Oriental University, Indore

DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERING

Enrollment No.

Subject Engineering Toolkit

BRANCH Common for All branches of Engineering

YEAR\SEM I&I

ACADEMICYEAR 2023-2024

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Ex. Page
No. Date Experiment No. Marks Sign.

To perform experiments by using Surface

1(a)
Plate
To perform experiments by using Dial Gauge
1(b) and to measure linear distances and
displacements.
To measure height of given work piece by
2(a) using Vernier Height Gauge with respect to a
standard reference i.e. Slip Gauge Set.

2(b) To perform different measurements by

using Combination Set

To measure pressure of tyre by using

2(c)
Pressure Gauge.
To perform operations on work-piece by
3 using different types of Spanners and
Wrenches.
To perform different measurement using
4(a)
Vernier Callipers.
To perform measurements of different
4(b) objects by using inside, outside and odd-leg
callipers
To perform Arc Welding on the given
5
workpiece.

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Experiment No 1(a)

Aim: To perform operations by using Surface Plate.

Measuring Instruments & Tools:

Surface Plate

Theory:

A surface plate is a solid flat plate used as the main horizontal reference plane for precision
inspection, marking out (layout) and tooling setup. The surface plate is often used as the baseline for
all measurements to a work piece; therefore one primary surface is finished extremely flat with
tolerances below 0.0115 mm for a grade 0 plate. Surface plates are common tool in the
manufacturing industry and are often fitted with mounting points so that it can be an integrated
structural element of a machine such as a coordinate-measuring machine, precision optical
assembly, or other high precision scientific & industrial machine. Plates are typically square or
rectangular, although they may be cut to any shape.

Construction Details:
There are varying grades used to describe the accuracy of some metrology equipment such as: AA, A, B, and
Workshop Grade. While workshop grade is the least accurate, all grades of surface plates re held to a high
degree of flatness.

Figure 1 (a) 1.1: Image of Industrial Surface Plate

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Surface plates must be calibrated regularly to ensure that chipping, warping, or wear has not
occurred. A common problem is wear to particular areas, such as that caused by the frequent use of a
tool in one place (such as a height gauge), that causes an uneven surface and reduces overall
accuracy of the plate; this may be greatly accelerated if abrasive dust is present. Tools and work
pieces may also cause damage when dropped on the surface plate. Also, damage can be caused
when swarf and other debris have not been removed. This will result in erroneous measurements.
Damage to the plate can be corrected only by resurfacing, which requires specialized techniques and
equipment depending on the grade of the plate.

Procedure:

Unlike most mechanical precision instruments, surface plates do not derive their precision from
more-precise standards. In this process, three approximately flat surfaces are progressively refined to
precise flatness by manually rubbing them against each other in pairs with colouring matter in
between, and then hand-scraping the high points. Any errors of flatness are removed by this
scraping, since the only stable, mutually conjugate surface shape is a plane.

The importance of the high-precision surface plate was first recognised by Henry Maudslay around
1800. He originated the systems of scraping a cast-iron plate to flatness, rubbing marking
blue between pairs of plates to highlight imperfections and of working plates in sets of three to
guarantee flatness by avoiding matching concave and convex pairs.

Precautions:

1. Avoid Dust on Surface Plate

2. Choose the right cleaner for cleaning the Surface Plate....
3. Check for Scratches and nicks.
4. Avoid overload.
5. Surface plates are instruments, not tables.

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Experiment No. 1(b)

Aim: To perform experiments by using Dial Gauge and to measure linear distances and
displacements.
Measuring Instruments & Tools:
1. Dial gauge (Range: )

2. Dial gauge stand with magnetic base

3. Slip gauge set

4. Surface plate

Theory:

A dial gauge, also known as a dial indicator or dial test indicator, is a mechanical measurement tool
used to measure small linear distances or displacements with high accuracy. It consists of a circular
dial face with graduations and a needle or pointer that moves in response to the measured
displacement. It is commonly used in manufacturing, engineering, quality control and maintenance
applications where precise measurements are required. They offer advantages such as high accuracy,
versatility, ease of use and durability; making them valuable tools for various industries. Dial Gauge
Least Count (or dial indicator least count) is 0.01 mm for general dials and 0.001 mm for special
purpose indicators. The least count of a dial gauge also known as the resolution or graduation, refers
to the smallest increment that can be read or measured on the dial face. It represents the smallest unit
of measurement that the dial gauge can accurately display. The least count of a dial gauge is
determined by the spacing or division between the graduations on the dial face. It varies depending
on the design and specifications of the dial gauge. For example a dial gauge may have a least count
of 0.001 inch or 0.01 millimeters, indicating that it can measure displacements or variations with an
accuracy of 0.001 inch or 0.01 millimeters. To determine the least count of a specific dial gauge,
carefully examine the dial face and identify the smallest division or graduation. This value
represents the least count of that particular dial gauge model.

Types of Dial Indicators

Here are the types of dial indicators commonly used in various applications:

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1. Balanced Reading Dial Indicator: A balanced reading dial indicator, also known as a balanced
dial indicator, features a dial face that displays both positive and negative values. The pointer can
move in either direction from the zero position, allowing for easy and quick readings in both
directions.
2. Continuous Dial Indicators: Continuous dial indicators, as the name suggests, have a dial face
that provides a continuous rotation of the pointer. This allows for continuous measurement readings
without the need to reset or reposition the pointer during use. Continuous dial indicators are useful
for applications where continuous monitoring of displacement or movement is required.

3. Reversed Balanced Dial Indicators: Reversed balanced dial indicators have a dial face where
the positive and negative values are reversed compared to a standard balanced reading dial indicator.
The pointer moves in the opposite direction, providing readings in reverse polarity. These indicators
are commonly used in applications where the direction of displacement needs to be considered or
where reverse readings are preferred.

4. Reversed Continuous Dial Indicators: Similar to reversed balanced dial indicators, reversed
continuous dial indicators have a dial face where the positive and negative values are reversed. The
pointer rotates in the opposite direction compared to a standard continuous dial indicator. They offer
continuous readings with reversed polarity for specific measurement requirements.

5. Plunger Dial Indicator: A plunger dial indicator, also known as a plunger gauge or depth
gauge, is a type of dial indicator with a spring-loaded plunger as the contact point. It is designed to
measure the depth, height, or position of a surface or object. Plunger dial indicators are commonly
used in machining, inspection, and metrology applications.

6. Lever Dial Indicator: A lever dial indicator, also known as a lever gauge or lever-type dial
indicator utilizes a lever mechanism to transfer linear displacement to rotational movement. It
typically has a longer lever arm, allowing for higher magnification of the displacement. Lever dial
indicators are often used in applications where a greater range or amplification of measurement is
required.
These different types of dial indicators offer versatility and cater to specific measurement needs in
various industries, such as manufacturing, machining, quality control, and engineering.

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Applications of Dial Gauge

Dial gauges, also known as dial indicators or dial test indicators, are versatile measurement tools
commonly used in various industries and applications. Here are some of the key applications of dial
gauges:

1. Precision Measurements: Dial gauges are frequently used for precise measurements in
manufacturing, engineering, and quality control processes. They can measure small linear distances
with high accuracy, typically up to thousandths of an inch or hundredths of a millimeter.

2. Machine Setup and Alignment: Dial gauges are essential for aligning machine components and
ensuring proper setup. They can measure runout, concentricity, and perpendicularity of machine
parts, such as shafts, gears, and spindles. Dial gauges are often used in conjunction with alignment
tools like surface plates and indicating bases.

3. Surface Flatness and Roughness: Dial gauges equipped with a special attachment called a
surface probe can measure the flatness of surfaces and detect irregularities. They are useful for
checking the flatness of machined parts, work-pieces, or table surfaces.

4. Deflection and Deformation: Dial gauges can be employed to measure the deflection or
deformation of structural components under load. By placing the gauge in proximity to the area of
interest, it is possible to determine the extent of deflection or deformation and ensure that it falls
within acceptable limits.

5. Gear and Bearing Backlash: Dial gauges are commonly used to measure the backlash in gears
and bearings. By applying a specific force or rotating the gear, the dial gauge can detect any play or
clearance between the mating components.

