Fire Resistant clothing, cotton underwear
Fire Resistant shirt and pants, multilayer flash suit, cotton
4 40 cal/cm²
underwear.
Face protection includes face shield and/or safety glasses. Hand protection includes leather over
rubber for arc flash protection. Leather work boots above 4 cal/cm².

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2.4.2 Safety and quality standards

This Guide is based on relevant IEC standards, in particular IEC 60364. IEC 60364 has been
established by engineering experts of all countries in the world comparing their experience at an
international level. Currently, the safety principles of IEC 60364 series, IEC 61140, 60479 series
and IEC 61201 are the fundamentals of most electrical standards in the world (see table below).

IEC 60038 IEC standard voltages

IEC 60051 series Direct acting indicating analogue electrical measuring instruments and their
accessories
IEC 60071-1 Insulation co-ordination - Definitions, principles and rules
IEC 60076-1 Power transformers - General
IEC 60076-2 Power transformers - Temperature rise for liquid immersed transformers
IEC 60076-3 Power transformers - Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances
in air
IEC 60076-5 Power transformers - Ability to withstand short-circuit
IEC 60076-7 Power transformers - Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers
IEC 60076-10 Power transformers - Determination of sound levels
IEC 60076-11 Power transformers - Dry-type transformers
IEC 60076-12 Power transformers - Loading guide for Dry-type power transformers
IEC 60146-1-1 Semiconductor converters - General requirements and line commutated converters
- Specifications of basic requirements
IEC 60255-1 Measuring relays and protection equipment - Common requirements
IEC 60269-1 Low-voltage fuses - General requirements
IEC 60269-2 Low-voltage fuses - Supplementary requirements for fuses for use by authorized
persons (fuses mainly for industrial application) - Examples of standardized
systems of fuses A to K
IEC 60282-1 High-voltage fuses - Current-limiting fuses
IEC 60287-1-1 Electric cables - Calculation of the current rating - Current rating equations
(100% load factor) and calculation of losses - General
IEC 60364-1 Low-voltage electrical installations - Fundamental principles, assessment of
general characteristics, definitions
IEC 60364-4-41 Low-voltage electrical installations - Protection for safety - Protection against
electric shock
IEC 60364-4-42 Low-voltage electrical installations - Protection for safety - Protection against
thermal effects
IEC 60364-4-43 Low-voltage electrical installations - Protection for safety - Protection against
overcurrent
IEC 60364-4-44 Low-voltage electrical installations - Protection for safety - Protection against
voltage disturbances and electromagnetic disturbances
IEC 60364-5-51 Low-voltage electrical installations - Selection and erection of electrical equipment
- Common rules
IEC 60364-5-52 Low-voltage electrical installations - Selection and erection of electrical equipment
- Wiring systems
IEC 60364-5-53 Low-voltage electrical installations - Selection and erection of electrical equipment
- Isolation, switching and control
IEC 60364-5-54 Low-voltage electrical installations - Selection and erection of electrical equipment
- Earthing arrangements and protective conductors

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IEC 60364-5-55 Low-voltage electrical installations - Selection and erection of electrical equipment
- Other equipment
IEC 60364-5-56 Low-voltage electrical installations - Selection and erection of electrical equipment
- Safety services
IEC 60364-6 Low-voltage electrical installations - Verification
IEC 60364-7-701 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Locations containing a bath or shower
IEC 60364-7-702 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Swimming pools and fountains
IEC 60364-7-703 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Rooms and cabins containing sauna heaters
IEC 60364-7-704 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Construction and demolition site installations
IEC 60364-7-705 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Agricultural and horticultural premises
IEC 60364-7-706 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Conducting locations with restrictive movement
IEC 60364-7-708 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Caravan parks, camping parks and similar locations
IEC 60364-7-709 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Marinas and similar locations
IEC 60364-7-710 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Medical locations
IEC 60364-7-711 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Exhibitions, shows and stands
IEC 60364-7-712 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems
IEC 60364-7-713 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Furniture
IEC 60364-7-714 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - External lighting installations
IEC 60364-7-715 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations -
Extra-low-voltage lighting installations
IEC 60364-7-717 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations -
Mobile or transportable units
IEC 60364-7-718 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Communal facilities and workplaces
IEC 60364-7-721 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Electrical installations in caravans and motor caravans
IEC 60364-7-722 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Supplies for electric vehicles
IEC 60364-7-729 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Operating or maintenance gangways
IEC 60364-7-740 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or
locations - Temporary electrical installations for structures, amusement devices
and booths at fairgrounds, amusement parks and circuses

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IEC 60364-7-753 Low-voltage electrical installations - Requirements for special installations or

locations - Heating cables and embedded heating systems
IEC60364-8-1 Low-voltage electrical installations - Energy efficiency
IEC 60445 Basic and safety principles for man-machine interface, marking and identification
- Identification of equipment terminals, conductors terminations and conductors
IEC 60479-1 Effects of current on human beings and livestock - General aspects
IEC 60479-2 Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Special aspects
IEC 60479-3 Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Effects of currents passing
through the body of livestock
IEC 60529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code)
IEC 60644 Specification for high-voltage fuse-links for motor circuit applications
IEC 60664 Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage systems - all parts
IEC 60715 Dimensions of low-voltage switchgear and controlgear. Standardized mounting on
rails for mechanical support of electrical devices in switchgear and controlgear
installations.
IEC 60724 Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cables with rated voltages of 1 kV
(Um = 1.2 kV) and 3 kV (Um = 3.6 kV)
IEC 60755 General requirements for residual current operated protective devices
IEC 60787 Application guide for the selection of high-voltage current-limiting fuses-link for
transformer circuit
IEC 60831-1 Shunt power capacitors of the self-healing type for a.c. systems having a rated
voltage up to and including 1000 V - Part 1: General - Performance, testing
and rating - Safety requirements - Guide for installation and operation
IEC 60831-2 Shunt power capacitors of the self-healing type for a.c. systems having a rated
voltage up to and including 1000 V - Part 2: Ageing test, self-healing test and
destruction test
IEC 60947-1 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - General rules
IEC 60947-2 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Circuit-breakers
IEC 60947-3 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Switches, disconnectors, switch-
disconnectors and fuse-combination units
IEC 60947-4-1 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Contactors and motor-starters -
Electromechanical contactors and motor-starters
IEC 60947-6-1 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Multiple function equipment - Transfer
switching equipment
IEC 61000 series Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
IEC 61140 Protection against electric shocks - common aspects for installation and equipment
IEC 61201 Use of conventional touch voltage limits – Application guide
IEC/TR 61439-0 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Guidance to specifying
assemblies
IEC 61439-1 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - general rules
IEC 61439-2 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - power switchgear and
controlgear assemblies
IEC 61439-3 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - distribution boards intended
to be operated by ordinary persons (DBO)
IEC 61439-4 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for
assemblies for construction sites (ACS)
IEC 61439-5 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Assemblies for power
distribution in public networks
IEC 61439-6 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Busbar trunking systems (busways)

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IEC 61557-1 Electrical safety in low voltage distribution systems up to 1 000 V a.c. and
1 500 V d.c. - Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective
measures - General requirements
IEC 61557-8 Electrical safety in low voltage distribution systems up to 1 000 V a.c. and
1 500 V d.c. - Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective
measures - Insulation monitoring devices for IT systems
IEC 61557-9 Electrical safety in low voltage distribution systems up to 1000 V a.c. and 1500
V d.c. - Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective measures
- Equipment for insulation fault location in IT systems
IEC 61557-12 Electrical safety in low voltage distribution systems up to 1 000 V a.c. and
1 500 V d.c. - Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective
measures - Performance measuring and monitoring devices (PMD)
IEC 61558-2-6 Safety of transformers, reactors, power supply units and similar products for
supply voltages up to 1100 V - Particular requirements and test for safety
isolating transformers and power supply units incorporating isolating transformers
IEC 61643-11 Low-voltage surge protective devices - Surge protective devices connected to
low-voltage power systems - Requirements and test methods
IEC 61643-12 Low-voltage surge protective devices - Surge protective devices connected to
low-voltage power distribution systems - Selection and application principles
IEC 61643-21 Low voltage surge protective devices - Surge protective devices connected to
telecommunications and signalling networks - Performance requirements and
testing methods
IEC 61643-22 Low-voltage surge protective devices - Surge protective devices connected to
telecommunications and signalling networks - Selection and application principles
IEC 61921 Power capacitors - Low-voltage power factor correction banks
IEC 61936-1 Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. - Part 1: Common rules
IEC 62271-1 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Common specifications
IEC 62271-100 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Alternating-current circuit-breakers
IEC 62271-101 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Synthetic testing
IEC 62271-102 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Alternating current disconnectors and
earthing switches
IEC 62271-103 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Switches for rated voltages above 1
kV up to and including 52 kV
IEC 62271-105 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Alternating current switch-fuse
combinations for rated voltages above 1 kV up to and including 52 Kv
IEC 62271-200 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Alternating current metal-enclosed
switchgear and controlgear for rated voltages above 1 kV and up to and
including 52 kV
IEC 62271-202 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - High-voltage/low voltage prefabricated
substations
IEC 62305-1 Protection against lightning - Part 1: General principles
IEC 62305-2 Protection against lightning - Part 2: Risk management
IEC 62305-3 Protection against lightning - Part 3: Physical damage to structures and life hazard
IEC 62305-4 Protection against lightning - Part 4: Electrical and electronic systems within
structures
IEC 62586-2 Power quality measurement in power supply systems - Part 2: Functional tests
and uncertainty requirements
IEC TS 62749 Assessment of power quality - Characteristics of electricity supplied by public networks

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Unit 2.5 Soldering

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:

• Describe comparison between ROHS & Non-ROHS compliant solder.

• Explain the basics of soldering such as handling the soldering iron, iron temperature, etc.
and types of soldering such as dry and cold solder.
• State the regulation of operating speed and temperature as well as soldering shortcomings
such as solder short and dry solder.
• Explain different types of errors identified during functional test and methods to rectify the
same.

2.5.1 Describe comparison between

ROHS & Non-ROHS compliant solder
The use of lead-free solder in electronics is becoming more common as manufacturers continue to
comply with the ROHS directives. There are similarities in the soldering practices for both ROHS
and non-ROHS solders; however, the ROHS soldering process requires a different approach and
more care.
Good practices such as having clean pads, a clean soldering iron tip, and allowing the solder
connection to cool undisturbed are common for both solders.
Differences between the lead-free and lead-based solders
Soldering temperature
The lead-free solders melt at higher temperatures of about 217°c/422°f compared to 183°c/361°f
for the lead-based option. The PCB materials and electronic components must therefore be able
to withstand the higher temperatures.
Due to the high soldering temperature, one must remove the soldering iron more quickly to avoid
icicles, damaging the components or the tracks.

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Inferior wetting properties

The wetting of ROHS solder takes longer and is worse on dirty, oxidized surfaces; in addition, this
solder does not spread as much as the lead-based option. Increasing the temperature improves
the wetting; however, the high temperatures shorten the soldering iron tip life, and may damage
the PCB and the components.
A more aggressive flux may also be used to improve the wetting. In this case, a thorough post-
solder cleaning should be done to prevent flux-related problems such as corrosion, dendritic growth,
poor adhesion of the conformity coatings, and electro migration, which can cause short circuits
between circuit traces.
Tin/lead Tin/silver/copper
Melting temperature 183°c 217°c

Time taken to wet clean copper at 23°c above melting point 1.5 seconds 4.0 seconds

Table 1: summary of melting points and wetting of the ROHS and non-ROHS solders.

2.5.2 Explain the basics of soldering such as

handling the soldering iron, iron temperature, etc.
and types of soldering such as dry and cold solder
Materials and Equipment
A soldering iron

• A soldering iron is used to heat the connections to be soldered.

• For electronic circuits, you should use a 25- to 40-watt (W) soldering iron.
• Higher wattage soldering irons are not necessarily hotter; they are just able to heat larger
components. A 40-W soldering iron makes joints faster than a 25-W soldering iron does.
• A soldering iron can be purchased at hardware stores and at most large department stores.
Rosin core solder

• Solder has a lower melting point than the metals that are being connected do. The solder
melts when it is heated by the soldering iron, but the metals being joined will not melt.
• The rosin core acts as a flux. It prevents oxidation of the metals that are being connected,
and enhances the ability of the solder to “wet” the surfaces that are being joined.
• Solder that is used to join copper pipes has an acid core, which is appropriate for pipes,
but will corrode electronic connections. Use solder that has a rosin core.
• For most electronics work, a solder with a diameter of 0.75 millimeters (mm) to 1.0 mm is
best. Thicker solder might make soldering small joints difficult and also increases the chances
of creating solder bridges between copper pads that are not meant to be connected.
• An alloy of 60/40 (60% tin, 40% lead) is used for most electronics work, but lead-free
solders are available as well.

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Stand on which to hold the hot soldering iron

• There are a variety of stands available. It is important to always keep the hot iron in its
stand when not in use.

Sponge
• The damp sponge is used to clean the tip of the iron.

Figure 1. Soldering equipment and materials.

The solder in this picture is coiled inside a plastic tube; it is pulled through the top as needed.
The spring on the stand holds the hot soldering iron. The damp sponge is used to clean the tip
of the iron. Solder braid is used to remove solder; solder is “soaked up” into the braid when it
is heated by the soldering iron. The wire strippers can be adjusted to strip the plastic covering
off of various thicknesses of wire. The prototype board is used to connect electronic components
in a circuit.
Solder braid
• This is used to remove solder.
• To use the braid, place it over the solder to be removed and heat it from above with the
iron. The solder will flow into the braid.
• Solder braid is used to extract an electronic component that is soldered onto a board.
• It is also used to reduce the amount of solder on a connection.

Prototype board
• A prototype board is used to assemble the circuit.
• Prototype boards have copper tracks or pads for connecting components.

Steel wool or fine sandpaper

• This is used to clean connections prior to soldering.
• Solder will not flow over a dirty connection.

Crocodile clips
These can be used as heat sinks, if needed.

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Cold joints
• Various problems may arise in the soldering process which lead to joints which are non-
functional either immediately or after a period of use.
• The most common defect when hand-soldering results from the parts being joined not
exceeding the solder’s liquidus temperature, resulting in a “cold solder” joint. This is usually
the result of the soldering iron being used to heat the solder directly, rather than the
parts themselves. Properly done, the iron heats the parts to be connected, which in turn
melt the solder, guaranteeing adequate heat in the joined parts for thorough wetting. If
using solder wire with an embedded flux core, heating the solder first may cause the flux
to evaporate before it cleans the surfaces being soldered.
• A cold-soldered joint may not conduct at all, or may conduct only intermittently. Cold-
soldered joints also happen in mass production, and are a common cause of equipment
which passes testing, but malfunctions after sometimes years of operation.
Dry joints
• A “dry joint” occurs when the cooling solder is moved. Since non-eutectic solder alloys
have a small plastic range, the joint must not be moved until the solder has cooled down
through both the liquidus and solidus temperatures. Dry joints often occur because the joint
moves when the soldering iron is removed from the joint. They are weak mechanically and
poor conductors electrically.

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2.5.3 State the regulation of operating speed and temperature as

well as soldering shortcomings such as solder short and dry solder
Reliable operation of a circuit with soldered connections depends on good soldering practices. Here
are some tips for successful soldering.

1. Plan before you start to solder. Identify all the parts that you will be using.

2. It is helpful to attach each part to a piece of paper and write what it is and its value (for
example, resistor #1: 100 ohms).

3. Some components, such as LED’s, must be placed the correct way around in order to function.

4. The following is a suggested order for the installation of various components:

• Integrated circuit (IC) holders (note the orientation). The IC will be added later.
• Resistors
• Capacitors, less than 1 micro farad
• Large capacitors, 1 micro farad or greater, note the orientation.
• Diodes, note the orientation.
• LED’s, note the orientation.
• Transistors, note the orientation.
• Solid wire connections between components on the board
 Solid wire is fairly rigid, so it will stay in place once attached.
• Stranded wire to parts that are connected by wire to the circuit
 Stranded wire is more flexible than solid wire.
• Integrated circuits
 Connect them the correct way around.
 Many IC’s are static sensitive.
 Leave IC’s in their antistatic packaging until you need them, then ground your hands by
touching a metal water pipe or window frame before touching the IC’s.
 Carefully insert IC’s in their holders. Make sure all the pins are lined up with the socket,
then push down firmly with your thumb.

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Preparing
Preparing the Soldering Iron: Tinning the Tip
1. Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug it in.
2. Wait for the soldering iron to heat up.
3. Moisten the sponge.
4. Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will clean the tip.
5. Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.
 This is called tinning and it will help the heat flow from the iron’s tip to the joint.
 The solder should flow onto the tip, producing a bright shiny surface.
 If the solder will not flow onto the tip, clean it by wiping it on the wet sponge.
 When tinned, wipe excess solder off on the wet sponge.
 You do not need to tin the tip before every joint, but you should re-tin it if it has gone
dull when the soldering iron has not been used for a few minutes.
 Check the manufacturer’s instructions related to tinning the tip.
6. The tip of the soldering iron should be a shiny silver color. If it is black and pitted, replace
it with a new one.

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Soldering
1. Solder needs a clean surface on which to adhere.
• Buff the copper foil of a PC board with steel wool before soldering.
• Remove any oil, paint, wax, etc. with a solvent, steel wool, or fine sandpaper.
2. To solder, heat the connection with the tip of the soldering iron for a few seconds, then
apply the solder.
• Heat the connection, not the solder.
• Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle.
• Both parts that are being soldered have to be hot to form a good connection.

Figure 2. The tip of the soldering iron heats both the copper pad and the lead from the electronic
component. Solder melts when placed in contact with the hot metals to be joined.

3. Keep the soldering tip on the connection as the solder is applied.

• Solder will flow into and around well-heated connections.
• Use just enough solder to form a strong connection.
4. Remove the tip from the connection as soon as the solder has flowed where you want it
to be. Remove the solder, then the iron.
5. Don’t move the connection while the solder is cooling.
6. Don’t overheat the connection, as this might damage the electrical component you are
soldering.
• Transistors and some other components can be damaged by heat when soldering. A
crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink to protect these components.

Figure 3. By absorbing heat, the crocodile clip will reduce the heat that flows to
the component, helping to prevent damage.

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7. Soldering a connection should take just a few seconds.

• If it is taking longer, see the troubleshooting section below.
8. Inspect the joint closely. It should look shiny (note: lead-free solder may appear dull, this
is OK).
• If you are soldering a wire (called the lead) onto a PC board (on the track), it should
have a volcano shape. See Figure 3.
• If the connection looks bad, reheat it and try again.

Figure 4. The solder in a good join will be shaped like a cone, with solid contact between the solder and
all surfaces to be joined. Bad joins (also called dry joins) should be melted and remade.

9. Wipe the tip of the iron on a damp sponge to clean it. The tip should now be shiny.
10. Unplug the soldering iron when it is not in use.

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Common Problems and Troubleshooting

1. Solder will not flow.
• The parts to be joined may be dirty. Remove the solder and clean the parts.
2. The connection looks grainy or crystalline.
• Parts were moved before the solder was allowed to cool.
Reheat to form a good joint. You may need a larger soldering iron to heat connections
adequately.
3. The tip is oxidized.
• Soldering is much easier with a shiny, clean tip.
• Clean the tip with a damp synthetic sponge while the iron is hot.
• To avoid oxidizing the tip, do not leave the iron plugged in when not in use.
• Do not use the iron at a higher temperature than is necessary to melt solder.
• Clean the tip of the iron on a damp synthetic sponge as soon as it starts to change
from a silver color.
4. There is too much or too little solder.
• Using too much solder can cause a solder bridge, which means that two adjacent joints
are accidentally connected.
• Using too little solder might result in poor electrical continuity between the board and
component. The connection should be smooth, shiny, and rigid.

2.5.4 Explain different types of errors identified during functional test

Function testing (FCT) is the process in which the functioning and the electrical performance of
the PCB is checked. It is typically the last step testing done before the PCB assembly is shipped to
the customer. In this type of testing, the functioning of the entire PCB assembly is tested rather
than individual components. Some of the key benefits of functional testing are as follows:
• In functional testing method, the operating environment of the DUT is simulated. This
helps a customer save a considerable cost by eliminating the need to buy actual testing
equipment.
• In some cases, functional testing eliminates the need of performing system tests that
can be expensive. This helps save on financial resources, as well as time.
• Functional testing helps improve the quality of the final product by making it error-free
and robust.
• With this method of testing, one can test 50% to 100% of the product being shipped.
This cuts down the efforts and time required for an OEM to test and debug it.
 Soldering defects can arise for a variety of reasons, ranging from operator error to pollutants.
The most well-known -- and well-hated -- of these defects are:
• Opens
• Excessive solder
• Component shifting
• Cold joints
• Solder bridges
• Webbing and splashes
• Lifted pads

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1. OPENS
An open solder joint occurs when there’s an open connection between the lead and pad,
or the point of connection with a PCB. This usually happens when the lead and the pad
don’t bond, or when the solder is only on the PCB but not on the component lead.
2. TOO MUCH SOLDER
When too much solder is used, large bubbles of solder can form at the joint. The joint
itself could be functional, but the PCB could have hidden mistakes beneath the solder
ball.
Using too much solder is a mistake commonly made by beginners who have a hard time
gauging how much is too much vs. not enough. Practice makes perfect. It’s better to err
on the side of not enough because it’s always possible to add more solder.
3. COMPONENT SHIFT
A component shift occurs when the PCB is misaligned on the target area. Sometimes this
happens because PCB components float on molten solder, eventually settling in the wrong
place.
The only way to prevent this is to ensure that the PCB is centered and the surface is
level or the reflow profile is correct.
4. COLD JOINTS
Cold joints occur when the soldering iron is at a low temperature or the joint wasn’t
heated for long enough. Cold joints are messy, do not last as long, and do not work as
well. Sometimes this even limits the functionality of the PCB.
The best way to avoid this problem is to exercise proper soldering technique and become
certified in IPC J-STD-001, the electrical soldering standard. Or, of course, you could outsource
your PCB layout to an expert.

5. SOLDER BRIDGES
Sometimes solder improperly connects one lead to another -- that’s called solder bridging.
Solder bridges are very hard to see and often go undetected.
When this happens, a solder bridge can burn up, or even blow up, a component. Solder
bridging can also burn out a PCB trace.
6. WEBBING & SPLASHES
Webbing and splashes occur when pollutants affect the soldering process. These defects
affect the appearance of the PCB, but can also cause a short-circuit hazard, which could
be dangerous.
7. LIFTED PADS
While not necessarily a soldering defect, soldering definitely plays a part in a lifted pad
defect. If not enough solder was used on the pads and they become exposed to an excessive
force, the pad may become lifted off the board. When this happens, a short-circuit could
occur, damaging or destroying the entire circuit board.

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Unit 2.6 Reporting Structure

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:

• Explain company’s reporting structure, delivery standards and personnel management and
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).

2.6.1 Company’s reporting structure

 A reporting structure refers to the interrelationship between various authorities in a company.
This is a hierarchal chain of command that clarifies who reports to whom.
 The purpose of a business’s reporting structure is to direct employees on where and how
the company’s authority flows. It clarifies the functions of various employees, including the
manager or managers they have to report to, and the departments that they handle.
 Companies set up reporting structures to identify which employees are in charge of various
functions, departments and the entire organization. Their structure depends on several
factors, including the size of the company, type of business, products and services produced,
current projects, geographic locations and the employee’s individual expertise.
 Organizational structures can change occasionally based on external influences such as the
global economy or internal factors such as change of ownership.

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Types of Reporting Structures

• Traditional vertical reporting structure
This is the most common organizational reporting structure. For this structure, a singular
individual sits at helm of the company.
• Functional reporting structure
The functional reporting structure fits best into a company with several divisions that are
set forth to accomplish individual tasks.
• Divisional or product reporting structure
The divisional or product reporting structure is ideal for large companies, which have many
products and sales channels.
• Line-and-staff reporting structure
The line-and-staff reporting structure varies from a typical vertical structure because it
includes horizontal authority.
Line symbolizes the business positions that are required for daily operations.
Staff symbolizes the business positions that offer indirect support to daily operations and
line roles.
• Flat reporting structure
The flat reporting structure works for organizations that have zero distinct authoritative
positions.
• Matrix reporting structure
A matrix or hybrid reporting structure considers the needs of a particular organization and
combines at least two organizational hierarchies that satisfy the identified needs.
• Network organization structures
A network reporting structure forth to make sense of the spread of resources.

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2.6.2 Company’s documentation policy

 The ultimate dream of every business owner is to have efficient employees, effective
communication, and growth! Yet, maintaining all three together is not that easy!
 The more your company grows, the harder it gets to effectively communicate, and eventually
more difficult it becomes to ensure that your employees carry out their tasks efficiently
aligned with the objectives of your company!
 To maintain a successful cycle, your company needs rules and guidelines to manage employees
for a smooth workflow. They also, in turn, need constant assurance that the company has
their best interests at heart!
 However, accomplishing all this can be overwhelming without some kind of help. This is
where the need to create a policies & procedures manual comes in.
 Every company needs a policies & procedures manual to guide its operations, strategy,
and workflow. Where policies set the expectation for employee behaviors, the procedures
outline the steps for it. This ensures consistency in practice and helps in maintaining quality
output.
 A policy and procedure manual is the perfect way to keep your virtual employees on the
same page as these manuals work like references in case someone is confused about taking
a step or decision-making and enables everyone to behave in a legal, conscious, and ethical
manner.
Here are some items that should be included in the policies and procedures manual:

• Employment procedures
• Work from home policies
• Organization culture
• Employee benefits
• Communication policies
• Payment procedures
• Workplace guidelines
• Employee code of conduct
• Technology usage procedures

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2.6.3 Discuss organisational policies on incentives, delivery

standards, personnel management and public relations (PR).
The organizational policies on incentives, personnel management, and reporting structure depend
on the organization the individual joins. These vary across organizations.

For example, a public sector company may offer different kinds of incentives for work performance
as compared to a private company. The same is the case with the reporting structure.

Personnel management policies also tend to differ from organization to organization. The individual
should conduct proper research before interviewing for a job at a particular company to ensure
that they are satisfied with the company policies on remuneration, human resource management,
career progression, etc.

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EXERCISE
Short Questions
1. Explain solder mask.
2. What is rigid PCB?
3. What is flexible PCB?
4. Define PCB design.
5. Explain soldering.
6. Explain matrix structure.
7. What is network structure?
8. Write short notes on followings:
• Wire
• Switches
• Potentiometers
• Integrated Circuits
• Transistors
• Diodes
• Capacitors
• Electrical Signals

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Long Questions
1. State the work flow involved in assembly process of the company and one’s role in the
work flow.
2. Explain how to use hand tools such as lead forming tools, cutter, cutting machine, soldering
station, etc.
3. Explain component stocking policy.
4. Explain basic electronics, component identification and characteristics of the components
such as resistor, capacitor, ICs.
5. Describe various assembly processes such as thru-hole technology (THT), surface mount
technology (SMT), and mixed technology.
6. List color codes and polarity of components.
7. State various safety and quality standards followed in the organisation.
8. Describe comparison between ROHS & Non-ROHS compliant solder.
9. Explain the basics of soldering such as handling the soldering iron, iron temperature, etc.
and types of soldering such as dry and cold solder.
10. State the regulation of operating speed and temperature as well as soldering shortcomings
such as solder short and dry solder.
11. Explain different types of errors identified during functional test and methods to rectify the
same.
12. Explain company’s reporting structure, delivery standards and personnel management and
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

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3. Work effectively at
the workplace
Unit 3.1 Effective Communication and Coordination of work
Unit 3.2 Work Effectively and Maintain discipline at work.
Unit 3.3 Maintain social diversity at work

ELE/N9905

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Key Learning Outcomes

By t�e en� o� t�is mo�u�e� �ar�ci�ants �i�� �e a��e to�
1. State the importance of work ethics and workplace e��ue�e.
2. State the importance of effec��e communica�on and interpersonal skills.
3. Explain ways to maintain discipline in the workplace.
4. Discuss the common reasons for interpersonal conflict and ways of managing them effec��ely.

