Explanatory Notes to

Senior Secondary Mathematics Curriculum :

Module 1 (Calculus and Statistics)

Mathematics Education Section

Curriculum Development Institute
Education Bureau
2009 (with updates in August 2018)
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 Contents
Page
Foreword i

Foundation Knowledge 1
Learning Unit 1 Binomial expansion 2
Learning Unit 2 Exponential and logarithmic functions 4

Calculus 7
Learning Unit 3 Derivative of a function 8
Learning Unit 4 Differentiation of a function 10
Learning Unit 5 Second derivative 12
Learning Unit 6 Applications of differentiation 13
Learning Unit 7 Indefinite integration and its applications 14
Learning Unit 8 Definite integration and its applications 16
Learning Unit 9 Approximation of definite integrals using the trapezoidal rule 18

Statistics 19
Learning Unit 10 Conditional probability and Bayes’ theorem 20
Learning Unit 11 Discrete random variables 21
Learning Unit 12 Probability distribution, expectation and variance 22
Learning Unit 13 The binomial distribution 24
Learning Unit 14 The Poisson distribution 25
Learning Unit 15 Applications of the binomial and the Poisson distributions 26
Learning Unit 16 Basic definition and properties of normal distribution 27
Learning Unit 17 Standardisation of a normal variable and use of the standard
29
normal table
Learning Unit 18 Applications of the normal distribution 31
Learning Unit 19 Sampling distribution and point estimates 32
 Page
Learning Unit 20 Confidence interval for a population mean 35

Further Learning Unit

Learning Unit 21 Inquiry and investigation 37

Acknowledgements 38
 Foreword

The Mathematics Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 – 6) (abbreviated as “C&A

Guide” in this booklet) was updated in December 2017 to keep abreast of the ongoing renewal
of the school curriculum. The Senior Secondary Mathematics Curriculum consists of a
Compulsory Part and an Extended Part. The Extended Part has two optional modules, namely
Module 1 (Calculus and Statistics) and Module 2 (Algebra and Calculus).

In the C&A Guide, the Learning Objectives of Module 1 are grouped under different learning
units in the form of a table. The notes in the “Remarks” column of the table in the C&A Guide
provide supplementary information about the Learning Objectives. The explanatory notes in
this booklet aim at further explicating:
1. the requirements of the Learning Objectives of Module 1;
2. the strategies suggested for the teaching of Module 1;
3. the connections and structures among different learning units of Module 1; and
4. the curriculum articulation between the Compulsory Part and Module 1.

Teachers may refer to the “Remarks” column and the suggested lesson time of each
Learning Unit in the C&A Guide, with the explanatory notes in this booklet being a
supplementary reference, for planning the breadth and depth of treatment in learning and
teaching. Teachers are advised to teach the contents of the Compulsory Part and Module 1
as a connected body of mathematical knowledge and develop in students the capability to
use mathematics to solve problems, reason and communicate. Furthermore, it should be
noted that the ordering of the Learning Units and Learning Objectives in the C&A Guide
does not represent a prescribed sequence of learning and teaching. Teachers may arrange the
learning content in any logical sequence that takes account of the needs of their students.

Comments and suggestions on this booklet are most welcomed. They should be sent to:
Chief Curriculum Development Officer (Mathematics)
Curriculum Development Institute
Education Bureau
4/F, Kowloon Government Offices
405 Nathan Road, Kowloon

Fax: 3426 9265

E-mail: [email protected]

i
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ii
Foundation Knowledge

Foundation Knowledge consists of two sections: Binomial Expansion, Exponential and

Logarithmic functions. Binomial Expansion forms the basis of the binomial distribution.
Many mathematical models related to natural phenomena involve the exponential function.
The probability function of the normal distribution also involves the exponential function.

It should be noted that the content of Foundation Knowledge is considered as pre-requisite

knowledge for Calculus and Statistics of Module One. Rigorous treatment of the topics in
Foundation Knowledge should be avoided.

1
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Foundation Knowledge

1. Binomial expansion 1.1 recognise the expansion of (a + b)n, where n is a 3

positive integer

Explanatory Notes:

At Key Stage 3, students understood the definition of a 0 and the laws of integral indices, and
could perform addition, subtraction, multiplication as well as their mixed operations and
factorisation of polynomials.

There are several ways to introduce binomial expansion, such as using multiplication to expand

a  b
n
or using the concept of combination to explain the binomial expansion.