6. Automotive and Aviation Maintenance: Dial gauges play a crucial role in automotive and
aviation maintenance, where precision measurements are necessary. They are used to check engine
components, suspension systems, brake disc runout, wheel alignment, and other critical parameters.

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7. Tolerance Checking: Dial gauges are utilized for verifying tolerances in machined parts. They
help ensure that the dimensions of a work-piece meet the specified requirements and assist in
identifying any deviations or errors.

8. Comparative Measurements: Dial gauges can be used for comparative measurements, where the
goal is to compare the dimensions of two or more objects. By setting the dial gauge to a reference
position, it is possible to measure the difference in dimensions between the objects being compared.

These are just a few examples of the applications of dial gauges. Their versatility and accuracy make
them indispensable tools in industries that require precise measurements and quality control.

Advantages of Dial Gauge

Dial gauges, also known as dial indicators or dial test indicators, offer several advantages that make
them widely used in various industries. Here are some of the key advantages of dial gauges:

1. High Accuracy: Dial gauges provide precise and accurate measurements, typically with a
resolution of thousandths of an inch or hundredths of a millimeter. They are designed to have
minimal measurement error, ensuring reliable and repeatable results.

2. Versatility: Dial gauges are versatile tools that can measure various parameters such as linear
distances, flatness, deflection, and more. They can be used in a wide range of applications, from
manufacturing and engineering to quality control and maintenance.

3. Easy to Read: Dial gauges feature a clear and easy-to-read dial face that displays the measured
value. The graduations on the dial are usually large and distinct, allowing users to quickly and
accurately read the measurements.

4. Mechanical Operation: Dial gauges are mechanical instruments that do not require an external
power source or batteries. This makes them reliable and always ready for use, without the need for
charging or replacement of batteries.

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5. Robust and Durable: Dial gauges are built to withstand harsh working conditions and provide
long-lasting performance. They are typically housed in a sturdy metal casing, making them resistant
to impact and ensuring durability in industrial environments.

6. Adjustable Positioning: Dial gauges often come with a flexible mounting system, such as a
magnetic base or a clamp, allowing for easy and precise positioning. This adjustability enables users
to place the gauge in the optimal position for measurement, enhancing accuracy and convenience.

7. Comparability: It can be used for comparative measurements, making it possible to compare

the dimensions of different objects. By setting a reference position, users can measure the difference
in dimensions between two or more objects accurately.

8. Cost-Effective: Compared to more advanced measurement instruments like electronic gauges or

laser measurement devices, dial gauges are relatively cost-effective. They provide a good balance
between accuracy and affordability, making them accessible to a wide range of users and industries.
Overall, the advantages of dial gauges include their high accuracy, versatility, ease of reading,
mechanical operation, durability, adjustability, comparability, and cost-effectiveness. These factors
contribute to their widespread use and popularity in various industrial and precision measurement
applications.

Disadvantages of Dial Gauge:

While dial gauges offer several advantages, they also have a few limitations and disadvantages. Here
are some of the key disadvantages of dial gauges: Limited Range: It has a limited measuring range
compared to some other measurement devices. They are typically designed for measuring small
linear distances or displacements. If you need to measure larger distances, you may need to use
alternative tools or methods.

1. Manual Operation: It require manual operation and physical contact with the object being
measured. This can introduce a potential for human error, especially if the user applies inconsistent
or excessive force while taking measurements. It also means that measurements may be affected by
the user’s technique and skill.

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2. Subject to Parallax Errors: Parallax errors can occur when reading the dial gauge due to the
viewing angle. If the user does not have a clear line of sight perpendicular to the dial face, the
measurement reading can be inaccurate. Proper positioning and alignment are crucial to minimize
parallax errors.

3. Limited Resolution: While dial gauges offer reasonable accuracy, their resolution is limited
compared to more advanced measurement devices like digital calipers or electronic gauges. This
limitation may not be suitable for applications that require extremely precise measurements.

4. Non-Digital Output: It provide analog readings on a dial face, which may not be suitable for
certain applications where digital output or data recording is required. If you need to integrate the
measurements into a digital system or perform automated data analysis, additional steps may be
required.

5. Fragility of Components: It consist of delicate internal components that can be sensitive to

shocks, impacts, or mishandling. Rough handling or accidental drops can result in damage to the
delicate mechanisms inside the gauge, affecting its accuracy or rendering it unusable.

6. Limited Specialty Functions: While dial gauges are versatile tools, they may lack specific
functions required for certain specialized measurements. For specialized applications or specific
measurement tasks, alternative tools or more specialized equipment may be necessary.

7. Environmental Sensitivity: It can be affected by environmental conditions such as temperature,

humidity, or magnetic fields. Extreme temperatures or high humidity can impact the accuracy and
performance of the gauge. Additionally, magnetic fields in the vicinity can interfere with the
magnetic components often used in dial gauges, affecting their readings.
It’s important to consider these disadvantages when deciding whether a dial gauge is suitable for
your specific measurement requirements. In some cases, alternative measurement tools or techniques
may be more appropriate to overcome these limitations.

Dial Gauge Least Count:

The least count of a dial gauge refers to the smallest measurement that can be read or detected on the
gauge. It is an essential factor in precision instruments as it determines the accuracy of the

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measurements taken with the gauge. Dial gauges are commonly used in various applications to
measure small linear displacements or variations. They consist of a needle or pointer that moves
along a calibrated scale when the gauge is subjected to a displacement or change in dimension.

To calculate the least count of a dial gauge, you need to know two things:

1. The total travel or range of the dial gauge: This is the maximum distance the pointer can
move along the scale.

2. The number of divisions on the scale: This refers to the total number of equal divisions or
increments on the scale.
The formula to calculate the least count is:
Least Count = Total Travel / Number of Divisions
Let’s take an example to explain this:
Suppose the total travel of the dial gauge is 10 mm (i.e., the pointer can move 10 mm along the
scale). The number of divisions on the scale is 100.
Least Count = 10 mm / 100 divisions
Least Count = 0.1 mm
So, in this example, the least count of the dial gauge would be 0.1 mm, meaning it can measure
displacements or changes as small as 0.1 mm with reasonable accuracy. Keep in mind that some dial
gauges may have additional Vernier scales or magnifying arrangements to further enhance precision

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Figure 1 (b) 1.1: Different Parts of Dial Gauge

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Constructional Details & Applications

A dial gauge consists of several key parts that work together to perform accurate measurements. The
main parts of a dial gauge include:

1. Housing: The housing is the outer body of the dial gauge, typically made of metal. It provides
protection and stability to the internal components.

2. Dial Face: The dial face is a circular plate attached to the front of the housing. It contains
graduations or markings that indicate the measurement readings. The dial face is usually divided into
increments, such as thousandths of an inch or hundredths of a millimeter, allowing for precise
measurements.

3. Pointer: The pointer, also called a needle, is a thin, movable arm that extends from the center of
the dial face. It rotates in response to the measured displacement and indicates the measurement
value on the dial face. The pointer’s position corresponds to the magnitude and direction of the
displacement relative to a reference point.

4. Bezel: The bezel is a ring-shaped component surrounding the dial face. It often features a knurled
or textured edge to facilitate easy gripping. The bezel may have a zero adjustment feature, allowing
the user to set the pointer to zero or a reference position for calibration or comparative
measurements.

5. Contact Point or Probe: The contact point, located at the end of the dial gauge, is the part that
makes physical contact with the object being measured. It can have various shapes and sizes,
depending on the specific application. The contact point transfers the displacement to the internal
mechanisms, resulting in the movement of the pointer.

6. Stems and Gears: Inside the housing, there are internal mechanisms that translate the movement
of the contact point to the rotation of the pointer. These mechanisms typically consist of stems,
gears, and levers that amplify and transmit the displacement to the dial face.

7. Mounting System: Many dial gauges come with a mounting system to securely position the
gauge during measurements. This can include a magnetic base, clamps, or other attachment
mechanisms that allow for stable and accurate positioning on a surface or fixture. These are the

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primary parts of a typical dial gauge. However, it’s important to note that the specific design and
additional features can vary depending on the brand, model, and intended use of the dial gauge.