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UNIT 3.1: Effec�ve Communica�on and Coordina�on at Work

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Work effec�vely at the workplace.
2. Demonstrate prac�ces related to gender and �wD sensi�za�on.

3.1.1 Importance of Work Ethics and Workplace E�que�e

Workplace ethics are a set of moral and legal guidelines that organiza�ons follow. These guidelines
influence the way customers and employees interact with an organiza�on. Workplace ethics essen�ally
guide how an organiza�on serves its clients and treats its employees.

For example, if a company seeks to fulfil the promises it makes, it may develop processes and set up a
robust support system to address this policy and build customer/client loyalty. To achieve this goal, the
company may implement specific incen�ve programs for employees to encourage them to produce high-
quality work and ensure the organiza�on fulfils the promises it makes to its clients/ customers.

Many organiza�ons, o�en the large ones, set detailed ethical codes to guide their opera�ons and control
how the organiza�onal processes impact the stakeholders. These ethics usually help organiza�ons
maintain certain standards of responsibility, accountability, professionalism and among others, as they
navigate through different challenges and day-to-day circumstances. By following these guidelines,
organiza�ons o�en experience several benefits that improve the lives of stakeholders, such as customers,
employees, leaders, etc.

Examples of Common Workplace Ethics

Accountability
Responsibility
Equality
Transparency
Trust
Fulfilling promises
Loyalty
Fairness
Coopera�on
Dedica�on
Discipline
Professionalism

Fig. 3.1.1 Examples of Common Workplace Ethics

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Workplace ethics are essen�al for a successful organiza�on with a sa�sfied and loyal team. �igh ethical
standards help in ensuring all stakeholders, such as customers, investors, employees, and other
individuals involved in the workplace opera�ons, feel the organiza�on is safeguarding their interests. �y
crea�ng and implemen�ng ethical guidelines, organiza�ons can keep the best interests of their
employees in mind while maintaining a posi�ve influence on those they impact through their processes.

As a result, employees maintain the organiza�on�s best interests by being ethical in their daily work
du�es. For example, fairly�treated employees of an organiza�on who understand the organiza�on�s
commitments to environmental sustainability are usually less likely to behave in a manner that causes
harm to the environment. Thus, they help maintain a posi�ve public image of the organiza�on. �t means
that workplace ethics help in maintaining reciprocal rela�onships that benefit organiza�ons at large and
the individuals associated with and influenced by the organiza�onal policies.

Benefits of Workplace Ethics

There are various benefits of implemen�ng workplace ethics. When organiza�ons hold themselves to
high ethical standards, leaders, stakeholders, and the general public can experience significant
improvements. Following are some of the key benefits of employing ethics in the workplace:

Employee sa�sfac�on

Improved workplace culture

Legal compliance

Improved public reputa�on

Customer engagement and loyalty

Streamlined decision-making processes

Fig. 3.1.2 Benefits of Workplace Ethics

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3.1.2 Interpersonal Communica�on

Interpersonal communica�on is a process that involves sharing ideas and emo�ons with another person,
both - verbally and non-verbally. It is essen�al to interact effec�vely with others in both personal and
professional lives. In professional life or the workplace, strong interpersonal skills play a crucial role in
achieving effec�ve collabora�on with colleagues.

Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills, in other terms, are known as people skills, which are used to communicate and
interact with others effec�vely. �hese are so� skills one uses to communicate with others and understand
them. One uses these skills in daily life while interac�ng with people.

Examples of Interpersonal Skills

�c��e listening

Teamwork

Responsibility

Dependability

Leadership

Mo��a�on

Flexibility

�a�ence

Empathy

Conflict resolu�on

Nego�a�on

Fig 3.1.3 Examples of Interpersonal Skills

Numerous interpersonal skills involve communica�on. �ommunica�on can be verbal, such as persuasion
or tone of voice — or non-verbal, such as listening and body language.

Importance of Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills are essen�al for communica�ng and collabora�ng with groups and individuals in both
personal and professional life. People with strong interpersonal skills o�en are able to build good
rela�onships and also tend to work well with others. �ost people o�en en�oy working with co-workers
who have good interpersonal skills.

Among other benefits of good interpersonal skills is the ability to solve problems and make the best
decisions. One can use the ability to understand others and good interpersonal communica�on skills to
find the best solu�on or make the best decisions in the interest of everyone involved. �trong
interpersonal skills help individuals work well in teams and collaborate effec�vely. �sually, people who
possess good interpersonal skills also tend to be good leaders, owing to their ability to communicate well
with others and mo�vate the people around them.

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Interpersonal communica�on is the key to working in a team environment and working collec�vely to
achieve shared goals. Following are the interpersonal communica�on skills that vital for success at work�

Verbal Communica�on

The ability to speak clearly, appropriately and confidently can help one communicate effec�vely with
others. It is vital to select the appropriate vocabulary and tone for the target audience.

For example – one should speak formally and professionally in the work environment, while informal
language is acceptable in an in�mate environment with close friends and family. Also, one should avoid
using complex or technical language while communica�ng with an audience that may not be familiar with
it. Using simple language in a courteous tone helps achieve be�er communica�on, irrespec�ve of the
audience.

�c��e Li�tening

Ac�ve listening is defined as the ability to pay complete or undivided a�en�on to someone when they
speak and understand what they are saying. It is important for effec�ve communica�on because without
understanding what the speaker is saying, it becomes difficult to carry forward a conversa�on. One
should ensure to use appropriate verbal and non-verbal responses, e.g. eye contact, nodding, or smiling,
to show interest in what the speaker says. Ac�ve listening is also about paying a�en�on to the speaker’s
body language and visual cues. Asking and answering ques�ons is one of the best ways to demonstrate an
interest in conversing with the other person.

Ac�ve listening is cri�cal for communica�ng effec�vely without ambiguity. It helps one understand the
informa�on or instruc�ons being shared. It may also encourage co-workers to share their ideas, which
ul�mately helps achieve collabora�on.

Body Language

One’s expression, posture, and gestures are as important as verbal communica�on. One should prac�ce
open body language to encourage posi�vity and trust while communica�ng. Open body language
includes - maintaining eye contact, nodding, smiling and being comfortable. On the other hand, one
should avoid closed body language, e.g. crossed arms, shi�ing eyes and restless behaviour.

Empathy

Empathy is the ability to understand the emo�ons, ideas and needs of others from their point of view.
Empathy is also known as emo�onal intelligence. Empathe�c people are good at being aware of others’
emo�ons and compassionate when communica�ng with them. �eing empathe�c in the workplace can
be good to boost the morale of employees and improve produc�vity. �y showing empathy, one can gain
the trust and respect of others.

Conflict Re�olu�on

One can use interpersonal communica�on skills to help resolve disagreements and con�icts in the
workplace. This involves the applica�on of nego�a�on and persuasion skills to resolve arguments
between con�ic�ng par�es. It is also important to evaluate and understand both sides of the argument by
listening closely to everyone involved and finding an amicable solu�on acceptable to all.

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Teamwork

Employees who communicate and work well in a team o�en have be�er chances of achieving success and
common goals. Being a team player can help one avoid conflicts and improve produc�vity. One can do this
by offering to help co-workers when required and asking for their feedback and ideas. When team
members give their opinions or advice, one should posi�vely receive and react to the opinions�advice.
One should be op�mis�c and encouraging when working in groups.

Improving Interpersonal Skills

One can develop interpersonal skills by prac�sing good communica�on and se�ng goals for
improvement. One should consider the following �ps to improve their interpersonal skills�

Ÿ One should ask for feedback from co-workers, managers, family or friends to figure out what needs
improvement concerning their interpersonal skills.

Ÿ One can iden�fy the areas of interpersonal communica�on to strengthen by watching others.

Ÿ One can learn and improve interpersonal skills by observing co-workers, company leaders and
professionals who possess good interpersonal skills. This includes watching and listening to them to
note how they communicate and the body language used by them. It is vital to note their speed of
speaking, tone of voice, and the way they engage with others. One should prac�ce and apply such
traits in their own interac�ons and rela�onships.

Ÿ One should learn to control their emo�ons. If stressed or upset, one should wait un�l being calm to
have a conversa�on. One is more likely to communicate effec�vely and confidently when not under
stress.

Ÿ One can reflect on their personal and professional conversa�ons to iden�fy the scope of
improvement and learn how to handle conversa�ons be�er or communicate more clearly. It helps to
consider whether one could have reacted differently in a par�cular situa�on or used specific words or
posi�ve body language more effec�vely. It is also vital to note the successful and posi�ve interac�ons
to understand why they are successful.

Ÿ One should prac�ce interpersonal skills by pu�ng oneself in posi�ons where one can build
rela�onships and use interpersonal skills. �or e�ample, one can �oin groups that have organi�ed
mee�ngs or social events. These could be industry-specific groups or groups with members who
share an interest or hobby.

Ÿ Paying a�en�on to family, friends and co-workers and making efforts to interact with them helps a
lot. One should complement their family, friends and co-workers on their good ideas, hard work and
achievements. Trying to understand someone’s interests and showing interest in knowing them can
help one build strong interpersonal skills. Offering to help someone, especially in difficult situa�ons,
helps build stronger and posi�ve workplace rela�onships.

Ÿ One should avoid distrac�ons, such as a mobile phone, while interac�ng with someone. �iving
someone full a�en�on while avoiding distrac�ons helps achieve a clear e�change of ideas. By
listening with focus, one can understand and respond effec�vely.

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Ÿ One can a�end appropriate courses on interpersonal skills or sign up for workshops at work to
improve interpersonal skills. One can find many resources online also, such as online videos.

Ÿ For personal mentoring, one can approach a trusted family member, friend, co-worker, or current/
former employer. A person one looks up to with respect and admires is o�en a good choice to be
selected as a mentor. One can even hire a professional career or communica�on coach.

Interpersonal communica�on skills o�en help one boost their morale, be more produc�ve in the
workplace, complete team projects smoothly and build posi�ve and strong rela�onships with co-
workers.

Good conflict resolu�on skills can help one contribute to crea�ng a collabora�ve and posi�ve work
environment. With the ability to resolve conflicts, one can earn the trust and respect of co-workers.

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UNIT 3.2: Working Effec�vely and Maintaining Discipline at Work

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of following organiza�onal guidelines for dress code, �me schedules,
language usage and other behavioural aspects.
2. Explain the importance of working as per the workflow of the organiza�on to receive instruc�ons and
report problems.
3. Explain the importance of conveying informa�on/instruc�ons as per defined protocols to the
authorised persons/team members.
4. Explain the common workplace guidelines and legal requirements on non-disclosure and
confiden�ality of business-sensi�ve informa�on.
5. Describe the process of repor�ng grievances and unethical conduct such as data breaches, sexual
harassment at the workplace, etc.
6. Discuss ways of dealing with heightened emo�ons of self and others.

3.2.1 Discipline at Work

Discipline is essen�al for organiza�onal success. It helps improve produc�vity, reduce conflict and prevent
misconduct in the workplace. It is important to have rules concerning workplace discipline and ensure
that all employees comply with them. In the absence of discipline, a workplace may experience conflicts,
bullying, unethical behaviour and poor employee performance. An efficient workplace disciplinary
process helps create transparency in the organiza�on. �enefits of disciplinary standards�

All employees follow the same rules which helps establish uniformity and equality
in the workplace

Managers and supervisors have defined guidelines on what ac�on to take while
ini�a�ng disciplinary ac�on

With well-defined and enforced disciplinary rules, an organi�a�on can avoid

various safety, security, rupa�onal risks

Fig 3.2.1 Benefits of Disciplinary Standards

Maintaining an organized and cohesive workforce requires maintaining discipline in both personal and
professional behaviour. It is important to follow the appropriate measures to keep employees in line
without affec�ng their morale.

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Defining Discipline

The first and crucial step in maintaining workplace discipline is to define what is meant by discipline. It
helps to evaluate common discipline problems and devise guidelines for handling them effec�vely.

Among a number of areas, discipline usually covers:

Personal
use of
Personal company
�me use in assets
Harassment the office
Company
processes
Dress code and
Deadlines procedures
A�endance

Fig 3.2.2 Examples of Workplace Discipline

According to demography and local issues, it may also include substance use and related issues.

It is vital for a workplace to have an employee handbook or company policy guide, to serve as a rulebook
for employees to follow. The employee handbook/ company policy guide should be reviewed and
updated periodically according to any issues or areas, or concerns iden�fied concerning workplace
discipline. Such manuals should also cover all the laws and regula�ons governing workplace behaviour.

Defining and documen�ng workplace rules aids in their implementa�on, ensuring li�le or no ambiguity.
All employees in a workplace should also have easy access to the workplace guidelines so that they can
refer to them to get clarity whenever required. To maintain discipline at work, it is also cri�cal to ensure
uniform applica�on of workplace guidelines to all employees without excep�on.

3.2.2 Employee Code of Conduct

The employee code of conduct manual serves as a guide for employees to inform them regarding the
behaviour expected from them at work. It helps create a good work environment with consistent
behaviour from employees. The manual should list examples of acceptable and not acceptable
behaviours at work. The code of conduct should be discussed with employees so that they have the
clarifica�ons required.

For example, an organiza�on may create guidelines concerning the conduct with clients to ensure no
contact is made with them except for business purposes, also prescribing the use of appropriate means of
communica�on.

Employees should have a clear understanding concerning their job responsibili�es and the behaviour
expected from them with all stakeholders, e.g. company personnel, clients and associated third par�es. It
is cri�cal to have documented guidelines for employees to follow concerning all aspects of work.

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It should also document the disciplinary ac�on to be followed in case of non-compliance, e.g. verbal and
then wri�en warning, temporary suspension or eventual termina�on of service in case of repeated non-
compliance with the employee code of conduct. Employees should know what the company rules are and
what will happen if they break the rules. However, disciplinary ac�on should be ini�ated only when
reasonably required to avoid its misuse for employee harassment.

There should also be an effec�ve mechanism for employees to raise their concerns� grievances and have
them addressed while maintaining privacy, as required, e.g. raising concerns regarding the behaviour of a
co-worker.

The employee code of conduct manual must be duly reviewed and approved by the concerned
stakeholders, such as the Human Resources (HR) department and company execu�ves.

3.2.3 Interpersonal Conflicts

Interpersonal conflict is any type of conflict between two or more people. These are found in both -
personal and professional rela�onships - among friends, family, and co-workers. In the workplace,
interpersonal conflict is o�en observed when a person or group of people interfere with another person�s
a�empts at comple�ng assignments and achieving goals. It is cri�cal to resolve conflicts in the workplace
to boost the morale of employees, repair working rela�onships among them, and improve customer
sa�sfac�on.

Reasons for Workplace Conflicts

Workplace conflicts are o�en observed when two or more people have different points of view. This can
happen between managers, co-workers, or clients and customers. In general, interpersonal conflicts are
caused by a lack of communica�on or unclear communica�on.

Some of the leading reasons for workplace conflicts are:

Ÿ Difference in values

Ÿ Personality clashes

Ÿ Poor communica�on

Example of poor communica�on � if a manager reassigns a task to another employee without

communica�ng with the employee to whom it was originally assigned, interpersonal conflict can arise
among them. This may poten�ally make the first employee, i.e. who was originally assigned the task, feel
slighted and mistrusted by the manager. It may even cause animosity in the first employee toward the
employee who has now been assigned the task.

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Types of Interpersonal Conflict

Following are the four types of interpersonal conflicts:

1. Policy-related interpersonal conflict

When a conflict relates to a decision or situa�on that involves both par�es, it can be called a policy-
related interpersonal conflict. Example – two people or groups working on the same project, trying to
adopt different approaches. To resolve policy-related interpersonal conflicts, the par�es involved
should try to look for a win-win situa�on or make a compromise. This is especially cri�cal to resolve
trivial issues so that work is not affected and common goals are achieved.

2. Pseudo-conflicts

Pseudo-conflict arises when two people or groups want different things and cannot reach an
agreement. Pseudo-conflicts usually involve trivial disagreements that tend to hide the root of the
issue.

3. Ego-related interpersonal conflicts

In ego conflicts, losing the argument may hurt or damage a person’s pride. Some�mes ego conflicts
arise when a number of small conflicts pile up on being le� unresolved. To resolve ego-related conflicts,
it’s best to find the root of the issue and work towards a resolu�on.

4. Value-related interpersonal conflicts

Some�mes conflicts may occur between people when they have different value systems. Such conflicts
can be difficult to iden�fy ini�ally, making the people involved think the other party is being
disagreeable or stubborn, wherein they just have different values. Some co-workers may highly value
their personal/ family �me a�er office that they may be unreachable to clients during non-office hours,
while others may place a high value on client sa�sfac�on and may s�ll be available for clients during
non-office hours. Conflict may arise among such people when they may be required to coordinate to
help a client during a�er-office hours. �alue-related interpersonal conflicts are o�en difficult to se�le
since neither party likes to compromise.

Resolving Interpersonal Conflicts

Conflicts are usually likely in the workplace; they can, however, be prevented. ��en resolving
interpersonal conflicts through open communica�on helps build a stronger rela�onship, paving the
way for effec�ve coordina�on and success. Some ways to resolve interpersonal conflict:

Ÿ Communica�on� A great way to resolve interpersonal conflicts is for the opposing par�es to listen
to one another’s opinions and understand their viewpoints. Mee�ng in person and keeping the
conversa�on goal-oriented is important. �ne can have effec�ve communica�on by following
some measures, e.g. staying on the topic, listening ac�vely, being mindful of the body language,
maintaining eye contact, etc.

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Ÿ �c��e �istening: One should pa�ently listen to what the other person is saying without interrup�ng
or talking over them. It helps one display empathy and get to the root of the issue. Asking ques�ons
to seek clarifica�on when required helps in clear communica�on and conveys to the other person
that one is listening to them. Prac�sing ac�ve listening is a great way to improve one’s
communica�on skills.

Ÿ Displaying Empathy: Listening a�en�vely and iden�fying the anxie�es� issues of co-workers is a
great way to show empathy and concern. It is essen�al to understand their feelings and ac�ons to
encourage honesty and avoid future conflict.

Ÿ Not Holding Grudges: With different types of people and personali�es in a workplace, it is common
for co-workers to have conflicts. It is best to accept the difference in opinions and move on. Being
forgiving and le�ng go of grudges allows one to focus on the posi�ve side of things and perform
be�er at work.

Work-related interpersonal conflicts can be complicated because different people have different
leadership styles, personality characteris�cs, �ob responsibili�es and ways in which they interact. One
should learn to look above interpersonal conflicts, resolving them to ensure work goals and environment
are not affected.

3.2.4 Importance of Following Organiza�onal Guidelines

Policies and procedures or organiza�onal guidelines are essen�al for any organiza�on. These provide a
road map for the opera�ons of the organiza�on. These are also cri�cal in ensuring compliance with the
applicable laws and regula�ons by guiding the decision-making process and business opera�ons.

Organiza�onal guidelines help bring uniformity to the opera�ons of an organiza�on, which helps reduce
the risk of unwanted and unexpected events. These determine how employees are supposed to behave
at work, which ul�mately helps the business achieve its ob�ec�ves e�ciently.

However, organiza�onal guidelines are ineffec�ve and fail to serve their purpose if they are not followed.
Many people don’t like the idea of following and abiding by specific guidelines. Such people should be
made to understand the benefits of following the organiza�onal guidelines. Some of the key benefits are
given below:

With well-defined organiza�onal guidelines in place, no individual can act arbitrarily, irrespec�ve of their
posi�on in the organiza�on. All individuals will know the pros and cons of taking certain ac�ons and what
to expect in case of unacceptable behaviour. Benefits of following organiza�onal guidelines:

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Ÿ Consistent processes and structures: Organiza�on guidelines help maintain consistency in

opera�ons, avoiding any disorder. When all employees follow the organiza�onal guidelines, an
organiza�on can run smoothly. �hese ensure that people in different job roles operate as they are
supposed to, knowing what they are responsible for, what is expected of them, and what they can
expect from their supervisors and co-workers. With clarity in mind, they can do their jobs with
confidence and excellence. With every person working the way intended, it’s easy to minimise errors.

With all the staff following organiza�onal guidelines, the organiza�on has a be�er scope of using �me
and resources more effec�vely and e�ciently. �his allows the organiza�on to grow and achieve its
objec�ves.

Ÿ Be�er �ualit� ser�ice: By following organiza�onal guidelines, employees perform their du�es
correctly as per the defined job responsibili�es. It helps enhance the �uality of the organiza�on’s
products and services, helping improve the organiza�on’s reputa�on. Working with a reputable
organiza�on, employees can take pride in their work and know they are contribu�ng to the
reputa�on.

Ÿ A safer workplace: When all employees follow organiza�onal guidelines, it becomes easy to
minimise workplace incidents and accidents. It reduces the liabili�es associated with risks for the
organiza�on and limits the interrup�ons in opera�ons. �mployees also feel comfortable and safe in
the workplace, knowing their co-workers are ensuring safety at work by following the applicable
guidelines.

Different organiza�ons may have different guidelines on dress code, �me schedules, language usage, etc.
For example – certain organiza�ons in a client-dealing business re�uiring employees to meet clients
personally follow a strict dress code asking their employees to wear formal business a�re. �imilarly,
organiza�ons opera�ng in specific regions may re�uire their employees to use the dominant regional
language of the par�cular region to build rapport with customers and serve them be�er. �ertain
organiza�ons, such as banks, o�en give preference to candidates with knowledge of the regional
language during hiring.

Working hours may also differ from one organiza�on to another, with some re�uiring employees to work
extra compared to others. One should follow the organiza�onal guidelines concerning all the aspects of
the employment to ensure a cohesive work environment.

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3.2.5 Workflow
Workflow is the order of steps from the beginning to the end of a task or work process. In other words, it is
the way a par�cular type of work is organised or the order of stages in a par�cular work process.

Workflows can help simplify and automate repeatable business tasks, helping improve efficiency and
minimise the room for errors. With workflows in place, managers can make quick and smart decisions
while employees can collaborate more produc�vely.

Other than the order that workflows create in a business, these have several other benefits, such as:

Ÿ Iden��yin� Redundancies� Mapping out work processes in a workflow allows one to get a clear, top-
level view of a business. It allows one to iden�fy and remove redundant or unproduc�ve processes.

Workflow gives greater insights into business processes. ��lizing such useful insights, one can improve
work processes and the bo�om line of the business. In many businesses, there are many unnecessary and
redundant tasks that take place daily. Once an organiza�on has insight into its processes while preparing
workflow, it can determine which ac�vi�es are really necessary.

Iden�fying and elimina�ng redundant tasks creates value for a business. With redundant tasks and
processes eliminated, an organiza�on can focus on what’s important to the business.

Ÿ Increase in Accountability and Reduc�on in �icromana�ement� Micromanagement o�en causes

problems in a business se�ng as most employees don’t like being micromanaged, and even many
managers don’t like the prac�ce. Micromanagement is o�en iden�fied as one of the reasons why
people quit their job.

However, the need for micromanagement can be minimized by clearly mapping out the workflow. This
way, every individual in a team knows what tasks need to be completed and by when and who is
responsible for comple�ng them. This makes employees more accountable also.

With clearly defined workflow processes, managers don’t have to spend much �me micromanaging their
employees, who don’t have to approach the manager to know what the further steps are. Following a
workflow, employees know what is going on and what needs to be done. This, in turn, may help increase
the job sa�sfac�on of everyone involved while improving the rela�onships between management and
employees.

Ÿ Improved Communica�on� Communica�on at work is cri�cal because it a�ects all aspects of an

organiza�on. There are instances when the main conflict in an organiza�on originates from
miscommunica�on, e.g. the management and employees disagreeing on an aspect, despite pursuing
the same objec�ves. �oor communica�on is a common workplace issue that is o�en not dealt with.

This highlights why workflow is important. Workplace communica�on drama�cally can increase with the
visibility of processes and accountability. It helps make the daily opera�ons smoother overall.

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Ÿ Be�er ��s�omer �er�i�e� Customers or clients are central to a business. Therefore, it is impera�ve to
find and improve ways to improve customer experience. Relying on outdated manual systems may
cause customer requests or complaints to be overlooked, with dissa�sfied customers taking their
business elsewhere. However, following a well-researched and defined workflow can help improve
the quality of customer service.

By automa�ng workflows and processes, an organiza�on can also reduce the likelihood of human error.
This also helps improve the quality of products or services over �me, resul�ng in a be�er customer
experience.

3.2.6 Following Ins�r���ons an� �e�or�ng �ro�lems

All organiza�ons follow a hierarchy, with most employees repor�ng to a manager or supervisor. �or
organiza�onal success, it is vital for employees to follow the instruc�ons of their manager or supervisor.
They should ensure they perform their du�es as per the given instruc�ons to help achieve the common
objec�ves of the organiza�on and deliver quality service or products. This consequently helps maintain
the reputa�on of the organiza�on.

It is also important to be vigilant and iden�fy problems at work or with the organiza�onal work processes.
One should deal with the iden�fied within their limits of authority and report out of authority problems to
the manager/ supervisor or the concerned person for a prompt resolu�on to minimise the impact on
customers/clients and business.

3.2.7 Informa�on or �a�a ��aring

Informa�on or data is cri�cal to all organiza�ons. �epending on the nature of its business, an organiza�on
may hold different types of data, e.g. personal data of customers or client data concerning their business
opera�ons and contacts. It is vital to effec�ve measures for the appropriate handling of different types of
data, ensuring its protec�on from unauthorized access and consequent misuse.

One should access certain data only if authorised to do so. The same is applicable when sharing data
which must be shared only with the people authorised to receive it to use it for a specific purpose as per
their job role and organiza�onal guidelines. �or example � one should be extra cau�ous while sharing
business data with any third par�es to ensure they get access only to the limited data they need as per any
agreements with them. It is also cri�cal to monitor how the recipient of the data uses it, which should
strictly be as per the organiza�onal guidelines. It is a best prac�ce to share appropriate instruc�ons with
the recipient of data to ensure they are aware of the purpose with which data is being shared with them
and how they are supposed to use and handle it. Any misuse of data must be iden�fied and reported
promptly to the appropriate person to minimise any damage arising out of data misuse.

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These days most organiza�ons re�uire their employees and business partners or associated third par�es
to sign and accept the relevant agreement on the non-disclosure of business-sensi�ve informa�on. In
simple terms, business-sensi�ve informa�on is confiden�al informa�on. It is proprietary business
informa�on collected or created during the course of conduc�ng business, including informa�on about
the business, e.g. proposed investments, intellectual property, trade secrets, or plans for a merger and
informa�on related to its clients. �usiness-sensi�ve informa�on may some�mes also include informa�on
regarding a business’s compe�tors in an industry.

The release of business: Sensi�ve informa�on to compe�tors or the general public poses a risk to a
business. For example, informa�on regarding plans for a merger could be harmful to a business if a
compe�tor gets access to it.

3.2.8 Repor�ng �ssues at Wor�

Most organiza�ons have defined guidelines on appropriate repor�ng processes to be followed for
repor�ng di�erent types of issues. For example � one can report any grievances or dissa�sfac�on
concerning co-workers to their manager/supervisor, e.g. data breaches or unethical conduct. If the
concern is not addressed, then the employee should follow the organiza�onal guidelines and hierarchy
for the escala�on of such issues that are not addressed appropriately.