Students are required to recognise that

n
a  b  C0n a n  C1n a n 1b   Cnn1ab n 1  Cnnb n   Crn a n r b r , where n is a positive integer.
n

r 0

n
Notations such as “ C rn ” , “nCr” , “ nCr” , “   ” , etc. can be used.
r

To facilitate the expression of binomial expansion, students are required to recognise the
n n 7
summation notation “Σ”, such as  2 ,  4 i and  k 3 . Students are also required to recognise
i1 i 0 k 1
n n n n
the relations:  a  na and
i 1
  axr  byr   a  xr  b yr , where a, b are constants.
r 1 r 1 r 1

The following contents are not required:

 expansion of trinomials
 finding the greatest coefficient and the greatest term
 the properties of binomial coefficients
 applications to numerical approximation, e.g. finding the approximate value of 1.01
10

Teachers may guide the students to expand the binomials by Pascal triangle and may introduce

2
the following historical facts to the students: The arrangement of the binomial coefficients in a
triangle is named after a mathematician, Blaise Pascal as he included this triangle with many of
its application in his treatise, Traité du triangle arithmétique (1653). In fact, in 13th Century,
Chinese mathematician Yang Hui (楊輝) presented the triangle in his book 《詳解九章算法》
(1261) and pointed out that Jia Xian (賈憲) had used the triangle to solve problems. Thus, the
triangle is also named “Yang Hui’s Triangle” (楊輝三角) or “Jia Xian’s Triangle” (賈憲三角).

3
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Foundation Knowledge

2. Exponential and 2.1 recognise the definition of the number e and the 8
logarithmic functions x2 x3
exponential series e x  1  x    ...
2! 3!
2.2 understand exponential functions and logarithmic
functions

2.3 use exponential functions and logarithmic

functions to solve problems

y  ka x and y  k  f ( x )
n
2.4 transform to linear

relations, where a , n and k are real numbers,

a  0 , a  1 , f ( x )  0 and f ( x )  1

Explanatory Notes:

n
 1
Students are required to recognise that the value of 1   tends to a fixed number e as n
 n

increases. When students have recognised the concept of limits, they are required to recognise
n
 1
that e  lim  1   .
n 
 n

Students may use calculators or computer software to find the approximate value of e.

Teachers may use real-life examples, such as population growth, radioactive decay, interest
calculation to introduce the concept of e.

x x 2 x3
Students are required to recognise the exponential series: e x  1     ... .
1! 2! 3!

Students should be able to expand the exponential functions, such as e  x , e kx , e  x and e x k

2

into exponential series, where k is a constant.

4
Students learnt the properties of the exponential function y = ax and the logarithmic function
y  loga x (a > 0, a  1) and their graphs in Learning Unit “Exponential and logarithmic
functions” of the Compulsory Part. Students are required to understand that the exponential
function y = ex and the natural logarithm function y = ln x (x > 0) are special cases of the
exponential function y  a x and the logarithm function y  loga x respectively.

Students are required to understand the relation between the graphs of exponential functions and
that of logarithmic functions. To consolidate students’ understanding of the properties of y  e x
and y  ln x , teachers may ask their students to explore the relations among the graphs of y  2 x ,
y = ex, y = 3x, y = 2–x , y = e –x , y = 3–x , y  log 2 x , y  ln x and y  log 3 x .

Students are required to understand the three equalities e ln x  x , ln e x  x and a x  e x ln a .

The exponential function can be used to model many natural phenomena, such as continuous
growth, the bacteria growth, the rate of cooling of substances and the decay of radioactive
elements, etc. Teachers may use the concept of compound interest that students learnt at Key
Stage 3 to introduce the concept of continuous growth.

Students should be able to tackle the problems involving the following formulae:

Continuous growth : f  t   P0e , r  0

rt

Population growth： f  t   P0e , k  0

kt

Radioactive decay： f  t   P0e , k  0

 kt

Students should be able to transform y  ka x and y  k  f ( x ) to linear relations, where a,

n

n and k are real numbers, a  0 , a  1 , f ( x )  0 and f ( x )  1 . When experimental values

of x and y are given, students should be able to plot the graph of the corresponding linear relation
from which they can determine the values of the unknown constants by considering its slope
and intercepts. The function f ( x ) is not restricted to polynomial function.

5
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6
Calculus

Calculus consists of two sections: Differentiation with Its Applications and Integration with
Its Applications. The concept of the derivative of a function involves the concept of the limit
of a function. In the section “Differentiation with Its Applications”, students are required to
understand the definition of the derivative of a function, the fundamental formulae and the
rules of differentiation. They are also required to use derivatives to find the equation of the
tangent to a curve and to investigate the maximum and minimum values of a function.