Procedure:

The working principle of a dial gauge, involves the conversion of linear displacement into rotational
movement, which is then displayed as a measurement reading on the dial face. Here’s a step-by-step
explanation of how a dial gauge works:

1. Initial Position: The dial gauge is initially set to a reference position, often called the zero
position. This is typically achieved by rotating the bezel or using a zero adjustment feature to align
the pointer with the zero mark on the dial face.

2. Contact Point Engagement: The contact point or probe of the dial gauge is brought into contact
with the object or surface being measured. The contact point is usually positioned perpendicular to
the surface to ensure accurate readings.

3. Displacement Detection: As the object or surface undergoes displacement or movement, it

exerts a force on the contact point. This force is transferred to the internal mechanisms of the dial
gauge.

4. Mechanical Amplification: The internal mechanisms, consisting of stems, gears, and levers,
amplify the small linear displacement detected by the contact point. These mechanisms convert the
linear movement into rotational movement.

5. Pointer Rotation: The rotational movement generated by the internal mechanisms is transmitted
to the pointer of the dial gauge. The pointer rotates around the center of the dial face, indicating the
magnitude and direction of the measured displacement.

6. Measurement Reading: As the pointer rotates, it moves along the graduations or markings on
the dial face. The position of the pointer relative to the graduations represents the measurement
reading, typically in increments of thousandths of an inch or hundredths of a millimeter.

7. Reading Interpretation: The user interprets the measurement reading based on the position of
the pointer. Positive readings indicate an outward or upward displacement, while negative readings
indicate an inward or downward displacement relative to the reference position.

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By following these steps, a dial gauge provides a visual indication of the linear displacement or
dimensional variation of the object being measured. The user can use this information for various
applications, such as quality control, machine alignment, and precision measurements.

Dial Gauge reading with example

Suppose we have a dial gauge with a dial face divided into increments of thousandths of an inch.
The pointer is initially set to zero at the reference position.

1. Place the contact point or probe of the dial gauge against the object or surface you want to
measure. Ensure the contact point is perpendicular to the surface.

2. As you apply pressure or encounter a displacement, the contact point transfers this movement to
the internal mechanisms of the dial gauge.

3. The internal mechanisms amplify the linear displacement and convert it into rotational
movement.

4. The pointer of the dial gauge rotates, indicating the magnitude and direction of the measured
displacement.

5. Read the measurement value from the dial face where the pointer is pointing. The graduations on
the dial face represent thousandths of an inch.
For example, let’s say the pointer is pointing to the 0.025 mark on the dial face. This means the dial
gauge has measured a displacement of 0.025 inches (25 thousandths of an inch) from the reference
position.

If the pointer is pointing to the -0.012 mark, it indicates a displacement of -0.012 inches (12
thousandths of an inch) inward or below the reference position.

It’s important to consider the direction of displacement and interpret the reading accordingly.
Positive readings indicate outward or upward displacement, while negative readings indicate inward
or downward displacement relative to the reference position.

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Remember to set the dial gauge to zero before each measurement to ensure accurate readings and
account for any variations or offsets.

By interpreting the measurement readings on the dial face, you can determine the dimensional
variations, deflection, or displacement of the object being measured.

Precautions:

1. The dial gauge should be clamped to the stand properly so that the plunger is vertical to the base.
2. The slip gauge set should be degreased properly.
3. The plunger of the dial gauge should be handled gently.
4. The dial gauge reading was set to zero after giving slight initial compression to the plunger.
5. Slip gauges should be increased in size with regular increments with in the range of dial gauge.
6. Slip gauges should be wringing properly for various combinations.

Observation Table:

Slip Gauge
Dial Gauge reading
S. No. reading in Error =X-Y Corrections C in mm
in mm (X)
mm (Y)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

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Experiment No 2(a)

Aim: To measure height of a given work piece by using Vernier Height Gauge with
respect to a standard reference i.e. Slip Gauge Set.
Measuring Instruments & Tools:
Vernier Height Gauge (Range)
Slip Gauge Set
Theory: Measuring instruments in usage will acquire certain errors due to wear and tear. So every
instrument should be checked periodically to find out the errors and assess the accuracy. Comparing
the reading of the instrument with a standard reference does this. This type of inspection is known as
calibration. Depending on the type of instrument the standard reference is selected, against which
the error of the instrument is evaluated. Since the error cannot be eliminated from the instrument,
corresponding correction is applied to the measured reading of the instrument. Since the wear and
tear of the instrument is not uniform, the error in the measured value will be different at different
ranges of the instrument. To apply correction for the various readings in the range of the instrument..
The error at any stage of the instrument can be either positive or negative. The correction to be
applied for a positive error is negative and vice – versa.

Figure (2a) 1.1: Vernier Height Gauge

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Constructional Details & Applications

Figure (2a) 1.2: Vernier Height Gauge

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A Vernier Height Gauge consists of

(i) Base: Base is a finely grow and lapped base. The base is massive and robust in construction to
ensure rigidity and stability.
(ii) Beam or Column: A vertical graduated beam or column supported on a massive base.
(iii) Vernier Head: Attached to the beam is a sliding Vernier head carrying the Vernier scale and a
clamping screw.
(iv) Auxiliary Head: An auxiliary head which is also attached to the beam above sliding Vernier
head. It has fine adjusting and clamping screws.
(v) Measuring Jaw: A measuring jaw or a scriber attached to the front of sliding Vernier.

Procedure:
1. The given Vernier Height Gauge was mounted on a leveled surface plate.
2. Before placing the Height Gauge the surface plate should be degreased and free from dust.
3. Slip Gauge set was degreased.
4. The scriber was clamped to the measuring jaw of the height gauge.
5. Measuring jaw was moved down so that the scribers touch the surface plate and the scale is
adjusted to read ‘0’.
6. Measuring jaw was lifted and adjusted so that the scriber just touches on the top surface of the
slip gauge placed bellow it.
7. The reading of the Vernier height gauge and the size of the slip gauge were noted down. The
difference between the height gauge reading and slip gauge size will be error in the instrument.
8. The procedure was repeated for different sizes of the slip gauges within the range of Vernier
height gauge and reading were tabulated and corresponding errors were found.
9. A graph is plotted against Vernier height gauge reading and error / correction

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Precautions:
1. Slip gauges should be degreased properly before use
2. Vernier reading should be taken without parallax error using the magnifying glass provided.
3. The scriber should just touch the slip gauge. Any pressure on the slip gauge may lift the entire height
gauge.
4. Slip gauges should be increased in size with regular increments within the range of height gauge and if
required the wringing should be done properly to get required size.

Observation Table:

Slip
Vernier Height Gauge
Gauge
S. No. reading Error =X-Y Corrections C in mm
reading in
in mm (X)
mm (Y)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

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Experiment No 2(b)

Aim: To perform different Measurements by using Combination Set

Measuring Instruments & Tools:
Combination Set

Theory:
The combination set as its name implies, is a tool that has several uses. The set consists of a blade
(graduated rule), square head, protractor head, and center head. The grooved rule is used with each
head. The groove permits the rule to be moved into position and locked.

Figure 2(b) 1.1: Combination Set

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Construction Details and Procedure:

Blade (Rule)

The blade is designed to allow the different heads to slide along the blade and be clamped at any
desired location. The groove in the blade is concave to eliminate dirt buildup and permit a free and
easy slide for the heads. By removing all the heads, the blade may be used alone as a rule.

Figure 2(b) 1.2: Blade with groove

Square Head
A combination square has a ruled blade with an angled head that slides along the blade and can be
repositioned by locking nut at any desired place along the graduated, rule-type blade to suit the job.
The square head is designed with a 45o and 90o edge. The square head and blade can also be used as
a marking gauge to scribe lines at a 45o angle. A convenient scriber is held frictionally in the head
by a small brass bushing. By extending the blade below the square or above the square, it can be
used as a depth gage or height gage. Level in the angled head is used to make sure your work is true
horizontal (level) or true vertical (plumb). The trick is to always use the longest level possible. The
level makes it convenient to square a piece of material with a surface and at the same time will
indicate if the edge or surface of the material is level.