For example: Any concern related to sexual harassment at the workplace should be escalated to the
concerned spokesperson, such as Human Resources (HR) representa�ve, and if not sa�sfied with the
ac�on taken, it should be reported to the senior management for their considera�on and prompt ac�on.

3.2.9 Dealing with Heightene� �mo�ons

Humans are emo�onal beings. There may be occasions when one is overwhelmed by emo�ons and is
unable to suppress them. However, there may be situa�ons when one must manage emo�ons well,
par�cularly at work.

Stress in one’s personal and professional life may o�en cause emo�onal outbursts at work. Managing
one’s emo�ons well, par�cularly the nega�ve ones, is o�en seen as a measure of one’s professionalism.
Anger, dislike, frustra�on, worry, and unhappiness are the most common nega�ve emo�ons experienced
at work.

Ways to manage nega��e emo�ons at wor�:

Ÿ Compartmentalisa�on: It’s about not confining emo�ons to di�erent aspects of one’s life. For
example, not le�ng nega�ve emo�ons from personal life a�ect work-life and vice versa. �ne should
try to leave personal ma�ers and issues at home. �ne should train their mind to let go of personal
ma�ers before reaching work. Similarly, one can compartmentalise work-related stresses so that
nega�ve emo�ons from work don’t a�ect one’s personal life.

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Ÿ Deep breathing and relaxa�on: Deep breathing helps with anxiety, worry, frustra�on and anger. One
should take deep breaths, slowly count to ten - inhaling and exhaling un�l one calms down. One can
also take a walk to calm down or listen to relaxing music. Talking to someone and sharing concerns also
helps one calm down.

Ÿ The 10-second rule: This is par�cularly helpful in controlling anger and frustra�on. �hen one feels
their temper rising, they should count to 10 to calm down and recompose. If possible, one should
move away to allow temper to come down.

Ÿ Clarify: It is always good to clarify before reac�ng, as it may be a simple case of misunderstanding or
miscommunica�on.

Ÿ Physical ac��ity: Instead of losing temper, one should plan to exercise, such as running or going to the
gym, to let the anger out. Exercise is also a great way to enhance mood and release any physical
tension in the body.

Ÿ Prac�sing restraint: One should avoid replying or making a decision when angry, not allowing anger or
unhappiness to cloud one’s judgement. It may be best to pause any communica�on while one is angry,
e.g. not communica�ng over email when angry or upset.

Ÿ Knowing one’s triggers: It helps when one is able to recognise what upsets or angers them. This way,
one can prepare to remain calm and plan their reac�on should a situa�on occur. One may even be able
to an�cipate the other party’s reac�on.

Ÿ Be respec�ul: One should treat their colleagues the same way one would like to be treated. If the
other person is rude, one need not reciprocate. It is possible to stay gracious, firm and asser�ve
without being aggressive. Some�mes, rude people back away when they don’t get a reac�on from the
person they are arguing with.

Ÿ Apologise for any e�o�onal outburst: Some�mes, one can get overwhelmed by emo�ons, reac�ng
with an emo�onal outburst. In such a case, one should accept responsibility and apologise
immediately to the affected persons without being defensive.

Ÿ Doing away with nega��e e�o�ons: It is recommended to let go of anger, frustra�on and
unhappiness at the end of every workday. Harbouring nega�ve emo�ons affects one emo�onally,
affec�ng their job performance also. Engaging in enjoyable ac�vi�es a�er work is a good stress
reliever.

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Notes

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UNIT 3.3: Maintaining Social Diversity at Work

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Explain the concept and importance of gender sensi�vity and equality.
2. Discuss ways to create sensi�vity for different genders and �ersons with Disabili�es ��wD�.

3.3.� Gender Sensi�vity

Gender sensi�vity is the act of being sensi�ve towards people and their thoughts regarding gender. It
ensures that people know the accurate meaning of gender equality, and one’s gender should not be given
priority over their capabili�es.

Fig 3.3.1 Gender Equality

Women are an important source of labour in many sectors, yet they have limited access to resources and
benefits. Women should receive the same benefits and access to resources as men. A business can
improve its produc�vity and quality of work by providing be�er support and opportuni�es to women.

Important Terms:

Ÿ Gender Sensi�vity: Gender sensi�vity is the act of being sensi�ve to the ways people think about
gender.

Ÿ Gender Equality: It means persons of any gender enjoy equal opportuni�es, responsibili�es, and
rights in all areas of life.

Ÿ Gender Discrimina�on: It means trea�ng an individual unequally or disadvantageously based on

their gender, e.g. paying different wages to men and women for similar or equal job posi�ons.

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Strategies for Enhancing Gender Equity

To enhance gender equity, one should:

Ÿ Follow gender-neutral prac�ces at all levels at work.
Ÿ Par�cipate together in decision-making.
Ÿ Help in promo�ng women�s par�cipa�on in different forums.
Ÿ Assist women in ge�ng exposure to relevant skills and prac�ces.
Ÿ Assist women in capacity building by mentoring, coaching or mo�va�ng them, as appropriate.
Ÿ Assist in the forma�on and opera�on of women support groups.
Ÿ Assist in the implementa�on of women-centric programmes.
Ÿ Combine technical training with reproduc�ve health and nutri�on for coffee farming households.
Ÿ Assist in making a work environment that is healthy, safe, and free from discrimina�on.

Bridging Gender Differences

Men and women react and communicate very differently. Thus, there are some work differences as both
genders have their style and method of handling a situa�on.

Although, understanding and maturity vary from person to person, even between these genders, based
on their knowledge, educa�on, experience, culture, age, and upbringing, as well as how one�s brain
func�ons over a thought or problem.

In order to bridge the gap, one should:

Ÿ Not categorize all men and women in one way.

Ÿ Be aware of the verbal and non-verbal styles of communica�on of every gender to avoid any
miscommunica�on and work be�er.

Ÿ Be aware of par�al behaviour and avoid it.

Ÿ Encourage co-workers of different genders to make room by providing space to others.

Ways to reduce Gender Discrimina�on

Ÿ Effec�ve steps against sexual harassment by the concerned authori�es and general public.

Ÿ Gender stereotypes are how society expects people to act based on their gender. This can only be
reduced by adop�ng appropriate behaviour and the right a�tude.

Ÿ �b�ec��ca�on of females must be abolished.

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Ways to Promote Gender �ensi��ity in the Wor�pla�e

Ÿ Prac�ces that promote gender diversity should be adopted and promoted.
Ÿ All genders should receive equal responsibili�es, rights, and privileges.
Ÿ All genders should have equal pay for similar or the same job roles/ posi�ons.
Ÿ Strict and effec�ve workplace harassment policies should be developed and implemented.
Ÿ An open-minded and stress-free work environment should be available to all the employees,
irrespec�ve of their gender.
Ÿ Women should be encouraged to go ahead in every field of work and assume leadership roles.
Ÿ Follow appropriate measures for women’s empowerment.
Ÿ Men should be taught to be sensi�ve to women and mindful of their rights.

����� PwD �ensi��ity

Some individuals are born with a disability, while others may become disabled due to an accident, illness
or as they get old. People with Disabili�es �PwD� may have one or more areas in which their func�oning is
affected. A disability can affect hearing, sight, communica�on, breathing, understanding, mobility,
balance, and concentra�on or may include the loss of a limb. A disability may contribute to how a person
feels and affect their mental health.

Important Terms

Ÿ Persons with Disabili�es �PwD�: Persons with Disabili�es means a person suffering from not less
than 40% of any disability as cer�fied by a medical authority.

Ÿ Types of Disability:

a. Blindness – Visually impaired

b. Low Vision

c. Leprosy Cured
d. Hearing impairment

e. Locomotor disability

f. Mental retarda�on

g. Mental illness

PwD �ensi��ity: PwD sensi�vity promotes empathy, e�que�e and equal par�cipa�on of individuals and
organiza�ons while working with individuals with a disability, e.g. sensory, physical or intellectual.

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Ways to be PwD �ensi�ve

To be sensi�ve to PwD, one should:

Ÿ Be respec�ul to all Persons with Disabili�es �PwD� and communicate in a way that re�ects PwD
sensi�vity.

Ÿ Always be suppor�ve and kind towards a PwD with their daily chores.

Ÿ Be ready to assist a PwD to help them avail of any benefit/ livelihood opportunity/ training or any
kind that helps them grow.
Ÿ Encourage and try to make things easier and accessible to PwD so that they can work without or with
minimum help.
Ÿ Protest where feasible and report any wrong act/behaviour against any PwD to the appropriate
authority.

Ÿ Learn and follow the laws, acts, and policies relevant to PwD.

Appropriate Verbal Communica�on

As part of appropriate verbal communica�on with all genders and PwD, one should:

Ÿ Talk to all genders and PwD respec�ully, maintaining a normal tone of voice with appropriate
politeness. It is important to ensure one’s tone of voice does not have hints of sarcasm, anger, or
unwelcome affec�on.

Ÿ Avoid being too self-conscious concerning the words to use while also ensuring not to use words that
imply one’s superiority over the other.

Ÿ Make no difference between a PwD and their caretaker. Treat PwD like adults and talk to them
directly.

Ÿ Ask a PwD if they need any assistance instead of assuming they need it and offering assistance
spontaneously.

Appropriate Non-verbal Communica�on

Non-verbal communica�on is essen�ally the way someone communicates through their body language.
These include:

Ÿ Facial expressions: The human face is quite expressive, capable of conveying many emo�ons without
using words. Facial expressions must usually be maintained neutral and should change according to
the situa�on, e.g. smile as a gesture of gree�ng.

Ÿ Body posture and movement: One should be mindful of how to sit, stand, walk, or hold their head.
For example - one should sit and walk straight in a composed manner. The way one moves and carries
self, communicates a lot to others. This type of non-verbal communica�on includes one’s posture,
bearing, stance, and subtle movements.

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Ÿ Gestures: One should be very careful with their gestures, e.g. waving, poin�ng, beckoning, or using
one’s hands while speaking. One should use appropriate and posi�ve gestures to maintain respect
for the other person while being aware that a gesture may have different meanings in different
cultures.

Ÿ Eye contact: Eye contact is par�cularly significant in non-verbal communica�on. The way someone
looks at someone else may communicate many things, such as interest, hos�lity, affec�on or
a�rac�on. Eye contact is vital for maintaining the �ow of conversa�on and for understanding the
other person’s interest and response. One should maintain appropriate eye contact, ensuring not to
stare or look over the shoulders. To maintain respect, one should sit or stand at the other person’s
eye level to make eye contact.

Ÿ Touch: Touch is a very sensi�ve type of non-verbal communica�on. Examples are - handshakes,
hugs, pat on the back or head, gripping the arm, etc. A firm handshake indicates interest, while a
weak handshake indicates the opposite. One should be extra cau�ous not to touch others
inappropriately and avoid touching them inadvertently by maintaining a safe distance.

Rights of PwD

PwD have the right to respect and human dignity. Irrespec�ve of the nature and seriousness of their
disabili�es, PwD have the same fundamental rights as others, such as�

Ÿ Disabled persons have the same civil and poli�cal rights as other people

Ÿ Disabled persons are en�tled to the measures designed to enable them to become as self-
dependent as possible

Ÿ Disabled persons have the right to economic and social security

Ÿ Disabled persons have the right to live with their families or foster parents and par�cipate in all
social and crea�ve ac�vi�es.

Ÿ Disabled persons are protected against all exploita�on and treatment of discriminatory and abusive
nature.

Making Workplace PwD Friendly

Ÿ One should not make PwD feel uncomfortable by giving too li�le or too much a�en�on

Ÿ One should use a normal tone while communica�ng with a PwD and treat them as all others keeping
in mind their limita�ons and type of disability

Ÿ Any help should be provided only when asked for by a PwD

Ÿ One should help in ensuring the health and well-being of PwD.

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Expected Employer Behaviour

Some of the common behavioural traits that employees expect from their employers are:

Ÿ Coopera�on: No work is successful without coopera�on from the employer’s side. �oopera�on helps
to understand the job role be�er and complete it within the given �meline.

Ÿ Polite language: Polite language is always welcomed at work. This is a basic aspect that everybody
expects.

Ÿ Posi�ve ��tude: Employers with a posi�ve a�tude can supervise the work of the employees and act
as a helping hand to accomplish the given task. A person with a posi�ve a�tude looks at the best
�uali�es in others and helps them gain success.

Ÿ Unbiased behaviour: Employers should always remain fair towards all their employees. One should
not adopt prac�ces to favour one employee while neglec�ng or ignoring the other. This might create
animosity among co-workers.

Ÿ Decent behaviour: The employer should never improperly present oneself before the employee. One
should always respect each other’s presence and behave accordingly. The employer should not speak
or act in a manner that may make the employee feel uneasy, insulted, and insecure.

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Exercise
1. List down three examples of workplace ethics.

2. List down three examples of interpersonal skills.

3. Iden�fy two reasons for workplace con�icts.

4. Iden�fy two ways of resolving interpersonal con�icts.

5. List down two ways of dealing with heightened emo�ons at work.

6. List down two types of non-verbal communica�on.4. �asic �ealth and �afety �rac�ces.

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Notes

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4. Apply health and

safety practices at the
workplace
Unit 4.1 Workplace Hazards
Unit 4.2 Fire Safety
Unit 4.3 First Aid
Unit 4.4 Waste Management

ELE/N1002

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Key Learning Outcomes

By t�e en� o� t�is mo�u�e� �ar�ci�ants �i�� �e a��e to�
1. Discuss job-site hazards, risks and accidents.
2. Explain the organiza�onal safety procedures for maintaining electrical safety, handling tools and
hazardous materials.
3. Describe how to interpret warning signs while accessing sensi��e work areas.
4. Explain the importance of good housekeeping.
5. Describe the importance of maintaining appropriate postures while li�ing hea�y objects.
6. List the types of fire and fire ex�nguishers.
7. Describe the concept of waste management and methods of disposing of hazardous waste.
8. List the common sources of pollu�on and ways to minimize them.
9. Elaborate on electronic waste disposal procedures.
10. Explain how the administer appropriate first aid to �ic�ms in case of bleeding, burns, choking, electric
shock, poisoning and also administer first aid to �ic�ms in case of a heart a�ack or cardiac arrest due
to electric shock.

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UNIT 4.1: Workplace Hazards

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Discuss job-site hazards, risks and accidents.
2. Explain the organiza�onal safety procedures for maintaining electrical safety, handling tools and
hazardous materials.
3. Describe how to interpret warning signs while accessing sensi�ve work areas.
4. Explain the importance of good housekeeping.
5. Describe the importance of maintaining appropriate postures while li�ing heavy objects.
6. Explain safe handling of tools and Personal Protec�ve Equipment to be used.

4.1.1 Workplace Safety

Workplace safety is important to be established for crea�ng a safe and secure working for the workers.
The workplace has to be administered as per the rules of the Occupa�onal Safety and Health
Administra�on �OSHA�. It refers to monitoring the working environment and all hazardous factors that
impact employees' safety, health, and well-being. It is important to provide a safe working environment to
the employees to increase their produc�vity, wellness, skills, etc.

The benefits of workplace safety are:

Ÿ Employee reten�on increases if they are provided with a safe working environment.

Ÿ Failure to follow OSHA's laws and guidelines can result in significant legal and financial consequences.

Ÿ A safe environment enables employees to stay invested in their work and increases produc�vity.

Ÿ Employer branding and company reputa�on can both benefit from a safe working environment.

4.1.2 Workplace Hazards

A workplace is a situa�on that has the poten�al to cause harm or injury to the workers and damage the
tools or property of the workplace. Hazards exist in every workplace and can come from a variety of
sources. Finding and removing them is an important component of making a safe workplace.

Common Workplace Hazards

The common workplace hazards are:

Ÿ Biological: The threats caused by biological agents like viruses, bacteria, animals, plants, insects and
also humans, are known as biological hazards.

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Ÿ Chemical: Chemical hazard is the hazard of inhaling various chemicals, liquids and solvents. Skin
irrita�on, respiratory system irrita�on, blindness, corrosion, and explosions are all possible health
and physical consequences of these dangers.

Ÿ Mechanical: Mechanical Hazards comprise the injuries that can be caused by the moving parts of
machinery, plant or equipment.

Ÿ Psychological: Psychological hazards are occupa�onal hazards caused by stress, harassment, and
violence.

Ÿ Physical: The threats that can cause physical damage to people is called physical hazard. These
include unsafe condi�ons that can cause injury, illness and death.

Ÿ Ergonomic: Ergonomic Hazards are the hazards of the workplace caused due to awkward posture,
forceful mo�on, sta�onary posi�on, direct pressure, vibra�on, extreme temperature, noise, work
stress, etc.

Workplace Hazards Analysis

A workplace hazard analysis is a method of iden�fying risks before they occur by focusing on occupa�onal
tasks. It focuses on the worker's rela�onship with the task, the tools, and the work environment. A�er
iden�fying the hazards of the workplace, organisa�ons shall try to eliminate or minimize them to an
acceptable level of risk.

Control Measures of Workplace Hazards

Control measures are ac�ons that can be taken to reduce the risk of being exposed to the hazard.
Elimina�on, Subs�tu�on, Engineering Controls, Administra�ve Controls, and Personal Protec�ve
Equipment are the five general categories of control measures.

Ÿ Elimina�on: The most successful control technique is to eliminate a specific hazard or hazardous
work procedure or prevent it from entering the workplace.

Ÿ Subs�tu�on: Subs�tu�on is the process of replacing something harmful with something less
hazardous. While subs�tu�ng the hazard may not eliminate all of the risks associated with the
process or ac�vity, it will reduce the overall harm or health impacts.

Ÿ Engineering Controls: Engineered controls protect workers by elimina�ng hazardous situa�ons or

crea�ng a barrier between the worker and the hazard, or removing the hazard from the person.

Ÿ Administra��e Controls: To reduce exposure to hazards, administra�ve controls limit the length of
�me spent working on a hazardous task that might be used in combina�on with other measures of
control.

Ÿ Personal Protec��e E�uipment: Personal protec�ve equipment protects users from health and
safety hazards at work. It includes items like safety helmets, gloves, eye protec�on, etc.

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4.1.3 Risk for a Drone Technician

A drone technician may require to repair the propeller, motor and its mount, ba�ery, mainboards,
processor, booms, avionics, camera, sensors, chassis, wiring and landing gear. A technician may face some
risks while repairing the drones’ equipment.

Ÿ The technician is suscep�ble to being physically harmed by propellers.

Ÿ Direct contact with exposed electrical circuits can injure the person.

Ÿ If the skin gets in touch with the heat generated from electric arcs, it burns the internal �ssues.

Ÿ Major electrical injuries can occur due to poorly installed electrical equipment, faulty wiring,
overloaded or overheated outlets, use of extension cables, incorrect use of replacement fuses, use of
equipment with wet hands, etc.

4.1.4 Workplace Warning Signs

A Hazard sign is defined as ‘informa�on or instruc�on about health and safety at work on a signboard, an
illuminated sign or sound signal, a verbal communica�on or hand signal.’

There are four different types of safety signs:

Ÿ Prohibi�on � Danger Alarm Signs

Ÿ Mandatory Signs

Ÿ Warning Signs

Ÿ And Emergency

1. Prohi�i�on Signs

A "prohibi�on sign" is a safety sign that prohibits behaviour that is likely to endanger one�s health or
safety. The colour red is necessary for these health and safety signs. Only what or who is forbidden
should be displayed on a restric�on sign.

Fig. 4.1.1. Prohibi on Warning Signs

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2. Mandatory Signs

Mandatory signs give clear direc�ons that must be followed. �he icons are white circles that have been
reversed out of a blue circle. On a white background, the text is black.

Fig. 4.1.2. Mandatory Signs

3. Warning Signs

Warning signs are the safety informa�on communica�on signs. �hey are shown as a �yellow colour
triangle’.

Fig. 4.1.3. Warning Signs

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4. Emergency Signs

The loca�on or routes to emergency facili�es are indicated by emergency signs. These signs have a
green backdrop with a white emblem or wri�ng. These signs convey basic informa�on and fre�uently
refer to housekeeping, company procedures, or logis�cs.

Fig. 4.1.4. Emergency Signs

4.1.5 Cleanliness in the Workplace

Workplace cleanliness maintenance creates a healthy, efficient and produc�ve environment for the
employees. Cleanliness at the workplace is hindered by some elements like clu�ered desks, le�over food,
waste paper, etc. A �dy workplace is said to improve employee professionalism and enthusiasm while
also encouraging a healthy working environment.

Benefits of cleanliness in the workplace:

1. Pro��c�vity: Cleanliness in the workplace can bring a sense of belonging to the employees, also
mo�va�ng and boos�ng the morale of the employees. This results in increasing their produc�vity.

2. Employee Well-being: Employee well-being can be improved by providing a clean work environment.
Employees use fewer sick days in a workplace where li�er and waste are properly disposed of, and
surfaces are cleaned regularly, resul�ng in increased overall produc�vity.

3. Posi�ve �mpression: Cleanliness and orderliness in the workplace provide a posi�ve impression on
both employees and visitors.

4. Cost saving: By maintaining acceptable levels of cleanliness in the workplace, businesses can save
money on cleaning bills and renova�ons, which may become necessary if the premises are not
properly kept.

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Reasons for Cleaning the Workplace

Ÿ Cleaning of dry floors, mostly to prevent workplace slips and falls.

Ÿ Disinfectants stop bacteria in their tracks, preven�ng the spread of infec�ons and illness.

Ÿ Proper air filtra�on decreases ha�ardous substance exposures such as dust and fumes.

Ÿ Light fixture cleaning improves ligh�ng e�ciency.

Ÿ Using environmentally friendly cleaning chemicals that are safer for both personnel and the
environment.

Ÿ Work environments are kept clean by properly disposing of garbage and recyclable items.

����� �i�ing an� �an�ling of �ea�� �oa�s

Musculoskeletal Injuries (MSIs), such as sprains and strains, can occur while li�ing, handling, or carrying
objects at work. When bending, twis�ng, uncomfortable postures and li�ing heavy objects are involved,
the risk of injury increases. Ergonomic controls can help to lower the risk of injury and poten�ally prevent
it.

Types of injuries caused while li�ing heavy objects�

Ÿ Cuts and abrasions are caused by rough surfaces.
Ÿ Crushing of feet or hands.
Ÿ Strain to muscles and joints.

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Preparing to Li�

A load that appears light enough to bear at first will grow increasingly heavier as one carries it further. The
person carrying the weight should be able to see over or around it at all �mes.

The amount of weight a person can li�, depends on their age, physique, and health.

It also depends on whether or not the person is used to li�ing and moving he�y objects.

Common Causes of Back Injuries

The Most Common Causes of Back Injuries are:

1. Inadequate Training: The individual raising the load receives no sufficient training or guidance.

2. Lack of awareness of technique: The most common cause of back pain is incorrect twis�ng and
posture, which causes back strain.

3. Load size: The load size to consider before li�ing. If the burden is too much for one’s capacity or
handling, their back may be strained and damaged.

4. Physical Strength: Depending on their muscle power, various persons have varied physical strengths.
One must be aware of their limita�ons.

5. Teamwork: The opera�on of a workplace is all about working together. �hen opposed to a single
person li�ing a load, two people can li� it more easily and without difficulty. If one of two people isn�t
li�ing it properly, the other or both of them will su�er back injuries as a result of the e�tra strain.

Technique Demonstra�on

1. Ensure one has a wide base of support before li�ing

the heavy object. Ensure one’s feet are shoulder -width
apart, and one foot is slightly ahead of the other at all
�mes. This will help one maintain a good balance during
the li�ing of heavy objects. This is known as the Karate
Stance.

2. Squat down as near to the object as possible when one is

ready to li� it, bending at the hips and knees with the
bu�ocks out. If the object is really heavy, one may wish to
place one leg on the floor and the other bent at a straight
angle in front of them.

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4. By straightening one’s hips and knees, slowly elevate

the thing (not the back). As one rises, they should extend
their legs and exhale. Li� the heavy object without
twis�ng the body or bending forward.

5. Do not li� bending forward.

6. Hold the load close to the body.

7. Never li� heavy objects above the shoulder

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7. Never li� heavy objects above the shoulder

8. Use the feet (not the body) to change direc�on, taking

slow, small steps.

9. Set down the heavy object carefully, squa�ng with

the knees and hips only.

Table 4.1.1 Techniques fo� li�ing hea�� ob�ec�s

Source:h ps://www.braceability.com/blogs/ar cles/7-proper-heavy-li�i�g-tech�i�ues

3

4.1.7 Safe Handling of Tools

Workers should be trained on how to use tools safely. When tools are misplaced or handled incorrectly by
workers, they can be dangerous. The following are some sugges�ons from the Na�onal Safety �ouncil for
safe tool handling when they are not in use:
Ÿ Never carry tools up or down a ladder in a way that makes it difficult to grip them. Instead of being
carried by the worker, tools should be li�ed up and down using a bucket or strong bag.
Ÿ Tools should never be tossed but should be properly passed from one employee to the next. Pointed
tools should be passed with the handles facing the receiver or in their carrier.
Ÿ When turning and moving around the workplace, workers carrying large tools or equipment on their
shoulders should pay par�cular a�en�on to clearances.
Ÿ Pointed tools such as chisels and screwdrivers should never be kept in a worker's pocket. They can be
carried in a toolbox, poin�ng down in a tool belt or pocket tool bag, or in hand with the �p always held
away from the body.

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Ÿ Tools should always be stored while not in use. People below are put in danger when tools are le�
si�ng around on an elevated structure, such as a scaffold. In situa�ons when there is a lot of vibra�on,
this risk increases.

4.1.8 Personal Protec��e E�u�p�ent

Personal Protec�ve E�uipment, or �PPE,� is e�uipment worn to reduce e�posure to risks that might result
in significant occupa�onal injuries or illnesses. Chemical, Radiological, Physical, Electrical, Mechanical,
and other job dangers may cause these injuries and diseases.

PPE used for protec�on fro� t�e follo��n� �njur�es are�

Injury Protec�on Protec�on PPE

Head Injury Falling or flying objects, stat ionary

Protec�on objects, or contact with electrical
wires can cause impact, penetra�on,
and electrical injuries. Hard hats can
protect one’s head from these
injuries. A common electrician's hard
hat is shown in the figure below. This
hard hat is made of nonconduct ive
plas�c and comes with a set of safety
goggles.

Foot and Leg In addi�on to foot protec�on and

Injury Protec�on safety shoes, leggings (e.g., leather)
can guard against risks such as falling
or rolling objects, sharp objects, wet
and slippery surfaces, molten metals,
hot surfaces, and electrical hazards.

Eye and Face Spectacles, goggles, special helmets

Injury Protec�on or shields, and spectacles with side
shields and face shields can protect
against the hazards of flying
fragments, large chips, hot sparks,
radia�on, and splashes from molten
metals. They also offer protec�on
from par�cles, sand, dirt, mists, dust,
and glare.

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Protec�on Hearing protec�on can be obtained

against Hearing by wearing earplugs or earmuffs. High
Loss noise levels can result in permanent
hearing loss or damage, as well as
physical and mental stress. Self -
forming earplugs composed of foam,
waxed co�on, or fibreglass wool
usually fit well. Workers should be
fi�ed for moulded or prefabricated
earplugs by a specialist.

Hand Injury Hand protec�on will aid workers who

Protec�on are exposed to dangerous substances
by skin absorp�on, serious wounds,
or thermal burns. Gloves are a
frequent protec�ve clothing item.
When working on electrified circuits,
electricians frequently use leather
gloves with rubber inserts. When
stripping cable with a sharp blade,
Kevlar gloves are used to prevent
cuts.

Whole Body Workers must protect their en�re

Protec�on bodies from risks such as heat and
radia�on. �ubber, leather, synthe�cs,
and plas�c are among the materials
used in whole-body PPE, in addi�on
to fire-retardant wool and co�on.
Maintenance staff who operate with
high-power sources such as
transformer installa�ons and motor -
control centres are frequently obli ged
to wear fire -resistant clothes.

Table 4.1.2 Personal prote���e e���p�ent

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Notes

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UNIT 4.2: Fire Safety

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. List the types of fire and fire ex�nguishers.

4.2.1 Fire Safety

Fire safety is a set of ac�ons aimed at reducing the amount of damage caused by fire. Fire safety
procedures include both those that are used to prevent an uncontrolled fire from star�ng and those that
are used to minimise the spread and impact of a fire a�er it has started. �eveloping and implemen�ng fire
safety measures in the workplace is not only mandated by law but is also essen�al for the protec�on of
everyone who may be present in the building during a fire emergency.

The basic Fire Safety Responsibili�es are�

Ÿ To iden�fy risks on the premises, a fire risk assessment must be carried out.
Ÿ Ascertain that fire safety measures are properly installed.
Ÿ Prepare for unexpected events.
Ÿ Fire safety instruc�ons and training should be provided to the employees.

4.2.2 Respond to a Workplace Fire

Ÿ Workplace fire drills should be conducted on a regular basis.

Ÿ If one has a manual alarm, they should raise it.

Ÿ Close the doors and leave the fire-stricken area as soon as possible. Ensure that the evacua�on is �uick
and painless.

Ÿ Turn off dangerous machines and don't stop to get personal items.

Ÿ Assemble at a central loca�on. Ascertain that the assembly point is easily accessible to the employees.

Ÿ If one’s clothing catches fire, one shouldn't rush about it. They should stop and descend on the ground
and roll to smother the flames if their clothes catch fire.

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4.2.3 Fire �x�n��i��er

Fire ex�nguishers are portable devices used to put out small flames or minimise their damage un�l fire-
fighters arrive. These are maintained on hand in loca�ons such as fire sta�ons, buildings, workplaces,
public transit, and soon. The types and quan�ty of ex�nguishers that are legally necessary for a given
region are determined by the applicable safety standards.

Types of fire ex�nguishers are�

There are five main types of fire ex�nguishers�

1. Water.

2. Powder.

3. Foam.

4. Carbon Dioxide (Co2).

5. Wet chemical.

1. Water: Water fire ex�nguishers are one of the most common commercial
and residen�al fire ex�nguishers on the market. They're meant to be used on
class-A flames.

2. Powder: The L2 powder fire ex�nguisher is the most commonly

recommended fire ex�nguisher in the Class D �pecialist Powder category,
and is designed to put out burning lithium metal fires.

3. Foam: Foam ex�nguishers are iden�fied by a cream rectangle with the word
"foam" printed on it. They're mostly water-based, but they also contain a
foaming component that provides a quick knock-down and blanke�ng effect
on flames. It suffocates the flames and seals the vapours, preven�ng re-
igni�on.

4. Carbon Dioxide (Co2): Class B and electrical fires are ex�nguished with
carbon dioxide ex�nguishers, which suffocate the flames by removing
oxygen from the air. They are par�cularly beneficial for workplaces and
workshops where electrical fires may occur since, unlike conven�onal
ex�nguishers, they do not leave any toxins behind and hence minimise
equipment damage.

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5. Wet Chemical: Wet chemical ex�nguishers are designed to put out fires that
are classified as class F. They are successful because they can put out
extremely high-temperature fires, such as those caused by cooking oils and
fats.

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Notes

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UNIT 4.3: First Aid

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Explain how the administer appropriate first aid to vic�ms in case of bleeding, burns, choking, electric
shock, poisoning.
2. Explain how to administer first aid to vic�ms in case of a heart a�ack or cardiac arrest due to electric
shock.

4.3.1 First Aid

First aid is the treatment or care given to someone who has sustained an injury or disease un�l more
advanced care can be obtained or the person recovers.

The aim of first aid is to:

Ÿ Preserve life
Ÿ Prevent the worsening of a sickness or injury
Ÿ If at all possible, relieve pain
Ÿ Encourage recovery
Ÿ Keep the unconscious safe.

First aid can help to lessen the severity of an injury or disease, and in some situa�ons, it can even save a
person's life.

4.3.2 Need for First Aid at the Workplace

Ÿ In the workplace, first aid refers to providing immediate care and life support to persons who have
been injured or become unwell at work.

Ÿ Many �mes, first aid can help to lessen the severity of an accident or disease.

Ÿ It can also help an injured or sick person relax. In life-or-death situa�ons, prompt and appropriate first
aid can make all the difference.

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4.3.2 Need for First Aid at the Workplace

In the workplace, first aid refers to providing immediate care and life support to persons who have been
injured or become unwell at work.

Many �mes, first aid can help to lessen the severity of an accident or disease.

It can also help an injured or sick person relax. In life-or-death situa�ons, prompt and appropriate first aid
can make all the difference.

4.3.3 Trea�ng �inor Cuts and Scrapes

Steps to keep cuts clean and prevent infec�ons and scars:

Ÿ Wash Hands: Wash hands first with soap and water to avoid introducing bacteria into the cut and
causing an infec�on. One should use the hand sani�ser if one is on the go.

Ÿ Stop the bleeding: Using a gauze pad or a clean towel, apply pressure to the wound. For a few
minutes, keep the pressure on.

Ÿ Clean Wounds: Once the bleeding has stopped, clean the wound by rinsing it under cool running
water or using a saline wound wash. Use soap and a moist washcloth to clean the area around the
wound. Soap should not be used on the cut since it may irritate the skin. Also, avoid using hydrogen
peroxide or iodine, as these may aggravate the wound.

Ÿ Remove Dirt: Remove any dirt or debris from the area. Pick out any dirt, gravel, glass, or other
material in the cut with a pair of tweezers cleaned with alcohol.

4.3.4 Heart A�ack

When the blood flow carrying oxygen to the heart is blocked, a heart a�ack occurs. The heart muscle runs
out of oxygen and starts to die.
Symptoms of a heart a�ack can vary from person to person. They may be mild or severe. Women, older
adults, and people with diabetes are more likely to have subtle or unusual symptoms.
Symptoms in adults may include:
Ÿ Changes in mental status, especially in older adults.
Ÿ Chest pain that feels like pressure, squeezing, or fullness. The pain is most o�en in the centre of the
chest. It may also be felt in the jaw, shoulder, arms, back, and stomach. It can last for more than a few
minutes or come and go.
Ÿ Cold sweat.
Ÿ Light-headedness.
Ÿ Nausea (more common in women).
Ÿ Indiges�on.

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Ÿ Vomi�ng.

Ÿ Numbness, aching or �ngling in the arm �usually the le� arm, but the right arm may be a�ected
alone, or along with the le��.

Ÿ Shortness of breath.

Ÿ Weakness or fa�gue, especially in older adults and in women.

First Aid for Heart A�a��

If one thinks someone is experiencing a heart a�ack, they should�

Ÿ Have the person sit down, rest, and try to keep calm.
Ÿ Loosen any �ght clothing.
Ÿ Ask if the person takes any chest pain medicine, such as nitro-glycerine for a known heart condi�on,
and help them take it.
Ÿ If the pain does not go away promptly with rest or within 3 minutes of taking nitro-glycerine, call for
emergency medical help.
Ÿ If the person is unconscious and unresponsive, call 911 or the local emergency number, then begin
CPR.
Ÿ If an infant or child is unconscious and unresponsive, perform 1 minute of CPR, then call 911 or the
local emergency number.

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Notes

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UNIT 4.4: Waste Management

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Describe the concept of waste management and methods of disposing of hazardous waste.
2. List the common sources of pollu�on and ways to minimize them.
3. Elaborate on electronic waste disposal procedures.

4.4.1. Waste Management and Methods of Waste Disposal

The collec�on, disposal, monitoring, and processing of waste materials is known as waste management.
These wastes affect living beings’ health and the environment. For reducing their effects, they have to be
managed properly. The waste is usually in solid, liquid or gaseous form.

The importance of waste management is:

Waste management is important because it decreases waste's impact on the environment, health, and
other factors. It can also assist in the reuse or recycling of resources like paper, cans, and glass. The
disposal of solid, liquid, gaseous, or dangerous substances is the example of waste management.

When it comes to trash management, there are numerous factors to consider, including waste disposal,
recycling, waste avoidance and reduc�on, and garbage transporta�on. Treatment of solid and liquid
wastes is part of the waste management process. It also provides a number of recycling op�ons for goods
that aren't classified as garbage during the process.

4.4.2 Methods of Waste Management

Non-biodegradable and toxic wastes, such as radioac�ve remains, can cause irreversible damage to the
environment and human health if they are not properly disposed of. Waste disposal has long been a
source of worry, with popula�on increase and industrialisa�on being the primary causes. �ere are a few
garbage disposal op�ons.

Ÿ Landfills: The most common way of trash disposal today is to throw daily waste/garbage into landfills.
This garbage disposal method relies on burying the material in the ground.

Ÿ Recycling: Recycling is the process of transforming waste items into new products in order to reduce
energy consump�on and the use of fresh raw materials. Recycling reduces energy consump�on,
landfill volume, air and water pollu�on, greenhouse gas emissions, and the preserva�on of natural
resources for future use.

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3. Compos�n�: Compos�ng is a simple and natural bio-degrada�on process that converts organic
wastes, such as plant remnants, garden garbage, and kitchen waste, into nutrient-rich food for plants.

4. Incinera�on: Incinera�on is the process of combus�ng garbage. The waste material is cooked to
extremely high temperatures and turned into materials such as heat, gas, steam, and ash using this
technology.

4.4.3 Recyclable, Non-Recyclable and Hazardous Waste

1. Recyclable Waste: The waste which can be reused or recycled further is known as recyclable waste.

2. Non-recyclable Waste: The waste which cannot be reused or recycled is known as non-recyclable
waste. Polythene bags are a great example of non-recyclable waste.

3. Hazardous Waste: The waste which can create serious harm to the people and the environment is
known as hazardous waste.

4.4.4 Sources of Pollu�on

Pollu�on is defined as the harm caused by the presence of a material or substances in places where they
would not normally be found or at levels greater than normal. Pollu�ng substances might be in the form of
a solid, a liquid, or a gas.

Ÿ Point source of pollu�on: Pollu�on from a point source enters a water body at a precise loca�on and
can usually be iden�fied. ��uent discharges from sewage treatment plants and industrial sites,
power plants, landfill sites, fish farms, and oil leakage via a pipeline from industrial sites are all
poten�al point sources of contamina�on.

Point source pollu�on is o�en easy to prevent since it is feasible to iden�fy where it originates, and
once iden�fied, individuals responsible for the pollu�on can take rapid correc�ve ac�on or invest in
longer-term treatment and control facili�es.

Ÿ Diffuse source of pollu�on: As a result of land-use ac�vi�es such as urban development, amenity,
farming, and forestry, diffuse pollu�on occurs when pollutants are widely used and diffused over a
large region. These ac�vi�es could have occurred recently or in the past. It might be difficult to
pinpoint specific sources of pollu�on and, as a result, take rapid ac�on to prevent it because
preven�on o�en necessitates significant changes in land use and management methods.

Pollu�on Pre�en�on

Pollu�on preven�on entails ac�ng at the source of pollutants to prevent or minimise their produc�on. It
saves natural resources, like water, by using materials and energy more efficiently.

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Pollu�on preven�on includes any prac�ce that:

Ÿ Reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste
stream or otherwise released into the environment (including fugi�ve emissions� prior to recycling,
treatment, or disposal;

Ÿ Reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the release of such
substances, pollutants, or contaminants (these prac�ces are known as �source reduc�on��;

Ÿ Improved efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other resources, or Conserva�on is
a method of safeguarding natural resources.

Ÿ Improvements in housekeeping, maintenance, training, or inventory management; equipment or

technology adjustments; process or method modifica�ons; product reformula�on or redesign; raw
material subs�tu�on; or improvements in housekeeping, maintenance, training, or inventory
control.

4.4.5 Electronic Waste

Lead, cadmium, beryllium, mercury, and brominated flame retardants are found in every piece of
electronic waste. When gadgets and devices are disposed of illegally, these hazardous compounds are
more likely to contaminate the earth, pollute the air, and leak into water bodies.

When e-waste is dumped in a landfill, it tends to leach trace metals as water runs through it. The
contaminated landfill water then reaches natural groundwater with elevated toxic levels, which can be
dangerous if it reaches any drinking water bodies. Despite having an environmentally benign approach,
recycling generally results in interna�onal shipment and dumping of the gadgets in pits.

Some eco-friendly ways of disposing of e-waste are:

Ÿ Giving back the e-waste to the electronic companies and drop-off points.

Ÿ Following guidelines issued by the government.

Ÿ Selling or dona�ng the outdated technology-based equipment.

Ÿ Giving e-waste to a cer�fied e-waste recycler.

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Exercise
1. Name all five types of fire ex�nguishers.

2. Explain PPE in brief.

3. List the common workplace hazards.

4. Fill in the Blacks:

i. A "_________ sign" is a safety sign that prohibits behaviour that is likely to endanger one's health
or safety.

ii. ____________ entails ac�ng at the source of pollutants to prevent or minimise their produc�on.

iii. __________ is the treatment or care given to someone who has sustained an injury or disease
un�l more advanced care can be obtained or the person recovers.

iv. The threats caused by biological agents like viruses, bacteria, animals, plants, insects and also
humans, are known as ________________.

v. The workplace has to be administered as per the rules of the ___________________.

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Notes

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5. Employability &
Entrepreneurship Skills
Unit 5.1 Personal Strengths & Value Systems
Unit 5.2 Digital Literacy: A Recap
Unit 5.3 Money Matters
Unit 5.4 Preparing for Employment & Self Employment
Unit 5.5 Understanding Entrepreneurship
Unit 5.6 Preparing to be an Entrepreneur

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Key Learning Outcomes

By the end of this module, par cipants will be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of health
2. List common health issues
3. Discuss tips to prevent common health issues
4. Explain the meaning of hygiene
5. Discuss the purpose of Swacch Bharat Abhiyan
6. Explain the meaning of habit
7. Discuss ways to set up a safe work environment
8. Discuss critical safety habits to be followed by employees
9. Explain the importance of self-analysis
10. Discuss motivation with the help of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
11. Discuss the meaning of achievement motivation
12. List the characteristics of entrepreneurs with achievement motivation
13. List the different factors that motivate you
14. Discuss the role of attitude in self-analysis
15. Discuss how to maintain a positive attitude
16. List your strengths and weaknesses
17. Discuss the qualities of honest people
18. Describe the importance of honesty in entrepreneurs
19. Discuss the elements of a strong work ethic
20. Discuss how to foster a good work ethic
21. List the characteristics of highly creative people
22. List the characteristics of highly innovative people
23. Discuss the benefits of time management
24. List the traits of effective time managers
25. Describe effective time management technique
26. Discuss the importance of anger management
27. Describe anger management strategies
28. Discuss tips for anger management
29. Discuss the causes of stress
30. Discuss the symptoms of stress
31. Discuss tips for stress management
32. Identify the basic parts of a computer
33. Identify the basic parts of a keyboard
34. Recall basic computer terminology
35. Recall the functions of basic computer keys

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36. Discuss the main applications of MS Office

37. Discuss the benefits of Microsoft Outlook
38. Discuss the different types of e-commerce
39. List the benefits of e-commerce for retailers and customers
40. Discuss how the Digital India campaign will help boost e-commerce in India
41. Describe how you will sell a product or service on an e-commerce platform
42. Discuss the importance of saving money
43. Discuss the benefits of saving money
44. Discuss the main types of bank accounts
45. Describe the process of opening a bank account
46. Differentiate between fixed and variable costs
47. Describe the main types of investment options
48. Describe the different types of insurance products
49. Describe the different types of taxes
50. Discuss the uses of online banking
51. Discuss the main types of electronic funds transfers
52. Discuss the steps to prepare for an interview
53. Discuss the steps to create an effective Resume
54. Discuss the most frequently asked interview questions
55. Discuss how to answer the most frequently asked interview questions
56. Discuss basic workplace terminology
57. Discuss the concept of entrepreneurship
58. Discuss the importance of entrepreneurship
59. Describe the characteristics of an entrepreneur
60. Describe the different types of enterprises
61. List the qualities of an effective leader
62. Discuss the benefits of effective leadership
63. List the traits of an effective team
64. Discuss the importance of listening effectively
65. Discuss how to listen effectively
66. Discuss the importance of speaking effectively
67. Discuss how to speak effectively
68. Discuss how to solve problems
69. List important problem solving traits
70. Discuss ways to assess problem solving skills
71. Discuss the importance of negotiation

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72. Discuss how to negotiate

73. Discuss how to identify new business opportunities
74. Discuss how to identify business opportunities within your business
75. Explain the meaning of entrepreneur
76. Describe the different types of entrepreneurs
77. List the characteristics of entrepreneurs
78. Recall entrepreneur success stories
79. Discuss the entrepreneurial process
80. Describe the entrepreneurship ecosystem
81. Discuss the government’s role in the entrepreneurship ecosystem
82. Discuss the purpose of the Make in India campaign
83. Discuss key schemes to promote entrepreneurs
84. Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship and risk appetite
85. Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship and resilience
86. Describe the characteristics of a resilient entrepreneur
87. Discuss how to deal with failure
88. Discuss how market research is carried out
89. Describe the 4 Ps of marketing
90. Discuss the importance of idea generation
91. Recall basic business terminology
92. Discuss the need for CRM
93. Discuss the benefits of CRM
94. Discuss the need for networking
95. Discuss the benefits of networking
96. Discuss the importance of setting goals
97. Differentiate between short-term, medium-term and long-term goals
98. Discuss how to write a business plan
99. Explain the financial planning process
100. Discuss ways to manage your risk
101. Describe the procedure and formalities for applying for bank finance
102. Discuss how to manage your own enterprise
103. List important questions that every entrepreneur should ask before starting an enterprise

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UNIT 5.1: Personal Strengths & Value Systems

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, par cipants will be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of health
2. List common health issues
3. Discuss tips to prevent common health issues
4. Explain the meaning of hygiene
5. Understand the purpose of Swacch Bharat Abhiyan
6. Explain the meaning of habit
7. Discuss ways to set up a safe work environment
8. Discuss critical safety habits to be followed by employees
9. Explain the importance of self-analysis
10. Understand motivation with the help of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
11. Discuss the meaning of achievement motivation
12. List the characteristics of entrepreneurs with achievement motivation
13. List the different factors that motivate you
14. Discuss how to maintain a positive attitude
15. Discuss the role of attitude in self-analysis
16. List your strengths and weaknesses
17. Discuss the qualities of honest people
18. Describe the importance of honesty in entrepreneurs
19. Discuss the elements of a strong work ethic
20. Discuss how to foster a good work ethic
21. List the characteristics of highly creative people
22. List the characteristics of highly innovative people
23. Discuss the benefits of time management
24. List the traits of effective time managers
25. Describe effective time management technique
26. Discuss the importance of anger management
27. Describe anger management strategies
28. Discuss tips for anger management
29. Discuss the causes of stress
30. Discuss the symptoms of stress
31. Discuss tips for stress management

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5.1.1 Health, Habits, Hygiene: What is Health

As per the World Health Organization (WHO), health is a “State of complete physical, mental,
and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” This means being
healthy does not simply mean not being unhealthy – it also means you need to be at peace
emotionally, and feel fit physically. For example, you cannot say you are healthy simply because
you do not have any physical ailments like a cold or cough. You also need to think about whether
you are feeling calm, relaxed and happy.

Common Health Issues

Some common health issues are:
• Allergies
• Asthma
• Skin Disorders
• Depression and Anxiety
• Diabetes
• Cough, Cold, Sore Throat
• Difficulty Sleeping
• Obesity

Tips to Prevent Health Issues

Taking measures to prevent ill health is always better than curing a disease or sickness. You can
stay healthy by:
• Eating healthy foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts
• Cutting back on unhealthy and sugary foods
• Drinking enough water everyday
• Not smoking or drinking alcohol
• Exercising for at least 30 minutes a day, 4-5 times a week
• Taking vaccinations when required
• Practicing yoga exercises and meditation
How many of these health standards do you follow? Tick the ones that apply to you.
1. Get minimum 7-8 hours of sleep every night.
2. Avoid checking email first thing in the morning and right before you go to bed at night.
3. Don’t skip meals – eat regular meals at correct meal times.
4. Read a little bit every single day.
5. Eat more home cooked food than junk food.

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6. Stand more than you sit.

7. Drink a glass of water first thing in the morning and have at least 8 glasses of water
through the day.
8. Go to the doctor and dentist for regular checkups.
9. Exercise for 30 minutes at least 5 days a week.
10. Avoid consuming lots of aerated beverages.

What is Hygiene?
As per the World Health Organization (WHO), “Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that
help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases.” In other words, hygiene means
ensuring that you do whatever is required to keep your surroundings clean, so that you reduce
the chances of spreading germs and diseases.
For instance, think about the kitchen in your home. Good hygiene means ensuring that the
kitchen is always spick and span, the food is put away, dishes are washed and dustbins are not
overflowing with garbage. Doing all this will reduce the chances of attracting pests like rats or
cockroaches, and prevent the growth of fungus and other bacteria, which could spread disease.
How many of these health standards do you follow? Tick the ones that apply to you.
1. Have a bath or shower every day with soap – and wash your hair with shampoo 2-3
times a week.
2. Wear a fresh pair of clean undergarments every day.
3. Brush your teeth in the morning and before going to bed.
4. Cut your fingernails and toenails regularly.
5. Wash your hands with soap after going to the toilet.
6. Use an anti-perspirant deodorant on your underarms if you sweat a lot.
7. Wash your hands with soap before cooking or eating.
8. Stay home when you are sick, so other people don’t catch what you have.
9. Wash dirty clothes with laundry soap before wearing them again.
10. Cover your nose with a tissue/your hand when coughing or sneezing.
See how healthy and hygienic you are, by giving yourself 1 point for every ticked statement!
Then take a look at what your score means.
Your Score
0-7/20: You need to work a lot harder to stay fit and fine! Make it a point to practice good
habits daily and see how much better you feel!
7-14/20: Not bad, but there is scope for improvement! Try and add a few more good habits to
your daily routine.
14-20/20: Great job! Keep up the good work! Your body and mind thank you!

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Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

We have already discussed the importance of following good hygiene and health practices for
ourselves. But, it is not enough for us to be healthy and hygienic. We must also extend this
standard to our homes, our immediate surroundings and to our country as a whole.
The ‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ (Clean India Mission) launched by Prime Minister Shri Narendra
Modi on 2nd October 2014, believes in doing exactly this. The aim of this mission is to clean the
streets and roads of India and raise the overall level of cleanliness. Currently this mission covers
4,041 cities and towns across the country. Millions of our people have taken the pledge for a
clean India. You should take the pledge too, and do everything possible to keep our country
clean!

What are Habits?

A habit is a behaviour that is repeated frequently. All of us have good habits and bad habits.
Keep in mind the phrase by John Dryden: “We first make our habits, and then our habits make
us.” This is why it is so important that you make good habits a way of life, and consciously avoid
practicing bad habits.
Some good habits that you should make part of your daily routine are:
• Always having a positive attitude
• Making exercise a part of your daily routine
• Reading motivational and inspirational stories
• Smiling! Make it a habit to smile as often as possible
• Making time for family and friends
• Going to bed early and waking up early
Some bad habits that you should quit immediately are:
• Skipping breakfast
• Snacking frequently even when you are not hungry
• Eating too much fattening and sugary food
• Smoking, drinking alcohol and doing drugs
• Spending more money than you can afford
• Worrying about unimportant issues
• Staying up late and waking up late

Tips
• Following healthy and hygienic practices every day will make you feel good mentally and
physically.
• Hygiene is two-thirds of health – so good hygiene will help you stay strong and healthy!

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5.1.2: Safety: Tips to Design a Safe Workplace

Every employer is obligated to ensure that his workplace follows the highest possible safety
protocol. When setting up a business, owners must make it a point to:
• Use ergonomically designed furniture and equipment to avoid stooping and twisting
• Provide mechanical aids to avoid lifting or carrying heavy objects
• Have protective equipment on hand for hazardous jobs
• Designate emergency exits and ensure they are easily accessible
• Set down health codes and ensure they are implemented
• Follow the practice of regular safety inspections in and around the workplace
• Ensure regular building inspections are conducted
• Get expert advice on workplace safety and follow it

Non-Negotiable Employee Safety Habits

Every employer is obligated to ensure that his workplace follows the highest possible safety
protocol. When setting up a business, owners must make it a point to:
• Immediately report unsafe conditions to a supervisor
• Recognize and report safety hazards that could lead to slips, trips and falls
• Report all injuries and accidents to a supervisor
• Wear the correct protective equipment when required
• Learn how to correctly use equipment provided for safety purposes
• Be aware of and avoid actions that could endanger other people
• Take rest breaks during the day and some time off from work during the week

Tips
• Be aware of what emergency number to call at the time of a workplace emergency
• Practice evacuation drills regularly to avoid chaotic evacuations

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5.1.3 Self Analysis – Attitude, Achievement Motivation:

What is Self-Analysis
To truly achieve your full potential, you need to take a deep look inside yourself and find out
what kind of person you really are. This attempt to understand your personality is known as
self-analysis. Assessing yourself in this manner will help you grow, and will also help you to
identify areas within yourself that need to be further developed, changed or eliminated. You
can better understand yourself by taking a deep look at what motivates you, what your attitude
is like, and what your strengths and weaknesses are.

What is Motivation?
Very simply put, motivation is your reason for acting or behaving in a certain manner. It is
important to understand that not everyone is motivated by the same desires – people are
motivated by many, many different things. We can understand this better by looking at Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Famous American psychologist Abraham Maslow wanted to understand what motivates
people. He believed that people have five types of needs, ranging from very basic needs (called
physiological needs) to more important needs that are required for self-growth (called self-
actualization needs). Between the physiological and self-actualization needs are three other
needs – safety needs, belongingness and love needs, and esteem needs. These needs are
usually shown as a pyramid with five levels and are known as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

Self-fulfillment
Self -
needs
actualization:
achiving one's full
potential, including
creative activities
Esteem needs:
prestige and feeling of Psychological
accomplishment needs

Belongingness and love needs:

intimate relationships, friends

Safety needs:
Security, safety Basic
needs

Physiological needs:
food, water, warmth, rest

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As you can see from the pyramid, the lowest level depicts the most basic needs. Maslow
believed that our behaviour is motivated by our basic needs, until those needs are met. Once
they are fulfilled, we move to the next level and are motived by the next level of needs. Let’s
understand this better with an example.
Rupa comes from a very poor family. She never has enough food, water, warmth or rest.
According to Maslow, until Rupa is sure that she will get these basic needs, she will not even
think about the next level of needs – her safety needs. But, once Rupa is confident that her basic
needs will be met, she will move to the next level, and her behaviour will then be motivated
by her need for security and safety. Once these new needs are met, Rupa will once again move
to the next level, and be motivated by her need for relationships and friends. Once this need
is satisfied, Rupa will then focus on the fourth level of needs – her esteem needs, after which
she will move up to the fifth and last level of needs – the desire to achieve her full potential.

Understanding Achievement Motivation

We now know that people are motivated by basic, psychological and self-fulfillment needs.
However, certain people are also motivated by the achievement of highly challenging
accomplishments. This is known as Achievement Motivation, or ‘need for achievement’.
The level of motivation achievement in a person differs from individual to individual. It is
important that entrepreneurs have a high level of achievement motivation – a deep desire to
accomplish something important and unique. It is equally important that they hire people who
are also highly motivated by challenges and success.