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Figure 2(b) 1.3: Square Head

Using square head
For checking angles, rest the head on its square face to check a 90o angle and on its angled face to
check 45o.

Figure 2(b) 1.4: Use of Square Head to check the straightness

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1. For measuring depth, loosen the locking nut, rest the square face flat on the reference surface
and push the rule into the depth. Tighten the locking nut, remove the rule and read the depth.

2. For checking horizontal surface, rest the square face of the head on the surface with blade
removed and reinstall the blade and check vertical surfaces by holding the blade against the vertical
member to see that it is plumb.

Figure 2(b) 1.5: Checking horizontal and vertical surface

3. For laying out a line, move the blade until it extends the required distance from the head. This
measurement is read on the scale of the blade. Lock the blade and the square head using locking nut
and position the head firmly against the reference surface. Scribe the required line.

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Figure 2(b) 1.6: Scribing lines at 45o using Square Head

4. For measuring length hold the head firmly against the reference surface. Move the blade until it
exactly splits the measured point. Read the dimension on the blade of the square head.

Figure 2(b) 1.7: Measuring surface using square head

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Protractor Head
The protractor head is equipped with a revolving turret that is graduated in degrees from 0 to 180 or
to 90 in either direction. It is used to measure or lay out angles. The base of the protractor head is
held against the reference surface. The blade is held to the turret. The revolving turret is turned until
the included angle of the blade and protractor head coincides with the angle to be measured.
Using protractor head for measuring and marking an angle
1. Loosen the revolving turret locking nut to allow the turret to be rotated when a slight force is
applied.
2. Press the flat face of the protractor head against the reference surface.
3. Position the protractor head so that the blade and turret may be moved to the desired angle and
mark off the angle.
4. For measuring an angle bring the blade down gently to the work piece and adjust it. The desired
angle is reached when there is no light showing between the measured surface of the work and the
blade.
5. Tighten the locking nut. Read the graduation on the turret that coincides with the reference mark
on the protractor head.

Figure 2(b) 1.8: Using Protractor Head

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Center Head
The center head, when inserted on the blade, is used to locate and lay out the center of cylindrical
work piece.

Using the center head

1. Place the legs of the center head against the outer Surface of the cylindrical work piece. Hold it in
this position.
2. Scribe the centerline with a sharp scriber along the blade.
3. Turn either the round base 900 or the center head over. Hold the center head firmly against the
bar.
4. Scribe the second centerline along the blade.

Figure 2(b) 1.9: Center Head

Figure 2(b) 1.10: Laying out center on cylindrical workpiece using center head

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Precaution during Operating Combination Set:

1. It must be used with complete safety to ensure that its working surfaces are not damaged.
2. If it is not being used, then it should be carefully kept in a separate place by applying oil.
3. It should not be mixed with other cutting tools.
4. Only one head should be used at a time.

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Experiment No 2(c)

Aim: To measure pressure of tyre by using Pressure Gauge.

Measuring Instruments & Tools:

Pressure Gauge

Theory: A tyre-pressure gauge is a pressure gauge used to measure the pressure of tyres of
vehicles. A tyre-pressure gauge displaying bar (outside) and psi (inside)since tyres are rated for
specific pressure, it is important to keep the pressure of the tyre at the rated output. The precision of
a typical Pressure Gauge is ±3 psi (21 kPa). Higher precision gauges with ±1 psi (7 kPa) can also be
used.

Figure 1(a) 1.1: Pressure Gauge

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The pressure gauges are used to measure pressures above or below atmospheric pressure. The
reference point for the pressure measurement is the actual atmospheric pressure at the place of
installation. The SI system unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa) 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. The bar is a pressure
unit with the magnitude of the atmospheric pressure. 1 bar = 0.1 MPa = 0.1 N/mm2 = 105 Pa. The
millibar (mbar) is used for low pressures. 1 mbar = 102 Pa. Pressure gauges with a scale for other
dimensions are available as "Further designs". Pressure gauges with a Bourdon-tube mechanism are
suitable for corrosive and non-corrosive gases, vapors and liquids.

Pressure gauges with a membrane-type mechanism are suitable for corrosive and non-corrosive
gases, vapors and liquids; the designs with an open measuring flange are also suitable for viscous
media.

Pressure gauges with a capsule-type mechanism are suitable for corrosive and non-corrosive gases
as well as non-condensing gases. Pressure gauges filled with a damping liquid for damping the
indication are suitable for pulsating media and vibrating measuring points.

A pressure surge reducer can be connected upstream of the gauge to protect the gauge if there are
pressure surges or pulsations in the medium. If temperatures below 0 °C occur, the formation of
condensation must be prevented which would ice-up the mechanism and the inside of the housing.
All pressure gauges are approved for temperatures of the medium up to 100 °C.

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Construction Details:

Figure 1(a) 1.2: Pressure Gauge with Reading Scale

Figure 1(a) 1.3: Pressure Gauge with half Section

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The parts of a typical pressure gauge look like this:

Figure 1(a) 1.4: Pressure Gauge parts

There are three simple steps involved in measuring a tyre pressure with a pressure gauge:

1. Get in a steady position to apply the pressure gauge to the valve stem.

2. Apply the gauge, forming a good seal between the gauge and the stem and releasing air from the
tire into the gauge. Note how the pin inside the gauge presses against the valve pin inside the valve
stem to release air from the tyre.

3. Read the pressure from the gauge

Procedure:

1. Inside the tube that makes up the body of the pressure gauge, there is a small, tight-sealing piston
much like the piston inside a bicycle pump. The inside of the tube is polished smooth. The piston is
made of soft rubber so it seals nicely against the tube, and the inside of the tube is lubricated with a
light oil to improve the seal. In the picture below, you can see that the piston is at one end of the
tube and the stop is at the other. A spring runs the length of the tube between the piston and the stop,
and this compressed spring pushes the piston toward the left-hand side of the tube

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Figure 1(a) 1.5: Inside of Pressure Gauge.

2. The funny spherical thing on the left end of the gauge is hollow. The opening in the sphere is
designed to engage a tire's valve stem. If you look in the opening, you will be able to see a rubber
seal and a small fixed pin. The rubber seal presses against the lip of the valve stem to prevent air
from leaking during the measurement, and the pin depresses the valve pin in the valve stem to let air
flow into the gauge. The air will flow around the pin, through the hollow passage inside the sphere
and into the piston chamber

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3. When the pressure gauge is applied to the valve stem of a tire, the pressurized air from the tire
rushes in and pushes the piston toward the right. The distance the piston travels is relative to the
pressure in the tire. The pressurized air is pushing the piston to the right, and the spring is pushing
back. The gauge is designed to have some maximum pressure, and for the sake of example let's say
it is 60 psi. The spring has been calibrated so that 60-psi air will move the piston to the far-right of
the tube, while 30 psi moves the piston half-way along the tube, and so on. When you release the
gauge from the valve stem, the flow of pressurized air stops and the spring immediately pushes the
piston back to the left.

4. The spring is not shown in this figure, but the calibrated rod fits inside the spring. The calibrated
rod rides on top of the piston, but the rod and the piston are not connected and there is a fairly tight
fit between the rod and the stop. When the piston moves to the right, it pushes the calibrated rod.
When the pressure is released, the piston moves back to the left but the rod stays in its maximum
position to allow you to read the pressure.

Figure 1(a) 1.6: Calibration of Pressure Gauge.

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Precautions:
1. The pressure gauges should be installed perpendicular to the horizontal.
2. The measuring point of the pressure gauge and the instrument installation are in the same
horizontal position, whether additional height error correction is considered.
3. The distance between the pressure gauge installation and the measuring point should be as short
as possible to avoid slow indication.
4. Ensure the tightness, and there should be no leakage, especially for flammable and explosive
gas media and toxic and harmful media.

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Experiment No 3

Aim: To perform operations on work-piece by using different types of Spanners and

Wrenches.