What Motivates You?

What are the things that really motivate you? List down five things that really motivate you.
Remember to answer honestly!
I am motivated by:

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Characteristics of Entrepreneurs with

Achievement Motivation
Entrepreneurs with achievement motivation can be described as follows:

• Unafraid to take risks for personal • Very persistent when it comes to achieving
accomplishment goals
• Love being challenged • Extremely courageous
• Future-oriented • Highly creative and innovative
• Flexible and adaptive • Restless - constantly looking to achieve more
• Value negative feedback more than • Feel personally responsible for solving
positive feedback problems
Think about it:
• Can you think of entrepreneurs who display
• How many of these traits do you have?
these traits?

How to Cultivate a Positive Attitude

The good news is attitude is a choice. So it is possible to improve, control and change our
attitude, if we decide we want to! The following tips help foster a positive mindset:
• Remember that you control your attitude, not the other way around
• Devote at least 15 minutes a day towards reading, watching or listening to something
positive
• Avoid negative people who only complain and stop complaining yourself
• Expand your vocabulary with positive words and delete negative phrases from your mind
• Be appreciative and focus on what’s good in yourself, in your life, and in others
• Stop thinking of yourself as a victim and start being proactive
• Imagine yourself succeeding and achieving your goals

What is Attitude?
Now that we understand why motivation is so important for self-analysis, let’s look at the
role our attitude plays in better understanding ourselves. Attitude can be described as your
tendency (positive or negative), to think and feel about someone or something. Attitude is the
foundation for success in every aspect of life. Our attitude can be our best friend or our worst
enemy. In other words:
“The only disability in life is a bad attitude.”
When you start a business, you are sure to encounter a wide variety of emotions, from difficult
times and failures to good times and successes. Your attitude is what will see you through
the tough times and guide you towards success. Attitude is also infectious. It affects everyone
around you, from your customers to your employees to your investors. A positive attitude helps
build confidence in the workplace while a negative attitude is likely to result in the demotivation
of your people.

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What Are Your Strengths and Weaknesses?

Another way to analyze yourself is by honestly identifying your strengths and weaknesses. This
will help you use your strengths to your best advantage and reduce your weaknesses.
Note down all your strengths and weaknesses in the two columns below. Remember to be
honest with yourself!

Strengths Weaknesses

Tips
• Achievement motivation can be learned.
• Don’t be afraid to make mistakes.
• Train yourself to finish what you start.
• Dream big.

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5.1.4 Honesty & Work Ethics: What is Honesty?

Honesty is the quality of being fair and truthful. It means speaking and acting in a manner
that inspires trust. A person who is described as honest is seen as truthful and sincere, and as
someone who isn’t deceitful or devious and doesn’t steal or cheat. There are two dimensions
of honesty – one is honesty in communication and the other is honesty in conduct.
Honesty is an extremely important trait because it results in peace of mind and builds
relationships that are based on trust. Being dishonest, on the other hand, results in anxiety and
leads to relationships full of distrust and conflict.

Qualities of Honest People

Honest individuals have certain distinct characteristics. Some common qualities among honest
people are:
1. They don’t worry about what others think of them. They believe in being themselves –
they don’t bother about whether they are liked or disliked for their personalities.
2. They stand up for their beliefs. They won’t think twice about giving their honest opinion,
even if they are aware that their point of view lies with the minority.
3. They are think skinned. This means they are not affected by others judging them harshly
for their honest opinions.
4. They forge trusting, meaningful and healthy friendships. Honest people usually surround
themselves with honest friends. They have faith that their friends will be truthful and
upfront with them at all times.
They are trusted by their peers. They are seen as people who can be counted on for truthful
and objective feedback and advice.
• Honesty and employees: When entrepreneurs build honest relationships with their
employees, it leads to more transparency in the workplace, which results in higher work
performance and better results.
• Honesty and investors: For entrepreneurs, being honest with investors means not only
sharing strengths but also candidly disclosing current and potential weaknesses, problem
areas and solution strategies. Keep in mind that investors have a lot of experience with
startups and are aware that all new companies have problems. Claiming that everything is
perfectly fine and running smoothly is a red flag for most investors.
• Honesty with oneself: The consequences of being dishonest with oneself can lead to dire
results, especially in the case of entrepreneurs. For entrepreneurs to succeed, it is critical
that they remain realistic about their situation at all times, and accurately judge every
aspect of their enterprise for what it truly is.

Importance of Honesty in Entrepreneurs

One of the most important characteristics of entrepreneurs is honesty. When entrepreneurs
are honest with their customers, employees and investors, it shows that they respect those
that they work with. It is also important that entrepreneurs remain honest with themselves.
Let’s look at how being honest would lead to great benefits for entrepreneurs.
• Honesty and customers: When entrepreneurs are honest with their customers it leads to
stronger relationships, which in turn results in business growth and a stronger customer
network.

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What are Work Ethics?

Being ethical in the workplace means displaying values like honesty, integrity and respect in
all your decisions and communications. It means not displaying negative qualities like lying,
cheating and stealing.
Workplace ethics play a big role in the profitability of a company. It is as crucial to an enterprise
as high morale and teamwork. This is why most companies lay down specific workplace ethic
guidelines that must compulsorily be followed by their employees. These guidelines are
typically outlined in a company’s employee handbook.

Elements of a Strong Work Ethic

An entrepreneur must display strong work ethics, as well as hire only those individuals who
believe in and display the same level of ethical behavior in the workplace. Some elements of
a strong work ethic are:
• Professionalism: This involves everything from how you present yourself in a corporate
setting to the manner in which you treat others in the workplace.
• Respectfulness: This means remaining poised and diplomatic regardless of how stressful
or volatile a situation is.
• Dependability: This means always keeping your word, whether it’s arriving on time for a
meeting or delivering work on time.
• Dedication: This means refusing to quit until the designated work is done, and completing
the work at the highest possible level of excellence.
• Determination: This means embracing obstacles as challenges rather than letting them
stop you, and pushing ahead with purpose and resilience to get the desired results.
• Accountability: This means taking responsibility for your actions and the consequences of
your actions, and not making excuses for your mistakes.
• Humility: This means acknowledging everyone’s efforts and had work, and sharing the
credit for accomplishments.

How to Foster a Good Work Ethic

As an entrepreneur, it is important that you clearly define the kind of behaviour that you expect
from each and every team member in the workplace. You should make it clear that you expect
employees to display positive work ethics like:
• Honesty: All work assigned to a person should be done with complete honesty, without
any deceit or lies.
• Good attitude: All team members should be optimistic, energetic, and positive.
• Reliability: Employees should show up where they are supposed to be, when they are
supposed to be there.
• Good work habits: Employees should always be well groomed, never use inappropriate
language, conduct themselves professionally at all times, etc.
• Initiative: Doing the bare minimum is not enough. Every team member needs to be
proactive and show initiative.
• Trustworthiness: Trust is non-negotiable. If an employee cannot be trusted, it’s time to let
that employee go.

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• Respect: Employees need to respect the company, the law, their work, their colleagues
and themselves.
• Integrity: Each and every team member should be completely ethical and must display
above board behaviour at all times.
• Efficiency: Efficient employees help a company grow while inefficient employees result in
a waste of time and resources.

Tips
• Don’t get angry when someone tells you the truth and you don’t like what you hear.
• Always be willing to accept responsibility for your mistakes.

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5.1.5 Creativity & Innovation : What is Creativity

Creativity means thinking outside the box. It means viewing things in new ways or from different
perspectives, and then converting these ideas into reality. Creativity involves two parts: thinking
and producing. Simply having an idea makes you imaginative, not creative. However, having an
idea and acting on it makes you creative.

Characteristics of Highly Creative People

Some characteristics of creative people are:

• They are imaginative and playful • They detest rules and routine
• They see issues from different angles • They love to daydream
• They notice small details • They are very curious
• They have very little tolerance for boredom

What is Innovation?
There are many different definitions of innovation. In simple terms, innovation means turning
an idea into a solution that adds value. It can also mean adding value by implementing a new
product, service or process, or significantly improving on an existing product, service or process.

Characteristics of Highly Innovative People

Some characteristics of highly innovative people are:
• They embrace doing things differently
• They don’t believe in taking shortcuts
• They are not afraid to be unconventional
• They are highly proactive and persistent
• They are organized, cautious and risk-averse

Tips
• Take regular breaks from your creative work to recharge yourself and gain fresh perspective.
• Build prototypes frequently, test them out, get feedback, and make the required changes.

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5.1.6 Time Management: What is Time Management?

Time management is the process organizing your time, and deciding how to allocate your time
between different activities. Good time management is the difference between working smart
(getting more done in less time) and working hard (working for more time to get more done).
Effective time management leads to an efficient work output, even when you are faced with
tight deadlines and high pressure situations. On the other hand, not managing your time
effectively results in inefficient output and increases stress and anxiety.

Benefits of Time Management

Time management can lead to huge benefits like:
• Greater productivity • Higher efficiency
• Better professional reputation • Reduced stress
• Higher chances for career advancement • Greater opportunities to achieve goals
Not managing time effectively can result in undesirable consequences like:
• Missing deadlines • Inefficient work output
• Substandard work quality • Poor professional reputation
• Stalled career • Increase in stress and anxiety

Traits of Effective Time Managers

Some traits of effective time managers are:
• They begin projects early • They break tasks into steps with
• They set daily objectives specific deadlines
• They modify plans if required, to achieve • They continually review long term
better results goals
• They are flexible and open-minded • They think of alternate solutions if and
when required
• They inform people in advance if their
help will be required • They ask for help when required
• They know how to say no • They create backup plans

Effective Time Management Techniques

You can manage your time better by putting into practice certain time management techniques.
Some helpful tips are:
• Plan out your day as well as plan for interruptions. Give yourself at least 30 minutes to
figure out your time plan. In your plan, schedule some time for interruptions.
• Put up a “Do Not Disturb” sign when you absolutely have to complete a certain amount
of work.
• Close your mind to all distractions. Train yourself to ignore ringing phones, don’t reply to
chat messages and disconnect from social media sites.

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• Delegate your work. This will not only help your work get done faster, but will also show
you the unique skills and abilities of those around you.
• Stop procrastinating. Remind yourself that procrastination typically arises due to the fear
of failure or the belief that you cannot do things as perfectly as you wish to do them.
• Prioritize. List each task to be completed in order of its urgency or importance level. Then
focus on completing each task, one by one.
• Maintain a log of your work activities. Analyze the log to help you understand how efficient
you are, and how much time is wasted every day.
Create time management goals to reduce time wastage.

Tips
• Always complete the most important tasks first.
• Get at least 7 – 8 hours of sleep every day.
• Start your day early.
• Don’t waste too much time on small, unimportant details.
• Set a time limit for every task that you will undertake.
• Give yourself some time to unwind between tasks.

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5.1.7 Anger Management: What is Anger Management

Anger management is the process of:
1. Learning to recognize the signs that you, or someone else, is becoming angry
2. Taking the best course of action to calm down the situation in a positive way
Anger management does not mean suppressing anger.

Importance of Anger Management

Anger is a perfectly normal human emotion. In fact, when managed the right way, anger can
be considered a healthy emotion. However, if it is not kept in check, anger can make us act
inappropriately and can lead to us saying or doing things that we will likely later regret.
Extreme anger can:
• Hurt you physically:: It leads to heart disease, diabetes, a weakened immune system,
insomnia, and high blood pressure.
• Hurt you mentally: It can cloud your thinking and lead to stress, depression and mental
health issues.
• Hurt your career: It can result in alienating your colleagues, bosses, clients and lead to the
loss of respect.
• Hurt your relationships: It makes it hard for your family and friends to trust you, be honest
with you and feel comfortable around you.
This is why anger management, or managing anger appropriately, is so important.

Anger Management Strategies

Here are some strategies that can help you control your anger:
Strategy 1: Relaxation
Something as simple as breathing deeply and looking at relaxing images works wonders in
calming down angry feelings. Try this simple breathing exercise:
1. Take a deep breath from your diaphragm (don’t breathe from your chest)
2. Visualize your breath coming up from your stomach
3. Keep repeating a calming word like ‘relax’ or ‘take it easy’ (remember to keep breathing
deeply while repeating the word)
4. Picture a relaxing moment (this can be from your memory or your imagination)
Follow this relaxation technique daily, especially when you realize that you’re starting to feel angry.
Strategy 2: Cognitive Restructuring
Cognitive restructuring means changing the manner in which you think. Anger can make you
curse, swear, exaggerate and act very dramatically. When this happens, force yourself to replace
your angry thoughts with more logical ones. For instance, instead of thinking ‘Everything is
ruined’ change your mindset and tell yourself ‘It’s not the end of the world and getting angry
won’t solve this’.

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Strategy 3: Problem Solving

Getting angry about a problem that you cannot control is a perfectly natural response.
Sometimes, try as you may, there may not be a solution to the difficulty you are faced with. In
such cases, stop focusing on solving the problem, and instead focus on handling and facing the
problem. Remind yourself that you will do your best to deal with the situation, but that you will
not blame yourself if you don’t get the solution you desire.
Strategy 4: Better Communication
When you’re angry, it is very easy to jump to inaccurate conclusions. In this case, you need to
force yourself to stop reacting, and think carefully about what you want to say, before saying it.
Avoid saying the first thing that enters your head. Force yourself to listen carefully to what the
other person is saying. Then think about the conversation before responding.
Strategy 5: Changing Your Environment
If you find that your environment is the cause of your anger, try and give yourself a break
from your surroundings. Make an active decision to schedule some personal time for yourself,
especially on days that are very hectic and stressful. Having even a brief amount of quiet or
alone time is sure to help calm you down.

Tips for Anger Management

• The following tips will help you keep your anger in check:
• Take some time to collect your thoughts before you speak out in anger.
• Express the reason for your anger in an assertive, but non-confrontational manner once
you have calmed down.
• Do some form of physical exercise like running or walking briskly when you feel yourself
getting angry.
• Make short breaks part of your daily routine, especially during days that are stressful.
Focus on how to solve a problem that’s making you angry, rather than focusing on the fact
that the problem is making you angry.

Tips
• Try to forgive those who anger you, rather than hold a grudge against them.
• Avoid using sarcasm and hurling insults. Instead, try and explain the reason for your
frustration in a polite and mature manner.

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5.1.8 Stress Management: What is Stress

We say we are ‘stressed’ when we feel overloaded and unsure of our ability to deal with the
pressures placed on us. Anything that challenges or threatens our well-being can be defined
as a stress. It is important to note that stress can be good and bad. While good stress keeps us
going, negative stress undermines our mental and physical health. This is why it is so important
to manage negative stress effectively.

Causes of Stress
Stress can be caused by internal and external factors.
Internal causes of stress
• Constant worry • Pessimism
• Rigid thinking • Negative self-talk
• Unrealistic expectations • All in or all out attitude
External causes of stress
• Major life changes • Difficulties at work or in school
• Difficulties with relationships • Financial difficulties
• Having too much to do • Worrying about one’s children and/or family

Symptoms of Stress
Stress can manifest itself in numerous ways. Take a look at the cognitive, emotional, physical
and behavioral symptoms of stress.

Cognitive Symptoms Emotional Symptoms

• Memory problems • Depression
• Concentration issues • Agitation
• Lack of judgement • Irritability
• Pessimism • Loneliness
• Anxiety • Anxiety
• Constant worrying • Anger

Physical Symptoms Behavioral Symptoms

• Aches and pain • Increase or decrease in appetite
• Diarrhea or constipation • Over sleeping or not sleeping enough
• Nausea • Withdrawing socially
• Dizziness • Ignoring responsibilities
• Chest pain and/or rapid heartbeat • Consumption of alcohol or cigarettes
• Frequent cold or flu like feelings • Nervous habits like nail biting, pacing etc.

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Tips to Manage Stress

The following tips can help you manage your stress better:
• Note down the different ways in which you can handle the various sources of your stress.
• Remember that you cannot control everything, but you can control how you respond.
• Discuss your feelings, opinions and beliefs rather than reacting angrily, defensively or
passively.
• Practice relaxation techniques like meditation, yoga or tai chi when you start feeling
stressed.
• Devote a part of your day towards exercise.
• Eat healthy foods like fruits and vegetables. Avoid unhealthy foods especially those
containing large amounts of sugar.
• Plan your day so that you can manage your time better, with less stress.
• Say no to people and things when required.
• Schedule time to pursue your hobbies and interests.
• Ensure you get at least 7-8 hours of sleep.
• Reduce your caffeine intake.
• Increase the time spent with family and friends.

Tips
• Force yourself to smile even if you feel stressed. Smiling makes us feel relaxed and happy.
• Stop yourself from feeling and thinking like a victim. Change your attiude and focus on
being proactive.

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UNIT 5.2: Digital Literacy: A Recap

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, par cipants will be able to:
1. Identify the basic parts of a computer
2. Identify the basic parts of a keyboard
3. Recall basic computer terminology
4. Recall basic computer terminology
5. Recall the functions of basic computer keys
6. Discuss the main applications of MS Office
7. Discuss the benefits of Microsoft Outlook
8. Discuss the different types of e-commerce
9. List the benefits of e-commerce for retailers and customers
10. Discuss how the Digital India campaign will help boost e-commerce in India
11. Describe how you will sell a product or service on an e-commerce platform

5.2.1 Computer and Internet basics:

Basic Parts of a Computer
Monitor
Power
Button
Mouse
Keyboard
Fig 5.2.1 Basic parts of a computer

Basic Parts of a Keyboard

Caps Backspace

Shift Space Enter Arrow Keys

Fig 5.2.2 Basic parts of a Keyboard

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Basic Parts of a Computer

• Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer. It interprets and carries out
program instructions.
• Hard Drive: A device that stores large amounts of data.
• Monitor: The device that contains the computer screen where the information is visually
displayed.
• Desktop: The first screen displayed after the operating system loads.
• Background: The image that fills the background of the desktop.

Basic Parts of a Computer

• Mouse: A hand-held device used to point to items on the monitor.
• Speakers: Devices that enable you to hear sound from the computer.
• Printer: A device that converts output from a computer into printed paper documents.
• Icon: A small picture or image that visually represents something on your computer.
• Cursor: An arrow which indicates where you are positioned on the screen.
• Program Menu: A list of programs on your computer that can be accessed from the Start
menu.
• Taskbar: The horizontal bar at the bottom of the computer screen that lists applications
that are currently in use.
• Recycle Bin: A temporary storage for deleted files.

Basic Internet Terms

• The Internet : A vast, international collectionof computer networks that transfers information.
• The World Wide Web: A system that lets you access information on the Internet.
• Website: A location on the World Wide Web (and Internet) that contains information
about a specific topic.
• Homepage: Provides information about a website and directs you to other pages on that
website.
• Link/Hyperlink: A highlighted or underlined icon, graphic, or text that takes you to another
file or object.
• Web Address/URL: The address for a website.
• Address Box: A box in the browser window where you can type in a web address.

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Basic Computer Keys

• Arrow Keys: Press these keys to move your cursor.
• Space bar: Adds a space.
• Enter/Return: Moves your cursor to a new line.
• Shift: Press this key if you want to type a capital letter or the upper symbol of a key.
• Caps Lock: Press this key if you want all the letters you type to be capital letters. Press it
again to revert back to typing lowercase letters.
• Backspace: Deletes everything to the left of your cursor.

Tips
• When visiting a .com address, there no need to type http:// or even www. Just type the
name of the website and then press Ctrl + Enter. (Example: Type ‘apple’ and press Ctrl +
Enter to go to www.apple.com)
• Press the Ctrl key and press the + or - to increase and decrease the size of text.
• Press F5 or Ctrl + R to refresh or reload a web page.

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5.2.2 MS Office and Email: About MS Office

MS Office or Microsoft Office is a suite of computer programs developed by Microsoft. Although
meant for all users, it offers different versions that cater specifically to students, home users
and business users. All the programs are compatible with both, Windows and Macintosh.

Most Popular Office Products

Some of the most popular and universally used MS Office applications are:
• Microsoft Word: Allows users to type text and add images to a document.
• Microsoft Excel: Allows users to enter data into a spreadsheet and create calculations and
graphs.
• Microsoft PowerPoint: Allows users to add text, pictures and media and create slideshows
and presentations.
• Microsoft Outlook: Allows users to send and receive email.
• Microsoft OneNote: Allows users to make drawings and notes with the feel of a pen on
paper.
• Microsoft Access: Allows users to store data over many tables.

Why Choose Microsoft Outlook

A popular email management choice especially in the workplace, Microsoft Outlook also includes
an address book, notebook, web browser and calendar. Some major benefits of this program are:
• Integrated search function: You can use keywords to search for data across all Outlook
programs.
• Enhanced security: Your email is safe from hackers, junk mail and phishing website email.
• Email syncing: Sync your mail with your calendar, contact list, notes in One Note and…your
phone!
• Offline access to emai:l No Internet? No problem! Write emails offline and send them
when you’re connected again.

Tips
• Press Ctrl+R as a shortcut method to reply to email.
• Set your desktop notifications only for very important emails.
• Flag messages quickly by selecting messages and hitting the Insert key.
• Save frequently sent emails as a template to reuse again and again.
• Conveniently save important emails as files.

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5.2.3 E-Commerce: What is E-Commerce

E-commerce is the buying or selling of goods and services, or the transmitting of money or
data, electronically on the internet. E-Commerce is the short form for “electronic commerce.”

Examples of E-Commerce
Some examples of e-commerce are:
• Online shopping • Electronic payments
• Online auctions • Internet banking
• Online ticketing

Types of E-Commerce
E-commerce can be classified based on the types of participants in the transaction. The main
types of e-commerce are:
• Business to Business (B2B): Both the transacting parties are businesses.
• Business to Consumer (B2C): Businesses sell electronically to end-consumers.
• Consumer to Consumer (C2C): Consumers come together to buy, sell or trade items to
other consumers.
• Consumer-to-Business (C2B): Consumers make products or services available for purchase
to companies looking for exactly those services or products.
• Business-to-Administration (B2A): Online transactions conducted between companies
and public administration.
• Consumer-to-Administration (C2A): Online transactions conducted between individuals
and public administration.

Benefits of E-Commerce
The e-commerce business provides some benefits for retailers and customers.
Benefits for retailers:
• Establishes an online presence
• Reduces operational costs by removing overhead costs
• Increases brand awareness through the use of good keywords
• Increases sales by removing geographical and time constraints
Benefits for customers:
• Offers a wider range of choice than any physical store
• Enables goods and services to be purchased from remote locations
• Enables consumers to perform price comparisons

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Digital India Campaign

Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched the Digital India campaign in 2015, with the objective
of offering every citizen of India access to digital services, knowledge and information. The
campaign aims to improve the country’s online infrastructure and increase internet connectivity,
thus boosting the e-commerce industry.
Currently, the majority of online transactions come from tier 2 and tier 3 cities. Once the Digital
India campaign is in place, the government will deliver services through mobile connectivity,
which will help deliver internet to remote corners of the country. This will help the e-commerce
market to enter India’s tier 4 towns and rural areas.

E-Commerce Activity
Choose a product or service that you want to sell online. Write a brief note explaining how
you will use existing e-commerce platforms, or create a new e-commerce platform, to sell your
product or service.

Tips
• Before launching your e-commerce platform, test everything.
• Pay close and personal attention to your social media.

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UNIT 5.3: Money Matters

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, par cipants will be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of saving money
2. Discuss the benefits of saving money
3. Discuss the main types of bank accounts
4. Describe the process of opening a bank account
5. Differentiate between fixed and variable costs
6. Describe the main types of investment options
7. Describe the different types of insurance products
8. Describe the different types of taxes
9. Discuss the uses of online banking
10. Discuss the main types of electronic funds transfers

5.3.1 Personal Finance – Why to Save:

Importance of Saving
We all know that the future is unpredictable. You never know what will happen tomorrow, next
week or next year. That’s why saving money steadily through the years is so important. Saving
money will help improve your financial situation over time. But more importantly, knowing that
you have money stashed away for an emergency will give you peace of mind. Saving money
also opens the door to many more options and possibilities.

Benefits of Saving
Inculcating the habit of saving leads to a vast number of benefits. Saving helps you:
• Become financially independent: When you have enough money saved up to feel secure
you can start making your choices, from taking a vacation whenever you want, to switching
careers or starting your own business.
• Invest in yourself through education: Through saving, you can earn enough to pay up for
courses that will add to your professional experience and ultimately result in higher paying
jobs.
• Get out of debt: Once you have saved enough as a reserve fund, you can use your savings
to pay off debts like loans or bills that have accumulated over time.
• Be prepared for surprise expenses : Having money saved enables you to pay for unforeseen
expenses like sudden car or house repairs, without feeling financially stressed.
• Pay for emergencies: Saving helps you deal with emergencies like sudden health issues or
emergency trips without feeling financially burdened.

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• Afford large purchases and achieve major goals:: Saving diligently makes it possible to
place down payments towards major purchases and goals, like buying a home or a car.
• Retire: The money you have saved over the years will keep you comfortable when you no
longer have the income you would get from your job.

Tips
• Break your spending habit. Try not spending on one expensive item per week, and put the
money that you would have spent into your savings.
• Decide that you will not buy anything on certain days or weeks and stick to your word.

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5.3.2 Types of Bank Accounts, Opening a

Bank Account: Types of Bank Accounts
In India, banks offer four main types of bank accounts. These are:
• Current Accounts
• Savings Accounts
• Recurring Deposit Accounts
• Fixed Deposit Accounts
Current Accounts
Current accounts offer the most liquid deposits and thus, are best suited for businessmen and
companies. As these accounts are not meant for investments and savings, there is no imposed
limit on the number or amount of transactions that can be made on any given day. Current
account holders are not paid any interest on the amounts held in their accounts. They are
charged for certain services offered on such accounts.
Savings Accounts
Savings accounts are meant to promote savings, and are therefore the number one choice
for salaried individuals, pensioners and students. While there is no restriction on the number
and amount of deposits made, there are usually restrictions on the number and amount of
withdrawals. Savings account holders are paid interest on their savings.
Recurring Deposit Accounts
Recurring Deposit accounts, also called RD accounts, are the accounts of choice for those who want
to save an amount every month, but are unable to invest a large sum at one time. Such account
holders deposit a small, fixed amount every month for a pre-determined period (minimum 6
months). Defaulting on a monthly payment results in the account holder being charged a penalty
amount. The total amount is repaid with interest at the end of the specified period.
Fixed Deposit Accounts
Fixed Deposit accounts, also called FD accounts, are ideal for those who wish to deposit their
savings for a long term in return for a high rate of interest. The rate of interest offered depends
on the amount deposited and the time period, and also differs from bank to bank. In the case
of an FD, a certain amount of money is deposited by the account holder for a fixed period of
time. The money can be withdrawn when the period expires. If necessary, the depositor can
break the fixed deposit prematurely. However, this usually attracts a penalty amount which
also differs from bank to bank.

Opening a Bank Account

Opening a bank account is quite a simple process. Take a look at the steps to open an account
of your own:
Step 1: Fill in the Account Opening Form
This form requires you to provide the following information:
• Personal details (name, address, phone number, date of birth, gender, occupation, address)
• Method of receiving your account statement (hard copy/email)
• Details of your initial deposit (cash/cheque)
• Manner of operating your account (online/mobile banking/traditional via cheque, slip books)
Ensure that you sign wherever required on the form.

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Step 2: Affix your Photograph

Stick a recent photograph of yourself in the allotted space on the form.
Step 3: Provide your Know Your Customer (KYC) Details
KYC is a process that helps banks verify the identity and address of their customers. To open an
account, every individual needs to submit certain approved documents with respect to photo
identity (ID) and address proof. Some Officially Valid Documents (OVDs) are:
• Passport
• Driving License
• Voters’ Identity Card
• PAN Card
• UIDAI (Aadhaar) Card
Step 4: Submit All your Documents
Submit the completed Account Opening Form and KYC documents. Then wait until the forms
are processed and your account has been opened!

Tips
• Select the right type of account.
• Fill in complete nomination details.
• Ask about fees.
• Understand the rules.
• Check for online banking – it’s convenient!
• Keep an eye on your bank balance.

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5.3.3 Costs: Fixed vs Variable: What are Fixed and

Variable Costs
Fixed costs and variable costs together make up a company’s total cost. These are the two
types of costs that companies have to bear when producing goods and services.
A fixed cost does not change with the volume of goods or services a company produces. It
always remains the same.
A variable cost, on the other hand, increases and decreases depending on the volume of goods
and services produced. In other words, it varies with the amount produced.

Differences Between Fixed and Variable Costs

Let’s take a look at some of the main differences between fixed and variable costs:

Criteria Fixed Costs Variable Costs

Meaning A cost that stays the same, regardless A cost that changes when the
of the output produced.
Nature Time related. Volume related.
Incurred Incurred irrespective of units being Incurred only when units are produced.
produced.
Unit cost Inversely proportional to the number of Remains the same, per unit.
units produced.
Examples Depreciation, rent, salary, insurance, Material consumed, wages, commission
tax etc. on sales, packing expenses, etc.

Tips
• When trying to determine whether a cost is fixed or variable, simply ask the following
question: Will the particular cost change if the company stopped its production activities? If
the answer is no, then it is a fixed cost. If the answer is yes, then it is probably a variable cost.

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5.3.4 Investment, Insurance and Taxes:

Investment
Investment means that money is spent today with the aim of reaping financial gains at a future
time. The main types of investment options are as follows:
• Bonds: Bonds are instruments used by public and private companies to raise large sums of
money – too large to be borrowed from a bank. These bonds are then issued in the public
market and are bought by lenders.
• Stocks: Stocks or equity are shares that are issued by companies and are bought by the
general public.
• Small Savings Schemes: Small Savings Schemes are tools meant to save money in small
amounts. Some popular schemes are the Employees Provident Fund, Sukanya Samriddhi
Scheme and National Pension Scheme.
• Mutual Funds: Mutual Funds are professionally managed financial instruments that invest
money in different securities on behalf of investors.
• Fixed Deposits: A fixed amount of money is kept aside with a financial institution for a
fixed amount of time in return for interest on the money.
• Real Estate: Loans are taken from banks to purchase real estate, which is then leased or
sold with the aim of making a profit on the appreciated property price.
• Hedge Funds: Hedge funds invest in both financial derivatives and/or publicly traded
securities.
• Private Equity: Private Equity is trading in the shares of an operating company that is not
publicly listed and whose shares are not available on the stock market.
• Venture Capital: Venture Capital involves investing substantial capital in a budding
company in return for stocks in that company.

Insurance
There are two types of insurance – Life Insurance and Non-Life or General Insurance.
Life Insurance
Life Insurance deals with all insurance covering human life.
Life Insurance Products
The main life insurance products are:
• Term Insurance: This is the simplest and cheapest form of insurance. It offers financial
protection for a specified tenure, say 15 to 20 years. In the case of your death, your family
is paid the sum assured. In the case of your surviving the term, the insurer pays nothing.
• Endowment Policy: This offers the dual benefit of insurance and investment. Part of the
premium is allocated towards the sum assured, while the remaining premium gets invested
in equity and debt. It pays a lump sum amount after the specified duration or on the death
of the policyholder, whichever is earlier.
• Unit-Linked Insurance Plan (ULIP): Here part of the premium is spent on the life cover,
while the remaining amount is invested in equity and debt. It helps develop a regular
saving habit.

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• Money Back Life Insurance:While the policyholder is alive, periodic payments of the
partial survival benefits are made during the policy tenure. On the death of the insured,
the insurance company pays the full sum assured along with survival benefits.
• Whole Life Insurance:It offers the dual benefit of insurance and investment. It offers
insurance cover for the whole life of the person or up to 100 years whichever is earlier.
General Insurance
General Insurance deals with all insurance covering assets like animals, agricultural crops,
goods, factories, cars and so on.
General Insurance Products
The main general insurance products are:
• Motor Insurance: This can be divided into Four Wheeler Insurance and Two Wheeler
Insurance.
• Health Insurance: The main types of health insurance are individual health insurance, family
floater health insurance, comprehensive health insurance and critical illness insurance.
• Travel Insurance: This can be categorised into Individual Travel Policy, Family Travel Policy,
Student Travel Insurance and Senior Citizen Health Insurance.
• Home Insurance: This protects the house and its contents from risk.
• Marine Insurance: This insurance covers goods, freight, cargo etc. against loss or damage
during transit by rail, road, sea and/or air.

Taxes
There are two types of taxes – Direct Taxes and Indirect Taxes.
Direct Tax
Direct taxes are levied directly on an entity or a person and are non-transferrable.
Some examples of Direct Taxes are:
• Income Tax: This tax is levied on your earning in a financial year. It is applicable to both,
individuals and companies.
• Capital Gains Tax: This tax is payable whenever you receive a sizable amount of money.
It is usually of two types – short term capital gains from investments held for less than 36
months and long term capital gains from investments held for longer than 36 months.
• Securities Transaction Tax: This tax is added to the price of a share. It is levied every time
you buy or sell shares.
• Perquisite Tax: This tax is levied is on perks that have been acquired by a company or used
by an employee.
• Corporate Tax: Corporate tax is paid by companies from the revenue they earn.
Indirect Tax
Indirect taxes are levied on goods or services.
Some examples of Indirect Taxes are:
• Sales Tax: Sales Tax is levied on the sale of a product.

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• Service Tax: Service Tax is added to services provided in India.

• Value Added Tax: Value Added Tax is levied at the discretion of the state government. The
tax is levied on goods sold in the state. The tax amount is decided by the state.
• Customs Duty & Octroi: Customs Duty is a charge that is applied on purchases that are
imported from another country. Octroi is levied on goods that cross state borders within India.
• Excise Duty: Excise Duty is levied on all goods manufactured or produced in India.

Tips
• Think about how quickly you need your money back and pick an investment option
accordingly.
• Ensure that you are buying the right type of insurance policy for yourself.
• Remember, not paying taxes can result in penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment.

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5.3.5 Online Banking, NEFT, RTGS etc.: What is

Online Banking
Internet or online banking allows account holders to access their account from a laptop at any
location. In this way, instructions can be issued. To access an account, account holders simply
need to use their unique customer ID number and password.
Internet banking can be used to:
• Find out an account balance
• Transfer amounts from one account to another
• Arrange for the issuance of cheques
• Instruct payments to be made
• Request for a cheque book
• Request for a statement of accounts
• Make a fixed deposit

Electronic Funds Transfers

Electronic funds transfer is a convenient way of transferring money from the comfort of one’s
own home, using integrated banking tools like internet and mobile banking.
Transferring funds via an electronic gateway is extremely convenient. With the help of online
banking, you can choose to:
• Transfer funds into your own accounts of the same bank.
• Transfer funds into different accounts of the same bank.
• Transfer funds into accounts in different banks, using NEFT.
• Transfer funds into other bank accounts using RTGS.
• Transfer funds into various accounts using IMPS.

NEFT
NEFT stands for National Electronic Funds Transfer. This money transfer system allows you to
electronically transfer funds from your respective bank accounts to any other account, either
in the same bank or belonging to any other bank. NEFT can be used by individuals, firms and
corporate organizations to transfer funds between accounts.
In order to transfer funds via NEFT, two things are required:
• A transferring bank
• A destination bank
Before you can transfer funds through NEFT, you will need to register the beneficiary who will
be receiving the funds. In order to complete this registration, you will require the following

• Recipient’s name • Recipient’s bank’s name

• Recipient’s account number • Recipient’s bank’s IFSC code

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RTGS
RTGS stands for Real Time Gross Settlement. This is a real time funds transfer system which
enables you to transfer funds from one bank to another, in real time or on a gross basis. The
transferred amount is immediately deducted from the account of one bank, and instantly
credited to the other bank’s account. The RTGS payment gateway is maintained by the Reserve
Bank of India. The transactions between banks are made electronically.
RTGS can be used by individuals, companies and firms to transfer large sums of money. Before
remitting funds through RTGS, you will need to add the beneficiary and his bank account details
via your online banking account. In order to complete this registration, you will require the
following information:
• Name of the beneficiary • Beneficiary’s account number
• Beneficiary’s bank address • Beneficiary’s bank’s IFSC code

IMPS
IMPS stands for Immediate Payment Service. This is a real-time, inter-bank, electronic funds
transfer system used to transfer money instantly within banks across India. IMPS enables
users to make instant electronic transfer payments using mobile phones through both, Mobile
Banking and SMS. It can also be used through ATMs and online banking. IMPS is available 24
hours a day and 7 days a week. The system features a secure transfer gateway and immediately
confirms orders that have been fulfilled.
To transfer money through IMPS, the you need to:
• Register for IMPS with your bank
• Receive a Mobile Money Identifier (MMID) from the bank
• Receive a MPIN from the bank
Once you have both these, you can login or make a request through SMS to transfer a particular
amount to a beneficiary.
For the beneficiary to receive the transferred money, he must:

1. Link his mobile number with his respective account

2. Receive the MMID from the bank
In order to initiate a money transfer through IMPS, you will need to enter the following
information:
1. The beneficiary’s mobile number 2. The beneficiary’s MMID
3. The transfer amount 4. Your MPIN
As soon as money has been deducted from your account and credited into the beneficiary’s
account, you will be sent a confirmation SMS with a transaction reference number, for future
reference.

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Differences Between NEFT, RTGS & IMPS

Criteria NEFT RTGS IMPS
Settlement Done in batches Real-time Real-time
Full form National Electronic Real Time Gross Immediate Payment
Fund Transfer Settlement Service
Timings on 8:00 am – 6:30 pm 9:00 am – 4:30 pm 24x7
Monday – Friday
Timings on 8:00 am – 1:00 pm 9:00 am – 1:30 pm 24x7
Saturday
Minimum amount `1 ` 2 lacs `1
of money transfer
limit
Maximum amount ` 10 lacs ` 10 lacs per day ` 2 lacs
of money transfer
limit
Maximum charges Upto 10,000 – ` 2.5 above 2 – 5 lacs – Upto 10,000 – ` 5
as per RBI above 10,000 – 1 lac ` 25 above 10,000 – 1 lac
–`5 –`5
above 5 – 10 lacs –
above 1 – 2 lacs – above 1 – 2 lacs –
` 50
` 15 ` 15
above 2 – 5 lacs –
` 25
above 5 – 10 lacs –
` 25

Tips
• Never click on any links in any e-mail message to access your online banking website.
• You will never be asked for your credit or debit card details while using online banking.
• Change your online banking password regularly.

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UNIT 5.4: Preparing for Employment & Self

Employment
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, par cipants will be able to:
1. Discuss the steps to prepare for an interview
2. Discuss the steps to create an effective Resume
3. Discuss the most frequently asked interview questions
4. Discuss how to answer the most frequently asked interview questions
5. Discuss basic workplace terminology

5.4.1 Interview Preparation: How to Prepare

for an Interview
The success of your getting the job that you want depends largely on how well your interview
for that job goes. Therefore, before you go in for your interview, it is important that you prepare
for it with a fair amount of research and planning. Take a look at the steps to follow in order to
be well prepared for an interview:
1. Research the organization that you are having the interview with.
• Studying the company beforehand will help you be more prepared at the time of the
interview. Your knowledge of the organization will help you answer questions at the
time of the interview, and will leave you looking and feeling more confident. This is sure
to make you stand out from other, not as well informed, candidates.
• Look for background information on the company. Ty and find an overview of the
company and its industry profile.
• Visit the company website to get a good idea of what the company does. A company
website offers a wealth of important information. Read and understand the company’s
mission statement. Pay attention to the company’s products/services and client list. Read
through any press releases to get an idea of the company’s projected growth and stability.
• Note down any questions that you have after your research has been completed.
2. Think about whether your skills and qualifications match the job requirements.
• Carefully read through and analyze the job description.
• Make a note of the knowledge, skills and abilities required to fulfill the job requirements.
• Take a look at the organization hierarchy. Figure out where the position you are applying
for fits into this hierarchy.
3. Go through the most typical interview questions asked, and prepare your responses.
• Remember, in most interviews a mix of resume-based, behavioral and case study
questions are asked.
• Think about the kind of answers you would like to provide to typical questions asked in
these three areas.
• Practice these answers until you can express them confidently and clearly.

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4. Plan your attire for the interview.

• It is always safest to opt for formal business attire, unless expressly informed to dress in
business casual (in which case you should use your best judgement).
• Ensure that your clothes are clean and well-ironed. Pick neutral colours – nothing too
bright or flashy.
• The shoes you wear should match your clothes, and should be clean and suitable for
an interview.
• Remember, your aim is to leave everyone you meet with the impression that you are a
professional and highly efficient person.
5. Ensure that you have packed everything that you may require during the interview.
• Carry a few copies of your resume. Use a good quality paper for your resume print outs.
• Always take along a notepad and a pen.
• Take along any information you may need to refer to, in order to fill out an application
form.
• Carry a few samples of your work, if relevant.
6. Remember the importance of non-verbal communication.
• Practice projecting confidence. Remind yourself to smile and make eye contact. Practice
giving a firm handshake.
• Keep in mind the importance of posture. Practice sitting up straight. Train yourself to stop
nervous gestures like fidgeting and foot-tapping.
• Practice keeping your reactions in check. Remember, your facial expressions provide a
good insight into your true feelings. Practice projecting a positive image.
7. Make a list of questions to end the interview with.
• Most interviews will end with the interviewer(s) asking if you have any questions. This
is your chance to show that you have done your research and are interested in learning
more about the company.
• If the interviewer does not ask you this question, you can inform him/her that you have
some queries that you would like to discuss. This is the time for you to refer to the notes
you made while studying the company.
• Some good questions to ask at this point are:
o What do you consider the most important criteria for success in this job?
o How will my performance be evaluated?
o What are the opportunities for advancement?
o What are the next steps in the hiring process?
• Remember, never ask for information that is easily available on the company website.

Tips
• Ask insightful and probing questions.
• When communicating, use effective forms of body language like smiling, making eye
contact, and actively listening and nodding. Don’t slouch, play with nearby items, fidget,
chew gum, or mumble.

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5.4.2 Preparing an Effective Resume: How to

Create an Effective Resume
A resume is a formal document that lists a candidate’s work experience, education and skills.
A good resume gives a potential employer enough information to believe the applicant is worth
interviewing. That’s why it is so important to create a résumé that is effective. Take a look at the
steps to create an effective resume:
Step 1: Write the Address Section
The Address section occupies the top of your resume. It includes information like your name,
address, phone number and e-mail address. Insert a bold line under the section to separate it
from rest of your resume.
Example:

Jasmine Watts
Breach Candy, Mumbai – India
Contact No: +91 2223678270
Email: [email protected]

Step 2: Add the Profile Summary Section

This part of your resume should list your overall experiences, achievements, awards,
certifications and strengths. You can make your summary as short as 2-3 bullet points or as
long as 8-10 bullet points.
Example:

Profile Summary
• A Content Writer graduated from University of Strathclyde having 6 years of experience
in writing website copy.
• Core expertise lies in content creation for e-learning courses, specifically for the K-12
segment.

Step 3: Include Your Educational Qualifications

When listing your academic records, first list your highest degree. Then add the second highest
qualification under the highest one and so on. To provide a clear and accurate picture of your
educational background, it is critical that include information on your position, rank, percentage
or CPI for every degree or certification that you have listed.
If you have done any certifications and trainings, you can add a Trainings & Certifications section
under your Educational Qualifications section.
Example:
Educational Qualifications
• Masters in International Management (2007) from Columbia University with 8.8 CPI.
• Bachelor of Management Studies (2004) from Mumbai University with 87% marks.
• 10+2 with Math, Stats (2001) from Maharashtra Board with 91% marks.
• High School (1999) from Maharashtra Board with 93% marks.

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Step 4: List Your Technical Skills

When listing your technical skills, start with the skills that you are most confident about. Then
add the skills that you do not have as good a command over. It is perfectly acceptable to include
just one skill, if you feel that particular skill adds tremendous value to your résumé. If you do
not have any technical skills, you can omit this step.
Example:

Technical Skills
• Flash
• Photoshop
Step 5: Insert Your Academic Project Experience
List down all the important projects that you have worked on. Include the following information
in this section:
• Project title • Organization • Platform used
• Contribution • Description
Example:

Academic Projects
Project Title: Different Communication Skills
Organization: True Blue Solutions
Platform used: Articulate
Contribution: Content writing and graphic visualization
Description: Development of storyboards for corporate induction & training programs
Step 6: List Your Strengths
This is where you list all your major strengths. This section should be in the form of a bulleted list.
Example:

Strengths
• Excellent oral, written and presentation skills
• Action-oriented and result-focused
• Great time management skills
Step 7: List Your Extracurricular Activities
It is very important to show that you have diverse interests and that your life consists of more
than academics. Including your extracurricular activities can give you an added edge over other
candidates who have similar academic scores and project experiences. This section should be
in the form of a bulleted list.

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Example:

Extracurricular Activities
• Member of the Debate Club
• Played tennis at a national level
• Won first prize in the All India Camel Contest, 2010

Step 8: Write Your Personal Details

The last section of your résumé must include the following personal information:
• Date of birth • Gender & marital status
• Nationality • Languages known
Example:

Personal Details
• Date of birth: 25th May, 1981
• Gender & marital status: Female, Single
• Nationality: Indian
• Languages known: English, Hindi, Tamil, French

Tips
• Keep your resume file name short, simple and informational.
• Make sure the resume is neat and free from typing errors.
• Always create your resume on plain white paper.

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5.4.3 Interview FAQs

Take a look at some of the most frequently asked interview questions, and some helpful tips on
how to answer them.
Q1. Can you tell me a little about yourself?
Tips to answer:
• Don’t provide your full employment or personal history.
• Offer 2-3 specific experiences that you feel are most valuable and relevant.
• Conclude with how those experiences have made you perfect for this specific role.
Q2. How did you hear about the position?
Tips to answer:
• Tell the interviewer how you heard about the job – whether it was through a friend
(name the friend), event or article (name them) or a job portal (say which one).
• Explain what excites you about the position and what in particular caught your eye
about this role.
Q3. What do you know about the company?
Tips to answer:
• Don’t recite the company’s About Us page.
• Show that you understand and care about the company’s goals.
• Explain why you believe in the company’s mission and values.
Q4. Why do you want this job?
Tips to answer:
• Show that you are passionate about the job.
• Identify why the role is a great fit for you.
• Explain why you love the company.
Q5. Why should we hire you?
Tips to answer:
• Prove through your words that you can not only do the work, but can definitely deliver
excellent results.
• Explain why you would be a great fit with the team and work culture.
• Explain why you should be chosen over any other candidate.
Q6. What are your greatest professional strengths?
Tips to answer:
• Be honest – share some of your real strengths, rather than give answers that you think
sound good.
• Offer examples of specific strengths that are relevant to the position you are applying for.
• Provide examples of how you’ve demonstrated these strengths.
Q7. What do you consider to be your weaknesses?
Tips to answer:
• The purpose of this question is to gauge your self-awareness and honesty.
• Give an example of a trait that you struggle with, but that you’re working on to improve.

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Q8. What are your salary requirements?

Tips to answer:
• Do your research beforehand and find out the typical salary range for the job you are
applying for.
• Figure out where you lie on the pay scale based on your experience, education, and skills.
• Be flexible. Tell the interviewer that you know your skills are valuable, but that you want
the job and are willing to negotiate.
Q9. What do you like to do outside of work?
Tips to answer:
• The purpose of this question is to see if you will fit in with the company culture.
• Be honest – open up and share activities and hobbies that interest and excite you.
Q10. If you were an animal, which one would you want to be?
Tips to answer:
• The purpose of this question is to see if you are able to think on your feet.
• There’s no wrong answer – but to make a great impression try to bring out your strengths
or personality traits through your answer.
Q11: What do you think we could do better or differently?
Tips to answer:
• The purpose of this question is to see if you have done your research on the company,
and to test whether you can think critically and come up with new ideas.
• Suggest new ideas. Show how your interests and expertise would help you execute
these ideas.
Q12: Do you have any questions for us?
Tips to answer:
• Do not ask questions to which the answers can be easily found on the company website
or through a quick online search.
• Ask intelligent questions that show your ability to think critically.

Tips
• Be honest and confident while answering.
• Use examples of your past experiences wherever possible to make your answers more
impactful.

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5.4.4 Work Readiness – Terms & Terminologies:

Basic Workplace Terminology
Every employee should be well versed in the following terms:
• Annual leave: Paid vacation leave given by employers to employees.
• Background Check: A method used by employers to verify the accuracy of the information
provided by potential candidates.
• Benefits: A part of an employee’s compensation package.
• Breaks: Short periods of rest taken by employees during working hours.
• Compensation Package: The combination of salary and benefits that an employer provides
to his/her employees.
• Compensatory Time (Comp Time): Time off in lieu of pay.
• Contract Employee: An employee who works for one organization that sells said employee’s
services to another company, either on a project or time basis.
• Contract of Employment: When an employee is offered work in exchange for wages or
salary, and accepts the offer made by the employer, a contract of employment exists.
• Corporate Culture: The beliefs and values shared by all the members of a company, and
imparted from one generation of employees to another.
• Counter Offer/Counter Proposal: A negotiation technique used by potential candidates to
increase the amount of salary offered by a company.
• Cover Letter: A letter that accompanies a candidate’s resume. It emphasizes the important
points in the candidate’s resume and provides real examples that prove the candidate’s
ability to perform the expected job role.
• Curriculum Vitae (CV)/Resume: A summary of a candidate’s achievements, educational
background, work experience, skills and strengths.
• Declining Letter: A letter sent by an employee to an employer, turning down the job offer
made by the employer to the employee.
• Deductions: Amounts subtracted from an employee’s pay and listed on the employee’s
pay slip.
• Discrimination: The act of treating one person not as favourably as another person.
• Employee: A person who works for another person in exchange for payment.
• Employee Training: A workshop or in-house training that an employee is asked to attend
by his or her superior, for the benefit of the employer.
• Employment Gaps: Periods of unemployed time between jobs.
• Fixed-Term Contract: A contract of employment which gets terminated on an agreed-upon
date.
• Follow-Up: The act of contacting a potential employer after a candidate has submitted his
or her resume.
• Freelancer/Consultant/Independent Contractor: A person who works for him or herself
and pitches for temporary jobs and projects with different employers.
• Holiday: Paid time-off from work.
• Hourly Rate: The amount of salary or wages paid for 60 minutes of work.

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• Internship: A job opportunity offered by an employer to a potential employee, called an

intern, to work at the employer’s company for a fixed, limited time period.
• Interview: A conversation between a potential employee and a representative of an
employer, in order to determine if the potential employee should be hired.
• Job Application: A form which asks for a candidate’s information like the candidate’s name,
address, contact details and work experience. The purpose of a candidate submitting a job
application, is to show that candidate’s interest in working for a particular company.
• Job Offer: An offer of employment made by an employer to a potential employee.
• Job Search Agent: A program that enables candidates to search for employment
opportunities by selecting criteria listed in the program, for job vacancies.
• Lay Off: A lay off occurs when an employee is temporarily let go from his or her job, due to
the employer not having any work for that employee.
• Leave: Formal permission given to an employee, by his or her employer, to take a leave of
absence from work.
• Letter of Acceptance: A letter given by an employer to an employee, confirming the offer
of employment made by the employer, as well as the conditions of the offer.
• Letter of Agreement: A letter that outlines the terms of employment.
• Letter of Recommendation: A letter written for the purpose of validating the work skills
of a person.
• Maternity Leave: Leave taken from work by women who are pregnant, or who have just
given birth.
• Mentor: A person who is employed at a higher level than you, who offers you advice and
guides you in your career.
• Minimum wage: The minimum wage amount paid on an hourly basis.
• Notice: An announcement made by an employee or an employer, stating that the
employment contract will end on a particular date.
• Offer of Employment: An offer made by an employer to a prospective employee that
contains important information pertaining to the job being offered, like the starting date,
salary, working conditions etc.
• Open-Ended Contract: A contract of employment that continues till the employer or
employee terminates it.
• Overqualified: A person who is not suited for a particular job because he or she has too
many years of work experience, or a level of education that is much higher than required
for the job, or is currently or was previously too highly paid.
• Part-Time Worker: An employee who works for fewer hours than the standard number of
hours normally worked.
• Paternity Leave: Leave granted to a man who has recently become a father.
• Recruiters/Headhunters/Executive Search Firms: Professionals who are paid by employers
to search for people to fill particular positions.
• Resigning/Resignations: When an employee formally informs his or her employer that he
or she is quitting his or her job.
• Self-Employed: A person who has his or her own business and does not work in the
capacity of an employee.
• Time Sheet: A form that is submitted to an employer, by an employee, that contains the
number of hours worked every day by the employee.

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UNIT 5.5: Understanding Entrepreneurship

Unit Objectives
1. By the end of this unit, par cipants will be able to:
2. Discuss the concept of entrepreneurship
3. Discuss the importance of entrepreneurship
4. Describe the characteristics of an entrepreneur
5. Describe the different types of enterprises
6. List the qualities of an effective leader
7. Discuss the benefits of effective leadership
8. List the traits of an effective team
9. Discuss the importance of listening effectively
10. Discuss how to listen effectively
11. Discuss the importance of speaking effectively
12. Discuss how to speak effectively
13. Discuss how to solve problems
14. List important problem solving traits
15. Discuss ways to assess problem solving skills
16. Discuss the importance of negotiation
17. Discuss how to negotiate
18. Discuss how to identify new business opportunities
19. Discuss how to identify business opportunities within your business
20. Understand the meaning of entrepreneur
21. Describe the different types of entrepreneurs
22. List the characteristics of entrepreneurs
23. Recall entrepreneur success stories
24. Discuss the entrepreneurial process
25. Describe the entrepreneurship ecosystem
26. Discuss the government’s role in the entrepreneurship ecosystem
27. Discuss the current entrepreneurship ecosystem in India
28. Understand the purpose of the Make in India campaign
29. Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship and risk appetite
30. Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship and resilience
31. Describe the characteristics of a resilient entrepreneur
32. Discuss how to deal with failure

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5.5.1 Concept Introduction, (Characteristic of an Entrepreneur,

types of firms / types of enterprises): Entrepreneurs
and Entrepreneurship
Anyone who is determined to start a business, no matter what the risk, is an entrepreneur.
Entrepreneurs run their own start-up, take responsibility for the financial risks and use
creativity, innovation and vast reserves of self-motivation to achieve success. They dream big
and are determined to do whatever it takes to turn their idea into a viable offering. The aim of
an entrepreneur is to create an enterprise. The process of creating this enterprise is known as
entrepreneurship.