Measuring Instruments & Tools:

All types of Spanners with different sizes

Theory and Constructional details:

Open Spanners:

Spanners come in all shapes and sizes, many being developed to deal with a specific job. By far the
most important consideration when using a spanner is to ensure that it fits the nut perfectly. Too loose,
and it will round the comers of the nut - and slip, often damaging the nut spanner and your hand. When purchasing
spanners, select good quality tools. The best types are forged from carbon steel or chrome vanadium, if not abused,
these will last a lifetime.

Open ended spanner-C Type:

The open ended spanner is the most common type, and may have a single or double end. The head has its jaws
offset by about 15 degrees from the run of the shaft. This is so the spanner can be turned over to engage
different flats of a nut when working in confined spaces. Another version, called an obstruction spanner, is designed for
use in confined spaces. It has one head set at anything up to 90 degrees to the shaft, and the shaft may
have a slight curve.

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Ring Spanners:
As the name implies, the ring spanner usually has a completely enclosed head, and mayhave six or 12
flats. A 12 flat spanner engages upon the corners of the nut and can engage both hexagon and square bolts. A six
flat spanner is normally shaped to fit against all 6 sides of hexagon nuts, this ensures a very tight fit and can
allow considerable force to be applied. Ring spanners are stronger than the open ended type, but it does need access to
fit it over the nut and can take a little time to locate it correctly.

Figure 3.1: Ring Spanners

Offset Ring Spanner:

The most useful ring spanners have offset heads, allowing the spanner to connect with nuts in
awkward places, and to give room for your hand to move without hitting the workpiece.

Figure 3.2: Offset Ring Spanner:

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Split Ring Spanner:

The split ring spanner is a hybrid as it has a section of the ring removed so the six or 12-point jaws can be located
like an open-ended spanner.

Figure 3.3: Split Ring Spanner

Adjustable spanners
The obvious advantage of an adjustable spanner is that it will cope with a whole range of nut sizes, within the
capacity of the jaws. The most common version has its jaws set at an angle of 15 degrees to the shaft, but
other angles are available, including a 90 degree version. When in use, it is important to adjust the jaws so
that the spanner is a good fit on the nut. Use the spanner so the main strain is taken by the solid
section of the head rather than the adjustable part. Another common version of this type is
the Monkey Wrench.

Figure 3.4: Adjustable spanners

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Bulldog Spanners:
In this pattern, a worm screw is located close to the opening jaw, which has a rack engaged with the screw, making the
spanner very easy to adjust with the finger and thumb of the holding hand.

Figure 3.5: Bulldog Spanners

Socket Spanner:
The spanner is made of tubing with flats arranged at each end. Holes through the tubing are designed to take a
tommy bar set at right angles to the tube, and this is used to apply purchase to the spanner head. One of the
most common types is the spark plug spanner, which may be designed to take a tommy bar, or it may incorporate a
swivel handle which can be used to apply the leverage.

Figure 3.6: Box with Socket Spanner

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Socket:
This spanner consists of a ring- type head with a square hole at the rear designed to lock into various types of handle.
They are available in sets, offering a range of heads, spacer drive bars and handles. Sockets are generally required when
torque wrenches are used to tighten nuts and bolts. A variation of this design Is the wheel nut spanner
which, in its simplest form, consists of two double-ended socket and spanners fixed together at right angles.
Considerable pressure can be applied with this type, and care must be taken not to over-tighten.

Allen key
This is a simple hexagonal shaped rod with a right-angle bend designed to engage into the head of a screw which has a
hexagonal shaped recess in the head - this is a very common screw found in many modern domestic
appliances. Allen keys are available in sets of metric and imperial sizes.

Figure 3.7: Allen key

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Torque Wrench:
The torque wrench is used to tighten nuts and bolts to a specific torque. In the type illustrated, a
pointer attached to the turning point is suspended over a scale mounted in front of the handle, as the handle is turned to
tighten the nut/bolt, the arm is deflected and the pointer moves across the scale indicating the torque being applied.
Torque wrenches are normally made to work with sockets.

Figure 3.8: Torque Wrench

Pipe Wrench:
Although they resemble adjustable spanners, the basic difference is that the jaws of a wrench are
serrated, enabling them to grip and turn objects such as lengths of pipe. The wrench should never be used on good nuts
as the jaws can cause damage to the flats.

Figure 3.9: Pipe Wrench

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Footprint Wrench:
The jaw opening can be adjusted by lifting the moveable handle and re- positioning the pivot so that the
wrench can be used on a number of pipe sizes. Pressure is applied by squeezing the two handles together.

Figure 3.10: Footprint Wrench

Stilson Wrench:
The opening jaw is controlled by an adjusting nut which, when turned, moves the jaw backwards or forwards. When
pressure is applied to the handle, the jaws grip even tighter, as the handle is pivoted to the section holding the movable
jaw. Pipes can be damaged by excessive pressure is applied to the handle it.

Figure 3.11: Stilson Wrench

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Strap Wrench:
Where it is important not to mark pipe work too much, the strap wrench is ideal. Instead of metal jaws,
pressure is exerted via a metal chain which is wrapped around the pipe work. As pressure is applied to the handle, the
chain grips even around the pipe spreading the load.

Mole Wrench:
The mole is a self-gripping wrench which can be adjusted to grip various diameters of pipe. The width of the jaws is
adjusted by the knurled screw on the rear of the main handle and the tool is just then 'squeezed' onto the pipe. The
wrench incorporates a quick release lever so that the wrench can be easily released after use.

Figure 3.11: Mole Wrench

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Tap Spanner:

Also known as basin wrench. It is designed to tighten basin and bath taps backnuts in the often
restricted space under the basin/bath where an ordinary spanner would have insufficient turning space. A basin spanner
is double- ended, with cranked jaws allowing the shaft to be held vertically, gripping the nut horizontally.

Figure 3.12: Tap Spanner

Precautions:
1. Always ensure that a spanner fits the flats on a nut perfectly. A loose fit will damage the nut and
cause slipping.
2. Where a nut is very tight, ensure your hand has a clear area of movement. The sudden release of a nut under
pressure can lend to grazed knuckles.
3. If a nut won't move, apply penetrating oil and allow time for it to act. The same applies to rusted nuts but
wire brush it first.
4. When working on chrome items, like taps, protect the metal with scraps of leather between the metal jaws.
Never use pipe wrenches with serrated jaws.

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Standard Spanner Sizes and Numbers

Metric

Thread Spanner Size A/F DIN

Spanner Size A/F ISO (mm)
Size (mm)

M1.6 3.2 3.2

M2 4 4

M2.5 5 5

M3 5.5 5.5

M3.5 6 6

M4 7 7

M5 8 8

M6 10 10

M7 11 -

M8 13 13

M10 17 16

M12 19 18

M14 22 21

M16 24 24

M18 27 27

M20 30 30

M22 32 34

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Metric

Thread Spanner Size A/F DIN

Spanner Size A/F ISO (mm)
Size (mm)

M24 36 36

M27 41 41

M30 46 46

M33 50 50

M36 55 55

M39 60 60

M42 65 65

M45 70 70

M48 75 75

M52 80 80

M56 85 85

M60 90 90

M64 95 95

M68 100 -

M72 105 -

M76 110 -

M80 115 -

M90 130 -

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Metric

Thread Spanner Size A/F DIN

Spanner Size A/F ISO (mm)
Size (mm)

M100 145 -

M110 155 -

M125 180 -

M140 200 -

M160 230 -

Inch

Thread Spanner Size A/F ASME

Spanner Size A/F BS (inch)
Size (inch)

1/4 0.438 0.445

5/16 0.500 0.525

3/8 0.562 0.600

7/16 0.625 0.710

1/2 0.750 0.820

9/16 0.812 0.920

5/8 0.938 1.010

3/4 1.125 1.200

7/8 1.312 1.300

1 1.500 1.480

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Metric

Thread Spanner Size A/F DIN

Spanner Size A/F ISO (mm)
Size (mm)

1.1/8 1.688 1.670

1.1/4 1.875 1.860

1.3/8 2.062 2.050

1.1/2 2.250 2.220

1.3/4 2.625 2.580

2 3.000 2.760

2.1/4 3.375 -

2.1/2 3.750 -

2.3/4 4.125 -

3 4.500 -

Table No 3.1 Spanner Selection Chart (Hex Head Bolt)

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Experiment No.4 (a)

Aim: To perform different measurement using Vernier Calliper.

a) Measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body,
b) Measure the dimensions of a given regular body of known mass and hence to determine its
density; and
c) Measure the internal diameter and depth of a given cylindrical object like
beaker/glass/calorimeter and hence to calculate its volume.