Importance of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is very important for the following reasons:
1. It results in the creation of new organizations
2. It brings creativity into the marketplace
3. It leads to improved standards of living
4. It helps develop the economy of a country

Characteristics of Entrepreneurs
All successful entrepreneurs have certain characteristics in common.
They are all:
• Extremely passionate about their work
• Confident in themselves
• Disciplined and dedicated
• Motivated and driven
• Highly creative
• Visionaries
• Open-minded
• Decisive
Entrepreneurs also have a tendency to:
• Have a high risk tolerance
• Thoroughly plan everything
• Manage their money wisely
• Make their customers their priority
• Understand their offering and their market in detail
• Ask for advice from experts when required
• Know when to cut their losses

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Examples of Famous Entrepreneurs

Some famous entrepreneurs are:
• Bill Gates (Founder of Microsoft)
• Steve Jobs (Co-founder of Apple)
• Mark Zuckerberg (Founder of Facebook)
• Pierre Omidyar (Founder of eBay)

Types of Enterprises
As an entrepreneur in India, you can own and run any of the following types of enterprises:
Sole Proprietorship
In a sole proprietorship, a single individual owns, manages and controls the enterprise. This
type of business is the easiest to form with respect to legal formalities. The business and the
owner have no separate legal existence. All profit belongs to the proprietor, as do all the losses
- the liability of the entrepreneur is unlimited.
Partnership
A partnership firm is formed by two or more people. The owners of the enterprise are called
partners. A partnership deed must be signed by all the partners. The firm and its partners have
no separate legal existence. The profits are shared by the partners. With respect to losses, the
liability of the partners is unlimited. A firm has a limited life span and must be dissolved when
any one of the partners dies, retires, claims bankruptcy or goes insane.
Limited Liability Partnership (LLP)
In a Limited Liability Partnership or LLP, the partners of the firm enjoy perpetual existence
as well as the advantage of limited liability. Each partner’s liability is limited to their agreed
contribution to the LLP. The partnership and its partners have a separate legal existence.

Tips
• Learn from others’ failures.
• Be certain that this is what you want.
• Search for a problem to solve, rather than look for a problem to attach to your idea.

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5.5.2 Leadership & Teamwork:

Leadership and Leaders
Leadership means setting an example for others to follow. Setting a good example means not
asking someone to do something that you wouldn’t willingly want to do yourself. Leadership is
about figuring out what to do in order to win as a team, and as a company.
Leaders believe in doing the right things. They also believe in helping others to do the right
things. An effective leader is someone who:
• Creates an inspiring vision of the future.
• Motivates and inspires his team to pursue that vision.

Leadership Qualities That All Entrepreneurs Need

Building a successful enterprise is only possible if the entrepreneur in charge possesses excellent
leadership qualities. Some critical leadership skills that every entrepreneur must have are:
1. Pragmatism: This means having the ability to highlight all obstacles and challenges, in
order to resolve issues and reduce risks.
2. Humility: This means admitting to mistakes often and early, and being quick to take
responsibility for your actions. Mistakes should be viewed as challenges to overcome, not
opportunities to point blame.
3. Flexibility: It is critical for a good leader to be very flexible and quickly adapt to change. It
is equally critical to know when to adapt and when not to.
4. Authenticity: This means showing both, your strengths and your weaknesses. It means
being human and showing others that you are human.
5. Reinvention: This means refreshing or changing your leadership style when necessary. To
do this, it’s important to learn where your leadership gaps lie and find out what resources
are required to close them.
6. Awareness: This means taking the time to recognize how others view you. It means
understanding how your presence affects those around you.

Benefits of Effective Leadership

Effective leadership results in numerous benefits. Great leadership leads to the leader successfully:
• Gaining the loyalty and commitment of the team members
• Motivating the team to work towards achieving the company’s goals and objectives
• Building morale and instilling confidence in the team members
• Fostering mutual understanding and team-spirit among team members
• Convincing team members about the need to change when a situation requires adaptability

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Teamwork and Teams

Teamwork occurs when the people in a workplace combine their individual skills to pursue a
common goal. Effective teams are made up of individuals who work together to achieve this
common goal. A great team is one who holds themselves accountable for the end result.

Importance of Teamwork in Entrepreneurial Success

For an entrepreneurial leader, building an effective team is critical to the success of a venture.
An entrepreneur must ensure that the team he builds possesses certain crucial qualities, traits
and characteristics. An effective team is one which has:
1. Unity of purpose: All the team members should clearly understand and be equally
committed to the purpose, vision and goals of the team.
2. Great communication skills: Team members should have the ability to express their
concerns, ask questions and use diagrams, and charts to convey complex information.
3. The ability to collaborate: Every member should feel entitled to provide regular feedback
on new ideas.
4. Initiative: The team should consist of proactive individuals. The members should have the
enthusiasm to come up with new ideas, improve existing ideas, and conduct their own
research.
5. Visionary members: The team should have the ability to anticipate problems and act on
these potential problem before they turn into real problems.
6. Great adaptability skills: The team must believe that change is a positive force. Change
should be seen as the chance to improve and try new things.
12. Excellent organizational skills: The team should have the ability to develop standard work
processes, balance responsibilities, properly plan projects, and set in place methods to
measure progress and ROI.

Tips
• Don’t get too attached to your original idea. Allow it to evolve and change.
• Be aware of your weaknesses and build a team that will complement your shortfalls.
• Hiring the right people is not enough. You need to promote or incentivize your most
talented people to keep them motivated.
• Earn your team’s respect.

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5.5.3 Communication Skills: Listening & Speaking:

The Importance of Listening Effectively
Listening is the ability to correctly receive and understand messages during the process of
communication. Listening is critical for effective communication. Without effective listening
skills, messages can easily be misunderstood. This results in a communication breakdown and
can lead to the sender and the receiver of the message becoming frustrated or irritated.
It’s very important to note that listening is not the same as hearing. Hearing just refers to
sounds that you hear. Listening is a whole lot more than that. To listen, one requires focus. It
means not only paying attention to the story, but also focusing on how the story is relayed,
the way language and voice is used, and even how the speaker uses their body language. The
ability to listen depends on how effectively one can perceive and understand both, verbal and
non-verbal cues.

How to Listen Effectively

To listen effectively you should:
• Stop talking
• Stop interrupting
• Focus completely on what is being said
• Nod and use encouraging words and gestures
• Be open-minded
• Think about the speaker’s perspective
• Be very, very patient
• Pay attention to the tone that is being used
• Pay attention to the speaker’s gestures, facial expressions and eye movements
• Not try and rush the person
• Not let the speaker’s mannerisms or habits irritate or distract you

How to Listen Effectively

How successfully a message gets conveyed depends entirely on how effectively you are able
to get it through. An effective speaker is one who enunciates properly, pronounces words
correctly, chooses the right words and speaks at a pace that is easily understandable. Besides
this, the words spoken out loud need to match the gestures, tone and body language used.
What you say, and the tone in which you say it, results in numerous perceptions being formed.
A person who speaks hesitantly may be perceived as having low self-esteem or lacking in
knowledge of the discussed topic. Those with a quiet voice may very well be labelled as shy.
And those who speak in commanding tones with high levels of clarity, are usually considered to
be extremely confident. This makes speaking a very critical communication skill.

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How to Speak Effectively

To speak effectively you should:
• Incorporate body language in your speech like eye contact, smiling, nodding, gesturing etc.
• Build a draft of your speech before actually making your speech.
• Ensure that all your emotions and feelings are under control.
• Pronounce your words distinctly with the correct pitch and intensity. Your speech should
be crystal clear at all times.
• Use a pleasant and natural tone when speaking. Your audience should not feel like you are
putting on an accent or being unnatural in any way.
• Use precise and specific words to drive your message home. Ambiguity should be avoided
at all costs.
• Ensure that your speech has a logical flow.
• Be brief. Don’t add any unnecessary information.
• Make a conscious effort to avoid irritating mannerisms like fidgeting, twitching etc.
• Choose your words carefully and use simple words that the majority of the audience will
have no difficulty understanding.
• Use visual aids like slides or a whiteboard.
• Speak slowly so that your audience can easily understand what you’re saying. However, be
careful not to speak too slowly because this can come across as stiff, unprepared or even
condescending.
• Remember to pause at the right moments.

Tips
• If you’re finding it difficult to focus on what someone is saying, try repeating their words
in your head.
• Always maintain eye contact with the person that you are communicating with, when
speaking as well as listening. This conveys and also encourages interest in the conversation.

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5.5.4 Problem Solving & Negotiation skills:

What is a Problem?
As per The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1995), a problem is, “A doubtful or difficult matter
requiring a solution”
All problems contain two elements:
1. Goals 2. Obstacles
The aim of problem solving is to recognize the obstacles and remove them in order to achieve
the goals.

How to Solve Problems

Solving a problem requires a level of rational thinking. Here are some logical steps to follow
when faced with an issue:
Step 1: Identify the problem Step 2: Study the problem in detail
Step 3: List all possible solutions Step 4: Select the best solution
Step 5: Implement the chosen solution Step 6: Check that the problem has really been solved

Important Traits for Problem Solving

Highly developed problem solving skills are critical for both, business owners and their employees.
The following personality traits play a big role in how effectively problems are solved:
• Being open minded • Asking the right questions
• Being proactive • Not panicking
• Having a positive attitude • Focusing on the right problem

How to Assess for Problem Solving Skills

As an entrepreneur, it would be a good idea to assess the level of problem solving skills of
potential candidates before hiring them. Some ways to assess this skill are through:
1. Application forms: Ask for proof of the candidate’s problem solving skills in the application
form.
2. Psychometric tests: Give potential candidates logical reasoning and critical thinking tests
and see how they fare.
3. Interviews: Create hypothetical problematic situations or raise ethical questions and see
how the candidates respond.
4. Technical questions: Give candidates examples of real life problems and evaluate their
thought process.

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What is Negotiation?
Negotiation is a method used to settle differences. The aim of negotiation is to resolve
differences through a compromise or agreement while avoiding disputes. Without negotiation,
conflicts are likely to lead to resentment between people. Good negotiation skills help satisfy
both parties and go a long way towards developing strong relationships.

Why Negotiate
Starting a business requires many, many negotiations. Some negotiations are small while
others are critical enough to make or break a startup. Negotiation also plays a big role inside
the workplace. As an entrepreneur, you need to know not only know how to negotiate yourself,
but also how to train employees in the art of negotiation.

How to Negotiate
Take a look at some steps to help you negotiate:

Step 1: Pre-Negotiation Agree on where to meet to discuss the problem, decide who all will
Preparation be present and set a time limit for the discussion.
Step 2: Discuss the This involves asking questions, listening to the other side, putting
Problem your views forward and clarifying doubts.
Step 3: Clarify the Ensure that both parties want to solve the same problem and reach
Objective the same goal.
Step 4: Aim for a Try your best to be open minded when negotiating. Compromise
Win-Win Outcome and offer alternate solutions to reach an outcome where both
parties win.
Step 5: Clearly Define When an agreement has been reached, the details of the
the Agreement agreement should be crystal clear to both sides, with no scope for
misunderstandings.
Step 6: Implement the Agree on a course of action to set the solution in motion
Agreed Upon Solution

Tips
• Know exactly what you want before you work towards getting it
• Give more importance to listening and thinking, than speaking
• Focus on building a relationship rather than winning
• Remember that your people skills will affect the outcome
• Know when to walk away – sometimes reaching an agreement may not be possible

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5.5.5 Business Opportunities Identification:

Entrepreneurs and Opportunities
“The entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to it and exploits it as an opportunity.”
Peter Drucker
The ability to identify business opportunities is an essential characteristic of an entrepreneur.

What is an Opportunity?
The word opportunity suggests a good chance or a favourable situation to do something offered
by circumstances.
A business opportunity means a good or favourable change available to run a specific business
in a given environment, at a given point of time.

Common Questions Faced by Entrepreneurs

A critical question that all entrepreneurs face is how to go about finding the business opportunity
that is right for them.
Some common questions that entrepreneurs constantly think about are:
• Should the new enterprise introduce a new product or service based on an unmet need?
• Should the new enterprise select an existing product or service from one market and offer
it in another where it may not be available?
• Should the enterprise be based on a tried and tested formula that has worked elsewhere?
It is therefore extremely important that entrepreneurs must learn how to identify new and
existing business opportunities and evaluate their chances of success.

When is an Idea an Opportunity?

An idea is an opportunity when:
• It creates or adds value to a customer
• It solves a significant problem, removes a pain point or meets a demand
• Has a robust market and profit margin
• Is a good fit with the founder and management team at the right time and place

Factors to Consider When Looking for Opportunities

Consider the following when looking for business opportunities:
• Economic trends • Market trends
• Changes in funding • Changes in political support
• Changing relationships between vendors, • Shift in target audience
partners and suppliers

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Ways to Identify New Business Opportunities

1. Identify Market Inefficiencies
When looking at a market, consider what inefficiencies are present in the market. Think
about ways to correct these inefficiencies.
2. Remove Key Hassles
Rather than create a new product or service, you can innovatively improve a product,
service or process.
3. Create Something New
Think about how you can create a new experience for customers, based on existing business
models.
4. Pick a Growing Sector/Industry
Research and find out which sectors or industries are growing and think about what
opportunities you can tap in the same.
5. Think About Product Differentiation
If you already have a product in mind, think about ways to set it apart from the existing ones.

Ways to Identify Business Opportunities Within

Your Business
1. SWOT Analysis
An excellent way to identify opportunities inside your business is by creating a SWOT
analysis. The acronym SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
SWOT analysis framework:

STRENGTH WEAKNESSES
What are your strengths? What are your weaknesses?
What unique capabilities do What do your competitors do
you posses? better than you?
What do you do better than
others?
What do others percieve
as your strengths? S W

OPPORTUNITIES O T THREATS
What Trends may positively Do you have solid financial
impact you? support?
What oppprtunities are What trends may negatively
available to you? impact you?

Consider the following when looking for business opportunities:

By looking at yourself and your competitors using the SWOT framework, you can uncover
opportunities that you can exploit, as well as manage and eliminate threats that could derail
your success.
2. Establishing Your USP
Establish your USP and position yourself as different from your competitors. Identify why
customers should buy from you and promote that reason.

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Opportunity Analysis
Once you have identified an opportunity, you need to analyze it.
To analyze an opportunity, you must:
• Focus on the idea
• Focus on the market of the idea
• Talk to industry leaders in the same space as the idea
• Talk to players in the same space as the idea

Tips
• Remember, opportunities are situational.
• Look for a proven track record.
• Avoid the latest craze.
• Love your idea.

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5.5.6 Entrepreneurship Support Eco - System:

What is an Entrepreneur?
An entrepreneur is a person who:
• Does not work for an employee
• Runs a small enterprise
• Assumes all the risks and rewards of the enterprise, idea, good or service

Types of Entrepreneurs
There are four main types of entrepreneurs:
1. The Traditional Entrepreneur: This type of entrepreneur usually has some kind of skill –
they can be a carpenter, mechanic, cook etc. They have businesses that have been around
for numerous years like restaurants, shops and carpenters. Typically, they gain plenty of
experience in a particular industry before they begin their own business in a similar field.
2. The Growth Potential Entrepreneur: The desire of this type of entrepreneur is to start an
enterprise that will grow, win many customers and make lots of money. Their ultimate aim
is to eventually sell their enterprise for a nice profit. Such entrepreneurs usually have a
science or technical background.
3. The Project-Oriented Entrepreneur: This type of entrepreneur generally has a background
in the Arts or psychology. Their enterprises tend to be focus on something that they are
very passionate about.
4. The Lifestyle Entrepreneur: This type of entrepreneur has usually worked as a teacher or
a secretary. They are more interested in selling something that people will enjoy, rather
than making lots of money.

Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
Successful entrepreneurs have the following characteristics:
• They are highly motivated
• They are creative and persuasive
• They are mentally prepared to handle each and every task
• They have excellent business skills – they know how to evaluate their cash flow, sales and
revenue
• They are willing to take great risks
• They are very proactive – this means they are willing to do the work themselves, rather
than wait for someone else to do it
• They have a vision – they are able to see the big picture
• They are flexible and open-minded
• They are good at making decisions

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Entrepreneur Success Stories

Dhiru Bhai Ambani
Dhirubhai Ambani began his entrepreneurial career by selling “bhajias” to pilgrims in Mount
Girnar on weekends. At 16, he moved to Yemen where he worked as a gas-station attendant,
and as a clerk in an oil company. He returned to India with Rs. 50,000 and started a textile
trading company. Reliance went on to become the first Indian company to raise money in
global markets and the first Indian company to feature in Forbes 500 list.
Dr. Karsanbhai Patel
Karsanbhai Patel made detergent powder in the backyard of his house. He sold his product
door-to-door and offered a money back guarantee with every pack that was sold. He charged
Rs. 3 per kg when the cheapest detergent at that time was Rs.13 per kg. Dr. Patel eventually
started Nirma which became a whole new segment in the Indian domestic detergent market.

The Entrepreneurial Process

Let’s take a look at the stages of the entrepreneurial process.
Stage 1: Idea Generation. The entrepreneurial process begins with an idea that has been
thought of by the entrepreneur. The idea is a problem that has the potential to be solved.
Stage 2: Germination or Recognition. In this stage a possible solution to the identified problem
is thought of.
Stage 3: Preparation or Rationalization. The problem is studied further and research is done to
find out how others have tried to solve the same problem.
Stage 4: Incubation or Fantasizing. This stage involves creative thinking for the purpose of
coming up with more ideas. Less thought is given to the problem areas.
Stage 5: Feasibility Study: The next step is the creation of a feasibility study to determine if the
idea will make a profit and if it should be seen through.
Stage 6: Illumination or Realization. This is when all uncertain areas suddenly become clear.
The entrepreneur feels confident that his idea has merit.
Stage 7: Verification or Validation. In this final stage, the idea is verified to see if it works and
if it is useful.
Take a look at the diagram below to get a better idea of this process.
Idea Germination
Generation (Recognition)

Preparation
(Rationalisation)

Incubation
(Fantasising)

Fasibility
Study

Illumination Varification
(Realisation) (Validation)

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What is an Entrepreneur?
The entrepreneurship support ecosystem signifies the collective and complete nature of
entrepreneurship. New companies emerge and flourish not only because of the courageous,
visionary entrepreneurs who launch them, but they thrive as they are set in an environment or
‘ecosystem’ made of private and public participants. These players nurture and sustain the new
ventures, facilitating the entrepreneurs’ efforts.
An entrepreneurship ecosystem comprises of the following six domains:
1. Favourable Culture: This includes elements such as tolerance of risk and errors, valuable
networking and positive social standing of the entrepreneur.
2. Facilitating Policies & Leadership: This includes regulatory framework incentives and
existence of public research institutes.
3. Financing Options: Angel financing, venture capitalists and micro loans would be good
examples of this.
4. Human Capital: This refers to trained and untrained labour, entrepreneurs and
entrepreneurship training programmes, etc.
5. Conducive Markets for Products & Services: This refers to an existence or scope of
existence of a market for the product/service.
6. Institutional & Infrastructural Support: This includes legal and financing advisers,
telecommunications, digital and transportation infrastructure, and entrepreneurship
networking programmes.
These domains indicate whether there is a strong entrepreneurship support ecosystem and
what actions should the government put in place to further encourage this ecosystem. The six
domains and their various elements have been graphically depicted.

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 Leadership
Early Customers Government
• Unequivocal support • Institutions • Research institutes
• Early adopters for proof-of-concept
• Social legitimacy e.g. Investment, support
• Expertise in productizing
• Reference customer
• Open door for advocate
• Financial support • Venture-friendly
• First reviews • Entrepreneurship strategy e.g. for R&D, jump start funds legislation
• Distribution channels • urgency, crisis and challenge
Regulatory framework • e.g. Bankruptcy,
incentives contract enforcement, pro-
Networks
e.g. Tax benifits perty rights, and labour
• Entrepreneure’s networks Policy
• Diaspora networks Financial Capital
• Multinational corporations • Micro-loans • Venture capital funds
Market Finance • Angel investors, fri- • Private equity
Labour ends and family • Public capital markets
• Zero-stage venture • Debt
• Skilled and unskilled
Entrepreneurship capital
• Serial entrepreneures

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• Later generation family Success Stories
Human • Visible successes
Educational Institutions Culture
• General degrees (professional and academic)
Capital • Wealth generation for founders
• Specific entrepreneurship training • International reputation
Supports Societal norms
Infrastructure
• Tolerance of risk, mistakes, failure
• Telecommunications • Innovation, creativity, experimentation
• Transportation & logistics • Social status of entrepreneur
• Energy • Wealth creation
• Zones, incubation centers, clusters Non-Government Institution • Ambition, drive, hunger
• Entrepreneurship • Conferences
Support Professions promotion in
• Legal non-profits
• Accounting • Business plan • Entrepreneur- fri-
• Investment bankers contests endly association
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Every entrepreneurship support ecosystem is unique and all the elements of the ecosystem are
interdependent. Although every region’s entrepreneurship ecosystem can be broadly described
by the above features, each ecosystem is the result of the hundred elements interacting in
highly complex and particular ways.
Entrepreneurship ecosystems eventually become (largely) self-sustaining. When the six domains
are resilient enough, they are mutually beneficial. At this point, government involvement can
and should be significantly minimized. Public leaders do not need to invest a lot to sustain the
ecosystem. It is imperative that the entrepreneurship ecosystem incentives are formulated to
be self-liquidating, hence focusing on sustainability of the environment.

Government’s Role in the Entrepreneurship

Ecosystem
Encouraging new ventures is a major focus for policymakers. Governments across the world
are recognizing that new businesses flourish in distinctive types of supportive environments.
Policymakers should study the scenario and take into account the following points whilst they
formulate policies and regulations that enable successful entrepreneurship support ecosystems.
1. Policymakers should avoid regulations that discourage new entrants and work towards
building efficient methods for business startups. Policies and regulations that favour
existing, dominant firms over entrepreneurial ventures, restrict competition and obstruct
entry for new companies.
2. Instead of developing policies conceptually intended to correct market failures,
policymakers should interact with entrepreneurs and understand the challenges faced
by them. The feedback should be used to develop policies that incite idea exploration,
product development and increased rates of deal flow.
3. Entrepreneurial supporters should create a database that enables identifying who the
participants in the ecosystem are and how they are connected. These ecosystem maps are
useful tools in developing engagement strategies.
4. Disruptions are unavoidable in economic and social life. However, it’s important to note
that economic disruption gives rise to entrepreneurial opportunities. Architects of the
entrepreneurship ecosystems (entrepreneurs, mentors, policymakers and consumers,)
should anticipate these dips, thus capitalizing on the opportunities they create.
The need for effective strategies to enable local entrepreneurship support ecosystems is a
practical one. Better understanding of the actual ecosystems provides a framework within
which policy makers can ask relevant questions, envisage more efficient approaches, and
assess ensuing outcomes.

Snapshot of the Entrepreneurship Ecosystem in India

Entrepreneurship has earned a newfound respect in India. Many Indians, with exposure to
the world of business, who traditionally would have opted for a job, are setting up their own
ventures. Many elements of the entrepreneurship ecosystem are beginning to come together.
For example, increase in venture capitalists, government schemes and incubators, academia
industry linkages, and emerging clusters and support to rural economy. All these initiatives are
effective but there is a need to scale up and enrich the ecosystem further in the following ways:
1. We need to review our attitude towards failures and accept them as learning experiences.
2. We must encourage the educated to become entrepreneurs and provide students in
schools and colleges with entrepreneurship skills.

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3. Universities, research labs and the government need to play the role of enablers in the
entrepreneurship support ecosystem.
4. Policymakers need to focus on reducing the obstacles such as corruption, red tape and
bureaucracy.
5. We need to improve our legal systems and court international venture capital firms and
bring them to India.
6. We must devise policies and methods to reach the secondary and tertiary towns in India,
where people do not have access to the same resources available in the cities.
Today, there is a huge opportunity in this country to introduce innovative solutions that are
capable of scaling up, and collaborating within the ecosystem as well as enriching it.

Make in India Campaign

Every entrepreneur has certain needs. Some of their important needs are:
• To easily get loans
• To easily find investors
• To get tax exemptions
• To easily access resources and good infrastructure
• To enjoy a procedure that is free of hassles and is quick
• To be able to easily partner with other firms
The Make in India campaign, launched by Prime Minister Modi aims to satisfy all these needs
of young, aspiring entrepreneurs. Its objective is to:
• Make investment easy
• Support new ideas
• Enhance skill development
• Safeguard the ideas of entrepreneurs
• Create state-of-the-art facilities for manufacturing goods

Tips
• Research the existing market, network with other entrepreneurs, venture capitalists, angel
investors, and thoroughly review the policies in place to enable your entrepreneurship.
• Failure is a stepping stone and not the end of the road. Review yours and your peers’ errors
and correct them in your future venture.
• Be proactive in your ecosystem. Identify the key features of your ecosystem and enrich
them to ensure self-sustainability of your entrepreneurship support ecosystem.

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5.5.7 Risk Appetite & Resilience:

Entrepreneurship and Risk
Entrepreneurs are inherently risk takers. They are path-makers not path-takers. Unlike a normal,
cautious person, an entrepreneur would not think twice about quitting his job (his sole income)
and taking a risk on himself and his idea.
An entrepreneur is aware that while pursuing his dreams, assumptions can be proven wrong and
unforeseen events may arise. He knows that after dealing with numerous problems, success is
still not guaranteed. Entrepreneurship is synonymous with the ability to take risks. This ability,
called risk-appetite, is an entrepreneurial trait that is partly genetic and partly acquired.

What is Risk Appetite?

Risk appetite is defined as the extent to which a company is equipped to take risk, in order
to achieve its objectives. Essentially, it refers to the balance, struck by the company, between
possible profits and the hazards caused by changes in the environment (economic ecosystem,
policies, etc.). Taking on more risk may lead to higher rewards but have a high probability of
losses as well. However, being too conservative may go against the company as it can miss out
on good opportunities to grow and reach their objectives.
The levels of risk appetite can be broadly categorized as “low”, “medium” and “high.” The
company’s entrepreneur(s) have to evaluate all potential alternatives and select the option
most likely to succeed. Companies have varying levels of risk appetites for different objectives.
The levels depend on:
• The type of industry
• Market pressures
• Company objectives
For example, a startup with a revolutionary concept will have a very high risk appetite. The
startup can afford short term failures before it achieves longer term success. This type of
appetite will not remain constant and will be adjusted to account for the present circumstances
of the company.

Risk Appetite Statement

Companies have to define and articulate their risk appetite in sync with decisions made about
their objectives and opportunities. The point of having a risk appetite statement is to have a
framework that clearly states the acceptance and management of risk in business. It sets risk
taking limits within the company. The risk appetite statement should convey the following:
• The nature of risks the business faces.
• Which risks the company is comfortable taking on and which risks are unacceptable.
• How much risk to accept in all the risk categories.
• The desired tradeoff between risk and reward.
• Measures of risk and methods of examining and regulating risk exposures.

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Entrepreneurship and Resilience

Entrepreneurs are characterized by a set of qualities known as resilience. These qualities play
an especially large role in the early stages of developing an enterprise. Risk resilience is an
extremely valuable characteristic as it is believed to protect entrepreneurs against the threat
of challenges and changes in the business environment.

What is Entrepreneurial Resilience?

Resilience is used to describe individuals who have the ability to overcome setbacks related
to their life and career aspirations. A resilient person is someone who is capable of easily
and quickly recovering from setbacks. For the entrepreneur, resilience is a critical trait.
Entrepreneurial resilience can be enhanced in the following ways:
• By developing a professional network of coaches and mentors
• By accepting that change is a part of life
• By viewing obstacles as something that can be overcome

Characteristics of a Resilient Entrepreneur

The characteristics required to make an entrepreneur resilient enough to go the whole way in
their business enterprise are:
• A strong internal sense of control • Ability to diversify and expand
• Strong social connections • Survivor attitude
• Skill to learn from setbacks • Cash-flow conscious habits
• Ability to look at the bigger picture • Attention to detail

Tips
• Cultivate a great network of clients, suppliers, peers, friends and family. This will not only
help you promote your business, but will also help you learn, identify new opportunities
and stay tuned to changes in the market.
• Don’t dwell on setbacks. Focus on what the you need to do next to get moving again.
• While you should try and curtail expenses, ensure that it is not at the cost of your growth.