Measuring Instruments and Tools:

Vernier Calliper

Theory and Constructional Details: A Vernier Calliper has two scales–one main scale and a
Vernier scale, which slides along the main scale. The main scale and Vernier scale are divided into
small divisions though of different magnitudes. The main scale is graduated in cm and mm. It has
two fixed jaws, A and C, projected at right angles to the scale. The sliding Vernier scale has jaws (B,
D) projecting at right angles to it and also the main scale and a metallic strip (N). The zero of main
scale and Vernier scale coincide when the jaws are made to touch each other. The jaws and metallic
strip are designed to measure the distance/ diameter of objects. Knob P is used to slide the Vernier
scale on the main scale. Screw S is used to fix the Vernier scale at a desired position. 2The least
count of a common scale is 1mm. It is difficult to further subdivide it to improve the least count of
the scale. A Vernier scale enables this to be achieved.

The difference in the magnitude of one main scale division (M.S.D.) and one Vernier scale division
(V.S.D.) is called the least count of the instrument, as it is the smallest distance that can be measured
using the instrument.

n V.S.D. = (n – 1) M.S.D.

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Formulas Used
a) Least count of Vernier Callipers the magnitude of the smallest division on the main scale the
total number of small divisions on the Vernier scale =
b) Density of a rectangular body = mass m /volume, V=lxbxh = where m is its mass, l its length, b
its breadth and h the height.
c) The volume of a cylindrical (hollow) object V = πr2h' = π ′ D2 .h' /4
Where h' is its internal depth, D' is its internal diameter and r is its internal radius

Figure 4(a) 1.1: Vernier Calliper Manual and Digital Model

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(a) Measuring the diameter of a small spherical or cylindrical body.

1. Keep the jaws of Vernier Callipers closed. Observe the zero mark of the main scale. It must
perfectly coincide with that of the Vernier scale. If this is not so, account for the zero error for all
observations to be made while using the instrument.
2. Look for the division on the Vernier scale that coincides with a division of main scale. Use a
magnifying glass, if available and note the number of division on the Vernier scale that coincides
with the one on the main scale. Position your eye directly over the division mark so as to avoid any
parallax error.
3. Gently loosen the screw to release the movable jaw. Slide it enough to hold the
sphere/cylindrical body gently (without any undue pressure) in between the lower jaws AB. The
jaws should be perfectly perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Now, gently tighten the screw so
as to clamp the instrument in this position to the body.
4. Carefully note the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale against the main scale. Usually,
it will not perfectly coincide with any of the small divisions on the main scale. Record the main
scale division just to the left of the zero mark of the Vernier scale.
5. Start looking for exact coincidence of a Vernier scale division with that of a main scale division
in the Vernier window from left end (zero) to the right. Note its number (say) N, carefully.
6. Multiply 'N' by least count of the instrument and add the product to the main scale reading noted
in step 4. Ensure that the product is converted into proper units (usually cm) for addition to be valid.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 to obtain the diameter of the body at different positions on its curved surface.
Take three sets of reading in each case.
8. Record the observations in the tabular form [Table E 1.1(a)] with proper units. Apply zero
correction, if need be.
9. Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter of the body. Express the
results in suitable units with appropriate number of significant figures.

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(b) Measuring the dimensions of a regular rectangular body to determine its density.
1. Measure the length of the rectangular block (if beyond the limits of the extended jaws of Vernier
Callipers) using a suitable ruler. Otherwise repeat steps 3-6 described in (a) after holding the block
lengthwise between the jaws of the Vernier Callipers.
2. Repeat steps 3-6 stated in (a) to determine the other dimensions (breadth b and height h) by
holding the rectangular block in proper positions.
3. Record the observations for length, breadth and height of the rectangular block in tabular form
with proper units and significant figures. Apply zero corrections wherever necessary.
4. Find out the arithmetic mean of readings taken for length, breadth and height separately.

(c) Measuring the internal diameter and depth of the given beaker (or similar
cylindrical object) to find its internal volume.
1. Adjust the upper jaws CD of the Vernier Callipers so as to touch the wall of the beaker from
inside without exerting undue pressure on it. Tighten the screw gently to keep the Vernier Callipers
in this position.
2. Repeat the steps 3-6 as in (a) to obtain the value of internal diameter of the beaker/calorimeter.
Do this for two different (angular) positions of the beaker.
3. Keep the edge of the main scale of Vernier Callipers, to determine the depth of the beaker, on its
peripheral edge. This should be done in such a way that the tip of the strip is able to go freely inside
the beaker along its depth.
4. Keep sliding the moving jaw of the Vernier Callipers until the strip just touches the bottom of
the beaker. Take care that it does so while being perfectly perpendicular to the bottom surface. Now
tighten the screw of the Vernier Callipers.
5. Repeat steps 4 to 6 of part (a) of the experiment to obtain depth of the given beaker. Take the
readings for depth at different positions of the breaker.
6. Record the observations in tabular form with proper units and significant figures. Apply zero
corrections, if required.
7. Find out the mean of the corrected readings of the internal diameter and depth of the given
beaker. Express the result in suitable units and proper significant figures.

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(i) Least count of Vernier Callipers (Vernier Constant)

1 main scale division (MSD) = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
Number of Vernier scale divisions, N = 10
10 Vernier scale divisions = 9 main scale divisions
1 Vernier scale division = 0.9 main scale division
Vernier constant = 1 main scale division – 1 Vernier scale division = (1– 0.9)
Main scale divisions = 0.1 main scale division
Vernier constant (VC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
Alternatively, 1MSD Vernier constant = N 1 mm = 10
Vernier constant (VC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
(ii) Zero error and its correction: when the jaws A and B touch each other, the zero of the
Vernier should coincide with the zero of the main scale. If it is not so, the instrument is said to
possess zero error (e). Zero error may be positive or negative, depending upon whether the zero of
Vernier scale lies to the right or to the left of the zero of the main scale. This is shown by the Fig.
E1.2 (ii) and (iii). In this situation, a correction is required to the observed readings.

Figure 4(a) 1.3: Zero, Negative and Positive error in Vernier caliper

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Positive zero error:

Fig (b) shows an example of positive zero error. From the figure, one can see that when both jaws
are touching each other, zero of the Vernier scale is shifted to the right of zero of the main scale
(This might have happened due to manufacturing defect or due to rough handling). This situation
makes it obvious that while taking measurements, the reading taken will be more than the actual
reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied which is proportional to the right shift of zero of
Vernier scale.