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5.5.8 Success & Failures: Understanding

Successes and Failures in Entrepreneurship
Shyam is a famous entrepreneur, known for his success story. But what most people don’t
know, is that Shyam failed numerous times before his enterprise became a success. Read his
interview to get an idea of what entrepreneurship is really about, straight from an entrepreneur
who has both, failed and succeeded.
Interviewer: Shyam, I have heard that entrepreneurs are great risk-takers who are never afraid
of failing. Is this true?
Shyam: Ha ha, no of course it’s not true! Most people believe that entrepreneurs need to
be fearlessly enthusiastic. But the truth is, fear is a very normal and valid human reaction,
especially when you are planning to start your own business! In fact, my biggest fear was the
fear of failing. The reality is, entrepreneurs fail as much as they succeed. The trick is to not
allow the fear of failing to stop you from going ahead with your plans. Remember, failures are
lessons for future success!
Interviewer: What, according to you, is the reason that entrepreneurs fail?
Shyam: Well, there is no one single reason why entrepreneurs fail. An entrepreneur can fail due
to numerous reasons. You could fail because you have allowed your fear of failure to defeat
you. You could fail because you are unwilling to delegate (distribute) work. As the saying goes,
“You can do anything, but not everything!” You could fail because you gave up too easily –
maybe you were not persistent enough. You could fail because you were focusing your energy
on small, insignificant tasks and ignoring the tasks that were most important. Other reasons for
failing are partnering with the wrong people, not being able to sell your product to the right
customers at the right time at the right price… and many more reasons!
Interviewer: As an entrepreneur, how do you feel failure should be looked at?
Shyam: I believe we should all look at failure as an asset, rather than as something negative.
The way I see it, if you have an idea, you should try to make it work, even if there is a chance
that you will fail. That’s because not trying is failure right there, anyway! And failure is not the
worst thing that can happen. I think having regrets because of not trying, and wondering ‘what
if’ is far worse than trying and actually failing.
Interviewer: How did you feel when you failed for the first time?
Shyam: I was completely heartbroken! It was a very painful experience. But the good news is,
you do recover from the failure. And with every subsequent failure, the recovery process gets
a lot easier. That’s because you start to see each failure more as a lesson that will eventually
help you succeed, rather than as an obstacle that you cannot overcome. You will start to
realize that failure has many benefits.
Interviewer: Can you tell us about some of the benefits of failing?
Shyam: One of the benefits that I have experienced personally from failing is that the failure
made me see things in a new light. It gave me answers that I didn’t have before. Failure can
make you a lot stronger. It also helps keep your ego in control.
Interviewer: What advice would you give entrepreneurs who are about to start their own
enterprises?
Shyam: I would tell them to do their research and ensure that their product is something that
is actually wanted by customers. I’d tell them to pick their partners and employees very wisely
and cautiously. I’d tell them that it’s very important to be aggressive – push and market your
product as aggressively as possible. I would warn them that starting an enterprise is very
expensive and that they should be prepared for a situation where they run out of money.

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I would tell them to create long term goals and put a plan in action to achieve that goal. I would
tell them to build a product that is truly unique. Be very careful and ensure that you are not
copying another startup. Lastly, I’d tell them that it’s very important that they find the right
investors.
Interviewer: That’s some really helpful advice, Shyam! I’m sure this will help all entrepreneurs
to be more prepared before they begin their journey! Thank you for all your insight!

Tips
• Remember that nothing is impossible.
• Identify your mission and your purpose before you start.
• Plan your next steps – don’t make decisions hastily.

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UNIT 5.6: Preparing to be an Entrepreneur

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, par cipants will be able to:
1. Discuss how market research is carried out
2. Describe the 4 Ps of marketing
3. Discuss the importance of idea generation
4. Recall basic business terminology
5. Discuss the need for CRM
6. Discuss the benefits of CRM
7. Discuss the need for networking
8. Discuss the benefits of networking
9. Understand the importance of setting goals
10. Differentiate between short-term, medium-term and long-term goals
11. Discuss how to write a business plan
12. Explain the financial planning process
13. Discuss ways to manage your risk
14. Describe the procedure and formalities for applying for bank finance
15. Discuss how to manage your own enterprise
16. List important questions that every entrepreneur should ask before starting an enterprise

5.6.1 Market Study / The 4 Ps of Marketing /

Importance of an IDEA: Understanding Market
Research
Market research is the process of gathering, analyzing and interpreting market information on
a product or service that is being sold in that market. It also includes information on:
• Past, present and prospective customers
• Customer characteristics and spending habits
• The location and needs of the target market
• The overall industry
• Relevant competitors
Market research involves two types of data:
• Primary information. This is research collected by yourself or by someone hired by you.
• Secondary information. This is research that already exists and is out there for you to find
and use.

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Primary research
Primary research can be of two types:
• Exploratory: This is open-ended and usually involves detailed, unstructured interviews.
• Specific: This is precise and involves structured, formal interviews. Conducting specific
research is the more expensive than conducting exploratory research.
Secondary research
Secondary research uses outside information. Some common secondary sources are:
• Public sources: These are usually free and have a lot of good information. Examples are
government departments, business departments of public libraries etc.
• Commercial sources: These offer valuable information but usually require a fee to be paid.
Examples are research and trade associations, banks and other financial institutions etc.
• Educational institutions: These offer a wealth of information. Examples are colleges,
universities, technical institutes etc.

The 4 Ps of Marketing
The 4 Ps of marketing are Product, Price, Promotion and Place. Let’s look at each of these 4 Ps
in detail.

Product
A product can be:
• A tangible good • An intangible service
Whatever your product is, it is critical that you have a clear understanding of what you are
offering, and what its unique characteristics are, before you begin with the marketing process.
Some questions to ask yourself are:
• What does the customer want from the product/service?
• What needs does it satisfy?
• Are there any more features that can be added?
• Does it have any expensive and unnecessary features?
• How will customers use it?
• What should it be called?
• How is it different from similar products?
• How much will it cost to produce?
• Can it be sold at a profit?

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Price
Once all the elements of Product have been established, the Price factor needs to be considered.
The Price of a Product will depend on several factors such as profit margins, supply, demand
and the marketing strategy.
Some questions to ask yourself are:
• What is the value of the product/service to customers?
• Do local products/services have established price points?
• Is the customer price sensitive?
• Should discounts be offered?
• How is your price compared to that of your competitors?

Promotion
Once you are certain about your Product and your Price, the next step is to look at ways to
promote it. Some key elements of promotion are advertising, public relations, social media
marketing, email marketing, search engine marketing, video marketing and more.
Some questions to ask yourself are:
• Where should you promote your product or service?
• What is the best medium to use to reach your target audience?
• When would be the best time to promote your product?
• How are your competitors promoting their products?

Place
According to most marketers, the basis of marketing is about offering the right product, at
the right price, at the right place, at the right time. For this reason, selecting the best possible
location is critical for converting prospective clients into actual clients.
Some questions to ask yourself are:
• Will your product or service be looked for in a physical store, online or both?
• What should you do to access the most appropriate distribution channels?
• Will you require a sales force?
• Where are your competitors offering their products or services?
• Should you follow in your competitors’ footsteps?
• Should you do something different from your competitors?

Importance of an IDEA
Ideas are the foundation of progress. An idea can be small or ground-breaking, easy to
accomplish or extremely complicated to implement. Whatever the case, the fact that it is an
idea gives it merit. Without ideas, nothing is possible. Most people are afraid to speak out
their ideas, out for fear of being ridiculed. However, if are an entrepreneur and want to remain
competitive and innovative, you need to bring your ideas out into the light.

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Some ways to do this are by:

• Establishing a culture of brainstorming where you invite all interested parties to contribute
• Discussing ideas out loud so that people can add their ideas, views, opinions to them
• Being open minded and not limiting your ideas, even if the idea who have seems ridiculous
• Not discarding ideas that you don’t work on immediately, but instead making a note of
them and shelving them so they can be revisited at a later date

Tips
• Keep in mind that good ideas do not always have to be unique.
• Remember that timing plays a huge role in determining the success of your idea.
• Situations and circumstances will always change, so be flexible and adapt your idea
accordingly.

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5.6.2 Business Entity Concepts:

Basic Business Terminology
If your aim is to start and run a business, it is crucial that you have a good understanding of
basic business terms. Every entrepreneur should be well versed in the following terms:
• Accounting: A systematic method of recording and reporting financial transactions.
• Accounts payable: Money owed by a company to its creditors.
• Accounts Receivable: The amount a company is owed by its clients.
• Assets: The value of everything a company owns and uses to conduct its business.
• Balance Sheet: A snapshot of a company’s assets, liabilities and owner’s equity at a given
moment.
• Bottom Line: The total amount a business has earned or lost at the end of a month.
• Business: An organization that operates with the aim of making a profit.
• Business to Business (B2B): A business that sells goods or services to another business.
• Business to Consumer (B2C): A business that sells goods or services directly to the end user.
• Capital: The money a business has in its accounts, assets and investments. The two main
types of capital are debt and equity.
• Cash Flow: The overall movement of funds through a business each month, including
income and expenses.
• Cash Flow Statement: A statement showing the money that entered and exited a business
during a specific period of time.
• Contract: A formal agreement to do work for pay.
• Depreciation: The degrading value of an asset over time.
• Expense: The costs that a business incurs through its operations.
• Finance: The management and allocation of money and other assets.
• Financial Report: A comprehensive account of a business’ transactions and expenses.
• Fixed Cost: A one-time expense.
• Income Statement (Profit and Loss Statement): Shows the profitability of a business during
a period of time.
• Liabilities: The value of what a business owes to someone else.
• Marketing: The process of promoting, selling and distributing a product or service.
• Net Income/Profit: Revenues minus expenses.
• Net Worth: The total value of a business.
• Payback Period: The amount of time it takes to recover the initial investment of a business.
• Profit Margin: The ratio of profit, divided by revenue, displayed as a percentage.
• Return on Investment (ROI): The amount of money a business gets as return from an
investment.

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• Revenue: The total amount of income before expenses are subtracted.

• Sales Prospect: A potential customer.
• Supplier: A provider of supplies to a business.
• Target Market: A specific group of customers at which a company’s products and services
are aimed.
• Valuation: An estimate of the overall worth of the business.
• Variable Cost: Expenses that change in proportion to the activity of a business.
• Working Capital: Calculated as current assets minus current liabilities.

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5.6.3 CRM & Networking: What is CRM?

CRM stands for Customer Relationship Management. Originally the expression Customer
Relationship Management meant managing one’s relationship with customers. However, today
it refers to IT systems and software designed to help companies manage their relationships.

The Need for CRM

The better a company can manage its relationships with its customers, the higher the chances
of the company’s success. For any entrepreneur, the ability to successfully retain existing
customers and expand the enterprise is paramount. This is why IT systems that focus on
addressing the problems of dealing with customers on a daily basis are becoming more and
more in demand.
Customer needs change over time, and technology can make it easier to understand what
customers really want. This insight helps companies to be more responsive to the needs
of their customers. It enables them to modify their business operations when required, so
that their customers are always served in the best manner possible. Simply put, CRM helps
companies recognize the value of their clients and enables them to capitalize on improved
customer relations.

Benefits of CRM
CRM has a number of important benefits:
• It helps improve relations with existing customers which can lead to:
Increased sales
Identification of customer needs
Cross-selling of products
• It results in better marketing of one’s products or services
• It enhances customer satisfaction and retention
• It improves profitability by identifying and focusing on the most profitable customers

5.6.4 What is Networking?

In business, networking means leveraging your business and personal connections in order
to bring in a regular supply of new business. This marketing method is effective as well as low
cost. It is a great way to develop sales opportunities and contacts. Networking can be based
on referrals and introductions, or can take place via phone, email, and social and business
networking websites.

5.6.5 The Need for Networking

Networking is an essential personal skill for business people, but it is even more important for
entrepreneurs. The process of networking has its roots in relationship building. Networking
results in greater communication and a stronger presence in the entrepreneurial ecosystem.
This helps build strong relationships with other entrepreneurs.

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Business networking events held across the globe play a huge role in connecting like-minded
entrepreneurs who share the same fundamental beliefs in communication, exchanging ideas
and converting ideas into realities. Such networking events also play a crucial role in connecting
entrepreneurs with potential investors. Entrepreneurs may have vastly different experiences
and backgrounds but they all have a common goal in mind – they all seek connection, inspiration,
advice, opportunities and mentors. Networking offers them a platform to do just that.

Benefits of Networking
Networking offers numerous benefits for entrepreneurs. Some of the major benefits are:
• Getting high quality leads
• Increased business opportunities
• Good source of relevant connections
• Advice from like-minded entrepreneurs
• Gaining visibility and raising your profile
• Meeting positive and enthusiastic people
• Increased self-confidence
• Satisfaction from helping others
• Building strong and lasting friendships

Tips
• Use social media interactions to identify needs and gather feedback.
• When networking, ask open-ended questions rather than yes/no type questions.

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5.6.6 Business Plan: Why Set Goals

Setting goals is important because it gives you long-term vision and short-term motivation.
Goals can be short term, medium term and long term.
Short-Term Goals
• These are specific goals for the immediate future.
Example: Repairing a machine that has failed.
Medium-Term Goals
• These goals are built on your short term goals.
• They do not need to be as specific as your short term goals.
Example: Arranging for a service contract to ensure that your machines don’t fail again.
Long-Term Goals
These goals require time and planning.
They usually take a year or more to achieve.
Example: Planning your expenses so you can buy new machinery

Why Create a Business Plan

A business plan is a tool for understanding how your business is put together. It can be used to
monitor progress, foster accountable and control the fate of the business. It usually offers a 3-5
year projection and outlines the plan that the company intends to follow to grow its revenues.
A business plan is also a very important tool for getting the interest of key employees or future
investors.
A business plan typically comprises of eight elements.

Elements of a Business Plan

Executive Summary
The executive summary follows the title page. The summary should clearly state your desires as
the business owner in a short and businesslike way. It is an overview of your business and your
plans. Ideally this should not be more than 1-2 pages.
Your Executive Summary should include:
• The Mission Statement: Explain what your business is all about.
Example: Nike’s Mission Statement
Nike’s mission statement is “To bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the
world.”
• Company Information: Provide information like when your business was formed, the
names and roles of the founders, the number of employees, your business location(s) etc.
• Growth Highlights: Mention examples of company growth. Use graphs and charts where
possible.
• Your Products/Services: Describe the products or services provided.
• Financial Information: Provide details on current bank and investors.
• Summarize future plans: Describe where you see your business in the future.

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Business Description
The second section of your business plan needs to provide a detailed review of the different
elements of your business. This will help potential investors to correctly understand your
business goal and the uniqueness of your offering.
Your Business Description should include:
• A description of the nature of your business
• The market needs that you are aiming to satisfy
• The ways in which your products and services meet these needs
• The specific consumers and organizations that you intend to serve
• Your specific competitive advantages
Market Analysis
The market analysis section usually follows the business description. The aim of this section is
to showcase your industry and market knowledge. This is also the section where you should lay
down your research findings and conclusions.
Your Market Analysis should include:
• Your industry description and outlook
• Information on your target market
• The needs and demographics of your target audience
• The size of your target market
• The amount of market share you want to capture
• Your pricing structure
• Your competitive analysis
• Any regulatory requirements
Organization & Management
This section should come immediately after the Market Analysis.
Your Organization & Management section should include:
• Your company’s organizational structure
• Details of your company’s ownership
• Details of your management team
• Qualifications of your board of directors
• Detailed descriptions of each division/department and its function
• The salary and benefits package that you offer your people
• The incentives that you offer
Service or Product Line
The next section is the service or product line section. This is where you describe your service
or product, and stress on their benefits to potential and current customers. Explain in detail
why your product of choice will fulfill the needs of your target audience.

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Your Service or Product Line section should include:

• A description of your product/service
• A description of your product or service’s life cycle
• A list of any copyright or patent filings
• A description of any R&D activities that you are involved in or planning
Marketing & Sales
Once the Service or Product Line section of your plan has been completed, you should start on
the description of the marketing and sales management strategy for your business.
Your Marketing section should include the following strategies:
• Market penetration strategy: This strategy focuses on selling your existing products or
services in existing markets, in order to increase your market share.
• Growth strategy: This strategy focuses on increasing the amount of market share, even if
it reduces earnings in the short-term.
• Channels of distribution strategy: These can be wholesalers, retailers, distributers and
even the internet.
• Communication strategy: These can be written strategies (e-mail, text, chat), oral strategies
(phone calls, video chats, face-to-face conversations), non-verbal strategies (body language,
facial expressions, tone of voice) and visual strategies (signs, webpages, illustrations).
Your Sales section should include the following information:

• A salesforce strategy: This strategy focuses on increasing the revenue of the enterprise.
• A breakdown of your sales activities: This means detailing out how you intend to sell your
products or services – will you sell it offline or online, how many units do you intend to sell,
what price do you plan to sell each unit at, etc.
Funding Request
This section is specifically for those who require funding for their venture.
The Funding Request section should include the following information:
• How much funding you currently require.
• How much funding you will require over the next five years. This will depend on your long-
term goals.
• The type of funding you want and how you plan to use it. Do you want funding that can be
used only for a specific purpose, or funding that can be used for any kind of requirement?
• Strategic plans for the future. This will involve detailing out your long-term plans – what
these plans are and how much money you will require to put these plans in motions.
• Historical and prospective financial information. This can be done by creating and
maintaining all your financial records, right from the moment your enterprise started, to
the present day. Documents required for this are your balance sheet which contains details
of your company’s assets and liabilities, your income statement which lists your company’s
revenues, expenses and net income for the year, your tax returns (usually for the last three
years) and your cash flow budget which lists the cash that came in, the cash that went out
and states whether you had a cash deficit (negative balance) or surplus (positive balance)
at the end of each month.

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Financial Planning
Before you begin building your enterprise, you need to plan your finances. Take a look at the
steps for financial planning:
Step 1: Create a financial plan. This should include your goals, strategies and timelines for
accomplishing these goals.
Step 2: Organize all your important financial documents. Maintain a file to hold your investment
details, bank statements, tax papers, credit card bills, insurance papers and any other financial
records.
Step 3: Calculate your net worth. This means figure out what you own (assets like your house,
bank accounts, investments etc.), and then subtract what you owe (liabilities like loans, pending
credit card amounts etc.) the amount you are left with is your net worth.
Step 4: Make a spending plan. This means write down in detail where your money will come
from, and where it will go.
Step 5: Build an emergency fund. A good emergency fund contains enough money to cover at
least 6 months’ worth of expenses.
Step 6: Set up your insurance. Insurance provides long term financial security and protects you
against risk.
Risk Management
As an entrepreneur, it is critical that you evaluate the risks involved with the type of enterprise
that you want to start, before you begin setting up your company. Once you have identified
potential risks, you can take steps to reduce them. Some ways to manage risks are:
• Research similar business and find out about their risks and how they were minimized.
• Evaluate current market trends and find out if similar products or services that launched a
while ago are still being well received by the public.
• Think about whether you really have the required expertise to launch your product or
service.
• Examine your finances and see if you have enough income to start your enterprise.
• Be aware of the current state of the economy, consider how the economy may change over
time, and think about how your enterprise will be affected by any of those changes.
• Create a detailed business plan.

Tips
• Ensure all the important elements are covered in your plan.
• Scrutinize the numbers thoroughly.
• Be concise and realistic.
• Be conservative in your approach and your projections.
• Use visuals like charts, graphs and images wherever possible.

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5.6.7 Procedure and Formalities for Bank Finance:

The Need for Bank Finance
For entrepreneurs, one of the most difficult challenges faced involves securing funds for
startups. With numerous funding options available, entrepreneurs need to take a close look at
which funding methodology works best for them. In India, banks are one of the largest funders
of startups, offering funding to thousands of startups every year.

What Information Should Entrepreneurs Offer

Banks for Funding?
When approaching a bank, entrepreneurs must have a clear idea of the different criteria that
banks use to screen, rate and process loan applications. Entrepreneurs must also be aware of
the importance of providing banks with accurate and correct information. It is now easier than
ever for financial institutions to track any default behaviour of loan applicants. Entrepreneurs
looking for funding from banks must provide banks with information relating to their general
credentials, financial situation and guarantees or collaterals that can be offered.
General Credentials
This is where you, as an entrepreneur, provide the bank with background information on
yourself. Such information includes:
• Letter(s) of Introduction: This letter should be written by a respected business person
who knows you well enough to introduce you. The aim of this letter is set across your
achievements and vouch for your character and integrity.
• Your Profile: This is basically your resume. You need to give the bank a good idea of your
educational achievements, professional training, qualifications, employment record and
achievements.
• Business Brochure: A business brochure typically provides information on company
products, clients, how long the business has been running for etc.
• Bank and Other References: If you have an account with another bank, providing those
bank references is a good idea.
• Proof of Company Ownership or Registration: In some cases, you may need to provide the
bank with proof of company ownership and registration. A list of assets and liabilities may
also be required.
Financial Situation
Banks will expect current financial information on your enterprise. The standard financial
reports you should be prepared with are:
• Balance Sheet • Profit-and-Loss Account
• Cash-Flow Statement • Projected Sales and Revenues
• Business Plan • Feasibility Study
Guarantees or Collaterals
Usually banks will refuse to grant you a loan without security. You can offer assets which the
bank can seize and sell off if you do not repay the loan. Fixed assets like machinery, equipment,
vehicles etc. are also considered to be security for loans.

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The Lending Criteria of Banks

Your request for funding will have a higher chance of success if you can satisfy the following
lending criteria:
• Good cash flow
• Adequate shareholders’ funds
• Adequate security
• Experience in business
• Good reputation

The Procedure
To apply for funding the following procedure will need to be followed.
1. Submit your application form and all other required documents to the bank.
2. The bank will carefully assess your credit worthiness and assign ratings by analyzing your
business information with respect to parameters like management, financial, operational
and industry information as well as past loan performance.
3. The bank will make a decision as to whether or not you should be given funding.

Tips
• Get advice on funding options from experienced bankers.
• Be cautious and avoid borrowing more than you need, for longer than you need, at an
interest rate that is higher than you are comfortable with.

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5.6.8 Enterprise Management - An Overview:

How to Manage Your Enterprise
To manage your enterprise effectively you need to look at many different aspects, right from
managing the day-to-day activities to figuring out how to handle a large scale event. Let’s take
a look at some simple steps to manage your company effectively.
Step 1: Use your leadership skills and ask for advice when required.
Let’s take the example of Ramu, an entrepreneur who has recently started his own enterprise.
Ramu has good leadership skills – he is honest, communicates well, knows how to delegate
work etc. These leadership skills definitely help Ramu in the management of his enterprise.
However, sometimes Ramu comes across situations that he is unsure how to handle. What
should Ramu do in this case? One solution is for him to find a more experienced manager who
is willing to mentor him. Another solution is for Ramu to use his networking skills so that he can
connect with managers from other organizations, who can give him advice on how to handle
such situations.
Step 2: Divide your work amongst others – realize that you cannot handle everything yourself.
Even the most skilled manager in the world will not be able to manage every single task that
an enterprise will demand of him. A smart manager needs to realize that the key to managing
his enterprise lies in his dividing all his work between those around him. This is known as
delegation. However, delegating is not enough. A manager must delegate effectively if he wants
to see results. This is important because delegating, when done incorrectly, can result in you
creating even more work for yourself. To delegate effectively, you can start by making two lists.
One list should contain the things that you know you need to handle yourself. The second list
should contain the things that you are confident can be given to others to manage and handle.
Besides incorrect delegation, another issue that may arise is over-delegation. This means giving
away too many of your tasks to others. The problem with this is, the more tasks you delegate,
the more time you will spend tracking and monitoring the work progress of those you have
handed the tasks to. This will leave you with very little time to finish your own work.
Step 3: Hire the right people for the job.
Hiring the right people goes a long way towards effectively managing your enterprise. To hire
the best people suited for the job, you need to be very careful with your interview process.
You should ask potential candidates the right questions and evaluate their answers carefully.
Carrying out background checks is always a good practice. Running a credit check is also a good
idea, especially if the people you are planning to hire will be handling your money. Create a
detailed job description for each role that you want filled and ensure that all candidates have
a clear and correct understanding of the job description. You should also have an employee
manual in place, where you
put down every expectation that you have from your employees. All these actions will help
ensure that the right people are approached for running your enterprise.

Step 4: Motivate your employees and train them well.

Your enterprise can only be managed effectively if your employees are motivated to work hard
for your enterprise. Part of being motivated involves your employees believing in the vision and
mission of your enterprise and genuinely wanting to make efforts towards pursuing the same.
You can motivate your employees with recognition, bonuses and rewards for achievements.
You can also motivate them by telling them about how their efforts have led to the company’s
success. This will help them feel pride and give them a sense of responsibility that will increase
their motivation.

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Besides motivating your people, your employees should be constantly trained in new practices
and technologies. Remember, training is not a one-time effort. It is a consistent effort that
needs to be carried out regularly.
Step 5: Train your people to handle your customers well.
Your employees need to be well-versed in the art of customer management. This means they
should be able to understand what their customers want, and also know how to satisfy their
needs. For them to truly understand this, they need to see how you deal effectively with
customers. This is called leading by example. Show them how you sincerely listen to your clients
and the efforts that you put into understand their requirements. Let them listen to the type of
questions that you ask your clients so they understand which questions are appropriate.
Step 6: Market your enterprise effectively.
Use all your skills and the skills of your employees to market your enterprise in an effective
manner. You can also hire a marketing agency if you feel you need help in this area.
Now that you know what is required to run your enterprise effectively, put these steps into
play, and see how much easier managing your enterprise becomes!

Tips
• Get advice on funding options from experienced bankers.
• Be cautious and avoid borrowing more than you need, for longer than you need, at an
interest rate that is higher than you are comfortable with.

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5.6.9. 20 Questions to Ask Yourself Before Considering

Entrepreneurship
1. Why am I starting a business?
2. What problem am I solving?
3. Have others attempted to solve this problem before? Did they succeed or fail?
4. Do I have a mentor1 or industry expert that I can call on?
5. Who is my ideal customer2?
6. Who are my competitors3?
7. What makes my business idea different from other business ideas?
8. What are the key features of my product or service?
9. Have I done a SWOT4 analysis?
10. What is the size of the market that will buy my product or service?
11. What would it take to build a minimum viable product5 to test the market?
12. How much money do I need to get started?
13. Will I need to get a loan?
14. How soon will my products or services be available?
15. When will I break even6 or make a profit?
16. How will those who invest in my idea make a profit?
17. How should I set up the legal structure7 of my business?
18. What taxes8 will I need to pay?
19. What kind of insurance9 will I need?
20. Have I reached out to potential customers for feedback?

Tips
• It is very important to validate your business ideas before you invest significant time,
money and resources into it.
• The more questions you ask yourself, the more prepared you will be to handle to highs and
lows of starting an enterprise.
Footnotes:
1. A mentor is a trusted and experienced person who is willing to coach and guide you.
2. A customer is someone who buys goods and/or services.
3. A competitor is a person or company that sells products and/or services similar to your
products and/or services.
4. SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. To conduct a SWOT
analysis of your company, you need to list down all the strengths and weaknesses of your
company, the opportunities that are present for your company and the threats faced by
your company.

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5. A minimum viable product is a product that has the fewest possible features, that can be
sold to customers, for the purpose of getting feedback from customers on the product.
6. A company is said to break even when the profits of the company are equal to the costs.
7. The legal structure could be a sole proprietorship, partnership or limited liability
partnership.
8. There are two types of taxes – direct taxes payable by a person or a company, or indirect
taxes charged on goods and/or services.
9. There are two types of insurance – life insurance and general insurance. Life insurance
covers human life while general insurance covers assets like animals, goods, cars etc.

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Notes

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Notes

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