In ideal case, zero of Vernier scale should coincide with zero of main scale. But in Fig. E 1.2 (ii), 5th
Vernier division is coinciding with a main scale reading.
∴ Zero Error = + 5 × Least Count = + 0.05 cm
Hence, the zero error is positive in this case. For any measurements done, the zero error (+ 0.05 cm
in this example) should be ‘subtracted’ from the observed reading.
∴ True Reading = Observed reading – (+ Zero error) (iv)

Negative zero error

Fig. (c) Shows an example of negative zero error. From this figure, one can see that when both the
jaws are touching each other, zero of the Vernier scale is shifted to the left of zero of the main scale.
This situation makes it obvious that while taking measurements, the reading taken will be less than
the actual reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied which is proportional to the left shift of
zero of Vernier scale. In Fig.
5th Vernier scale division is coinciding with a main scale reading
∴ Zero Error = – 5 × Least Count = – 0.05 cm
Note that the zero error in this case is considered to be negative. For any measurements done, the
negative zero error, (–0.05 cm in this example) is also subtracted ‘from the observed reading’,
though it gets added to the observed value.
∴ True Reading = Observed Reading – (– Zero error)

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Observation Sheet:

1. Measurement of diameter of the sphere/ cylindrical body

Mean measured diameter, D0= D1+... +D5 + D6 = cm
Do = …………... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Corrected diameter of the given body, D = Do – (± e) = ... × 10–2 m

2. Measurement of length, breadth and height of the rectangular block

Mean measured length, lo= (l1+l2+l3)/3 = cm
lo = ……….. cm = ... × 10–2 m
Corrected length of the block, l = lo – (± e) = ………….... cm
Mean observed breadth, b0 = (b1+ b2+ b3) /3= …………………cm
Mean measured breadth of the block, b0 = ............ cm = ... ………. × 10–2 m
Corrected breadth of the block, b = b0– (± e) cm = ………….. × 10–2 m
Mean measured height of block ho= h1+ h2+h3)/3
Corrected height of block h = ho – (± e) = ……….... cm
Volume of the rectangular block, V = lxbxh = ………….. cm3 = ………….. × 10–6 m3
Density ρ of the block, = ρ = m /V m3

3. Measurement of internal diameter of the beaker/glass

Mean measured internal diameter, D0= (D1+D2+D3)/ 3
Do = ………….. cm = ………….... × 10–2 m
Corrected internal diameter, D = Do – (± e) = …….. cm = .....................× 10–2 m
Mean measured depth of the beaker, h0=(h1+h2+h3)/3 = ……….... cm = ……….... × 10–2 m
Corrected measured depth of the beaker h = ho – (± e) ... cm = ... × 10–2 m
Internal volume of the beaker V= π D2 h /4 =...×10-6 m3

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Precautions:
1. The measuring instrument must be properly balanced in hand and held lightly in such a way that
only fingers handle the moving and adjustable screws.
2. The lower jaws should be opened slightly and their inner surface should be cleaned and dried
with a cloth gently. This should be repeated with the upper jaws as well.
3. Loosen the locking key of the Vernier caliper and make sure there is no friction between the
scales while moving the jaws of the Vernier caliper.
4. While using digital Vernier bring the jaws in contact with each other and then press the on/off
button. Check the reading and make sure it is zero.
5. In the case of a digital Vernier caliper move the slider and check whether all the buttons and the
LCD display are working properly.]

RESULT
(a) Diameter of the spherical/ cylindrical body, D = ........................ × 10–2m
(b) Density of the given rectangular block, ρ = …………………….... kg m–3
(c) Internal volume of the given beaker V'= ……………………...…... m3

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Experiment No 4(b)

Aim: To perform measurements of different objects by using inside, outside and odd-
leg callipers.

Measuring tools and instruments

Inside, Outside and Odd-Leg Calipers.

Theory and Constructional Details:

(a) Direct group
(b) Indirect Measuring group

Direct Measuring Tools are applied directly to the W/P as in the case of micrometer or a caliper Indirect
Measuring Tools are optical electronics and pneumatic methods to arrive at the final dimensions of a piece
The Direct measuring instruments are either graduated manual or non-graduated manual type. The manual
means that hand operated instrument. The graduated type has their linear or angular graduations. The non-
graduated types consist of fixed gauges or adjustable tools which compare measurement.

Manual Measuring Tools

.
Rules: It is also steel rules/scales. The Basic graduated measuring instrument is the rule. It is a graduated
measuring instrument in the rule. It is a graduated length of steel, used for approximately determining linear
dimension. Fig shows a steel rule where all the fine graduations are not shown. Rules are graduated on one
side in eights and on the other is tenths or multiple thereof. Rules are manufactured of carbon steel or
stainless steel & spring Steel and many are chrome plated with enameled graduations. Shrink rules are
commonly employed in the pattern making shop where casting of metals is involved. These rules
automatically take into consideration the shrink allowances of the materials being cost. The most common
allowance are ¼” and 3/16” foot. Hook rules are frequently used to assure the user that the end of the w/p
flush with the end of the rule. Tapered rules find many applications in me measuring inside of small holes
narrow slots and grooves. Rule is still the most generally used measuring instruments in the industrial
metrology today. Component of limited accuracy: The degree of accuracy 02.mm the quickness and ease with
which it can be used and its low cost, makes it a popular and widely used measuring device. The Steel rules

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are manufactured in different sizes and styles,. These are available in 150,300, 600 or 1000 mm lengths. The
scale need not be graduated uniformly throughout its length. It may be graduated in ½ mm in some position
and 1mn on the other.

The desirable qualities of the steel rule are.

1. It should be mode of good quality spring steel.
2. It should be machine ground on its faces and clearly engraved line.
3. It should have graduations on both edges.
4. It should be chrome plated to present corrosion and protection against staining.

Calipers
Non-graduated manual measuring tool Graduated manual measuring tool. Anon-graduated manual
measurement tool In order to measure the diameter of a circular part it is essential that the measurement is
made along the largest distance or true diameter. The steel rule alone is not convenient method of measuring
directly the size of the circular part.

A caliper is used to transfer the distance between the faces of a component to a scale or micrometer. It thus
converts an end measurement situation to the line system of the rule. The caliper consists of 2 legs higher at
top and the ends of the legs span the part to be measured. The legs of the caliper are made from carbon and
alloy steel they are exactly identical in shape with contact points equidistance from the fulcrum. The working
ends are suitably hardened and tempered to a hardness of 400 to 500 and the measuring faces to a hardness of
650 + 50Hv.

Firm Joint Type inside Caliper Firm joint calipers work on the friction created at the junction of legs.
The legs may become loose after certain use but can be adjusted easily. These calipers are particularly
suitable for large work. The inside calipers is made with straight legs which are bent outwards at the ends.
Inside calipers are used for measuring hole diameter, distance between shoulders etc. while using they should
be adjusted until they are at the largest size at which their legs can just be felt contacting the extremities of a
diameters of the hole.

Spring type inside caliper: Spring calipers are improved varieties of ordinary richer joint calipers. The
legs of spring calipers are made from suitable along steel the measuring faces properly heat treated to a

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hardness of 650 +50 Hv. The 2 legs carry a cured spring at the tap, fitted in notches. The curved spring is
made from carbon spring steel, it is properly hardness and tempered to a hardness of 470 to 520 Hv. A screen
is fixed in one leg and made to pass through the other. It is provided with a nut is to force the legs a part and
the distance between them can be adjusted by applying the pressure against the spring pressure by
heightening the nut. Thus in spring caliper the legs are held firmly by spring tension spring calipers are more
accurate. The legs are straight and shape is shown in fig Firm joint type outside caliper Figure shows a firm
joint type outside caliper. In outside caliper the 2 legs are bent inward as shown in fig it is now for measuring
/comparing diameter thickness and other outside dimension by frame firing the reading to the steel rule
venirer caliper or micrometer. When measuring with form joint type outside caliper they should be adjusted
by taping one leg. When a nice feel has been obtained on the job the size should be read on rule. Spring type
outside caliper

The spring type outside caliper is shown in fig when measuring with spring type outside caliper the gap is
adjusted by adjusting screen. It is more accurate then firm joint type outside caliper. Transfer caliper Transfer
caliper is shown in fig it is used to make transfer measurement from the inside of chambered cavities over
flanges and similar applications where the legs of the calipers can’t be removed directly but must be collapsed
after the dimension has been measured. In these calipers an auxiliary arm is provided to pressure the original
setting after the legs are collapsed.

Odd leg calipers: The odd leg caliper is shown in fig odd leg calipers are also called hermaphrodite
calipers. These are scribing tools having one legs bent and the other leg equipped with a scriber. Distances
from the edge of a work piece may be scribed or measured with these calipers. They may have either friction
joint or spring arrangement. Odd leg caliper are specifically used for finely centers of a circular job marking a
line parallel to a three edge and many other types of marking operations. Graduated manual measuring tool
(slide caliper/Vernier callipers) According to IS= 3651-1974 there are 3 types of Vernier Calliper to meet the
various needs of external and internal measurement up to 2 m with Vernier least count a accuracy of 0.02,
0.05 and 0.10mm. these are available in sizes 0-125,0-200,0- 300,0-500,0-750,0-1000,750-1500 and 1500-
2000mm. out of 3 types (A,B,C) only A type is shown in fig 2.9. Type A (shown in fig 2.9) has jaws on both
sides for external and internal measurement and also has blade for depth measurement. The Vernier callipers
are made of suitable good quality steel of hardness 650+ 50Hv. The beam should be flat thought its length to
within the tolerance of 0.05mm for nominal sizes up to 300mm and 0.08mm from 900 to 1000mm and
0.15mm for 1500 and 2000mm sizes. The measuring faces should have ground finish the portion of the jaw

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between the beam and measuring faces are relieved. The fixed jaw is the integral part of the beam and the
sliding jaw in required to have good sliding fit along with the beam and should have seizure free movement
along the beam. A suitable locking arrangement should provide on the sliding jaw in order to clamp it on the
main beam. All graduations should be clearly engraved so that they are legible.

Figure 4(b) 1.1: Odd-Leg, Inside and Outside Calliper

Precautions:
1. The end of the rules should be prevented from wear as it generally forms the basis for one end for
dimension.
2. The rule should never be used for cleaning between parts or as s substitute for screw driver for scraping T
slots and machine table, otherwise its edges and ends will be damaged.
3. Rusting of the role should avoid by oiling it during weekends and when it is not is used.
4. In order to maintain the sharpness of the graduations for easy and accurate reading scale should be
cleaned with grease dissolving fluids.
5. In order to have correct reading of the dimension to be measured, scale should never be laid flat on the
part to the measured.
6. When taking measurement with rule, it should be so held that the graduation lines are as closed as
possible (Preferably touching) to the faces being measure.
7. In order to avoid the parallax error, while making measurement eye should be directly opposite and 0 90
to the mark on the part to be measured.

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Experiment No 5

Aim: To perform Arc Welding on the given work piece.

Measuring instruments and tools:

Electrodes, Current Source, Welding Machine, Electrode Holders, Welding Gloves, Welding
Helmet, Welding Jacket, Welding Goggles, Chipping Hammer and Pliers

Theory: Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between
an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or
alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually
protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-
automatic, or fully automated.

Type of Arc Welding:

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW),
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW),
Submerged arc welding (SAW),
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

Angles of Welding Rod

Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an
electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or
alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually
protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-
automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding became
commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War. Today it remains an important process
for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.

In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric arc. The arc is formed
between the actual work and an electrode (stick or wire) that is manually or mechanically guided along the
joint. The electrode can either be a rod with the purpose of simply carrying the current between the tip and the

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work. Or, it may be a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts the current but also melts and
supplies filler metal to the joint.

Figure 5.1 The basic arc-welding circuit

The basic arc-welding circuit is illustrated in Fig. 5.1. An AC or DC power source, fitted with whatever
controls may be needed, is connected by a work cable to the work-piece and by a "hot" cable to an electrode
holder of some type, which makes an electrical contact with the welding electrode. An arc is created across
the gap when the energized circuit and the electrode tip touches the work-piece and is withdrawn, yet still
with in close contact.

The arc produces a temperature of about 6500ºF at the tip. This heat melts both the base metal and the
electrode, producing a pool of molten metal sometimes called a "crater." The crater solidifies behind the
electrode as it is moved along the joint. The result is a fusion bond.

Arc Shielding

However, joining metals requires more than moving an electrode along a joint. Metals at high temperatures
tend to react chemically with elements in the air - oxygen and nitrogen. When metal in the molten pool comes
into contact with air, oxides and nitrides form which destroy the strength and toughness of the weld joint.
Therefore, many arc-welding processes provide some means of covering the arc and the molten pool with a
protective shield of gas, vapor, or slag. This is called arc shielding. This shielding prevents or minimizes
contact of the molten metal with air. Shielding also may improve the weld. An example is a granular flux,
which actually adds deoxidizers to the weld.

The extruded covering on the filler metal rod, provides a shielding gas at the point of contact while the slag
protects the fresh weld from the air.

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Figure 5.2: This shows how the coating on a coated (stick) electrode provides a gaseous
shield around the arc and a slag covering on the hot weld deposit.

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Difference between AC and DC Electric Arc Welding

Electricity flows in two ways: either in an alternating current (AC) or in a direct current (DC).
Electricity or "current" is nothing but the movement of electrons through a conductor, like a wire.
The difference between AC and DC lies in the direction in which the electrons flow. In DC, the
electrons flow steadily in a single direction, or "forward." In AC, electrons keep switching
directions, sometimes going "forward" and then going "backward."

Alternating current is the best way to transmit electricity over large distances.

AC and DC are terms that refer to the polarity of the electrical current that is created by the welder
and runs through the electrode.

The strength of a weld depends on selecting an electrode with the correct polarity because the
polarity of the electrode can significantly affect both the strength of the weld as well as the quality
of the weld

Importance of Polarity: Every electrical circuit has a negative and positive pole. Direct current
flows in a single direction resulting in a constant polarity. Alternating current or AC current flows in
one direction half of the time and in the opposite direction the other half. AC current changes its
polarity 120 times per second with a 60 hertz current.

With few exceptions, electrode-positive (reversed polarity) results in deeper penetration. Electrode-
negative (straight polarity) results in faster melt-off of the electrode and, therefore, faster deposition
rate. The effect of different chemicals in the covering may change this condition. Though AC itself
has no polarity, when AC electrodes are used on DC they usually operate best on one specific
polarity. The covering on the electrode designates which polarity is best and all manufacturers
specify on the electrode container what polarity is recommended. The use of the AC transformer-
type welder necessitated the development of an electrode that would work on either polarity, due to
the constant-changing of the polarity in the AC circuit.

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In order for one to achieve proper penetration, uniform beading and good welding results the correct
polarity must be used when welding with any given metallic electrode.

Incorrect polarity will cause poor penetration, irregular bead shape, and excessive spatter, difficulty
in controlling the arc, overheating, and rapid burning of the electrode.

Most machines are clearly marked as to what the terminals are, or how they can be set for either
polarity. Some machines have a switch to change polarity, whereas on others it is necessary to
change the cable terminals

Differences between AC and DC Current.

1. In AC, it is safe to transfer over longer city distances and can provide more power while in DC,
Voltage of DC cannot travel very far until it begins to lose energy -Amount of energy that can be
carried.
2. Steady magnetism along the wire while in Ac, it rotates magnet along the wire. Cause of the
direction of flow of electrons.
3. The frequency of alternating current is 50Hz or 60Hz depending upon the country while that of
DC the frequency of direct current is zero. Frequency.
4. AC reverses its direction while flowing in a circuit. Dc flows in one direction in the circuit.
Direction.
5. AC current of magnitude varies with time. DC has constant magnitude- Current.
6. In AC, Electrons keep switching directions - forward and backward, while in DC Electrons
move steadily in one direction or 'forward- Flow of Electrons.
7. AC has a passive parameter Impedance, while Dc its passive parameter is resistance only.
8. AC Lies between 0 & 1. Dc is always 1-Power Factor.
9. AC types are Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal, Triangular, and Square. Dc types are pure and pulsating.
10. AC is obtained from AC Generator and mains. DC is obtained from Cells or battery.

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Figure 5.3: Standard Weld Joint

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Figure 5.4: Welding Machine Circuit

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Procedure:
1. Clean the metal surface before welding
2. Set the joint
3. Strike a welding arc
4. Build up a weld pool
5. Start moving the weld pool across the metal
6. Finish the weld
7. Clean the slag
8. Examine the weld
9. Allow the metal to cool.

Precautions:

1. Heat, fire, and explosion hazard may occur because many common welding procedures involve
an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns from heat and sparks is significant. To prevent
them, welders wear protective clothing in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long
sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks.

2. Eye damage Auto darkening welding hood with 90×110 mm cartridge and 3.78×1.85 in viewing
area Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which
ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes.

3. Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those in sunglasses or
oxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure. Safety issues welding safety checklist
Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however,
with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with
welding can be greatly reduced.

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