Students also need to find the function f(x) from its derivative f x  in various situations
related to science, technology and economics. This reverse process is the concept of the
indefinite integral. Teachers need to introduce the idea of the definite integral as the limit of
a sum of the areas of rectangles under a curve. Teacher can lead students to recognise that
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus can link the two apparently different concepts (the
indefinite integral and the definite integral) together.

The approaches adopted should be intuitive but the concepts involved should be correct. In
difficult topics such as the concept of limits, numerical approaches using calculators or
computer software can help students understand the related concepts. Teachers may help
students understand mathematics concepts by using interactive platform of dynamic
mathematics software.

7
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Calculus

3. Derivative of a 3.1 recognise the intuitive concept of the limit of a 5

function function

3.2 find the limits of algebraic functions, exponential

functions and logarithmic functions

3.3 recognise the concept of the derivative of a function

from first principles

3.4 recognise the slope of the tangent of the curve

y  f  x  at a point x = x0

Explanatory Notes:

The limit of a function is one of the basic concepts in calculus. Teachers may briefly review the
concept and notation of a function before introducing the concept of the limit of a function.

Teachers may use table to show the small changes of the functional values close to x = x 0 to
help students recognise the concept of the limit of f (x) as x tends to x 0 .

Students are required to recognise that for a function f(x), as x tends to x0, the limit of f(x)
1
might not exist, such as lim .
x 0 x

Students are required to recognise the theorems involving the limits of sum, difference,
product, quotient, scalar multiplication of functions, and the limits of composite functions.
But the proofs are not required in the curriculum. By using these theorems, students should
be able to find the limits of algebraic functions, exponential functions and logarithmic
functions. The algebraic functions include polynomial functions, rational functions, power
functions x  , and functions derived from the above functions through addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division and composition, such as x 2  1 . Students are also required to find

8
 2x  3 3e x
the limits of functions as x tends to infinity, such as lim and lim , etc.
x  x3 x  x

Students are required to recognise that for function f  x  , the derivative of a function f  x 

y f  x  x   f  x 
with respect to x can be defined as lim  lim if the limit exists. Teachers
x0 x  x 0 x
1
may demonstrate how to find the derivative of functions, such as x2 and from first
x－1
principles, but finding the derivatives of functions from first principles is not required in the
curriculum.

dy
Students are required to recognise the notations of derivative, e.g. y  , f   x  and .
dx
d dy
Students are required to recognise that is an operator, and is not a fraction.
dx dx

Students are required to recognise that the slope of the tangent of a curve y  f ( x ) at a point

 
x0 , f  x0  is f   x 0  and its notation
dy
dx x  x 0
. Students should be able to find the

equation of tangent to the curve y  f ( x ) at that point.

9
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Calculus

4. Differentiation of a 4.1 understand the addition rule, product rule, quotient 8

function rule and chain rule of differentiation

4.2 find the derivatives of algebraic functions,

exponential functions and logarithmic functions

Explanatory Notes:

Students are required to understand the following rules of differentiation:

d du dv
 addition rule: (u  v )  
dx dx dx
d du dv
 multiplication rule: (uv )  v u
dx dx dx
du dv
u v
d u
 quotient rule: ( )  dx 2 dx
dx v v
dy dy du
 chain rule: 
dx du dx

Students should also be able to find the derivatives of algebraic functions, exponential functions

and logarithmic functions, such as f  x    2 x 2  5 x  3 , f  x   5x 2  2 x  1 , f  x   e x 1

8 2

and f  x   ln x 3  1 etc., by integrated use of the following formulae:

 ( C )  0
 ( x n )  nx n1
 (e x )  e x
1
 (ln x ) 
x
1
 (log a x ) 
x ln a
 (a x )  a x ln a

10
Differentiation of inverse functions, differentiation of parametric equations, implicit
differentiation, and logarithmic differentiation are not required in the curriculum.

11
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Calculus

5. Second derivative 5.1 recognise the concept of the second derivative of a 2

function

5.2 find the second derivative of an explicit function

Explanatory Notes:

Students are required to recognise the concept of second derivative of a function f  x  and its
d 2y
notations: f   x  、 y˝ and .
d x2

Finding the second derivative of an implicit function, and finding the third or higher order
derivatives are not required in the curriculum.

2
d 2 y  dy 
Teachers may point out that, in general,   .
d x 2  dx 

Students should be able to apply the second derivative of a function f  x  to determine the
concavity of its graph in a  x  b .

12
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Calculus

6. Applications of 6.1 use differentiation to solve problems involving 10

differentiation tangents, rates of change, maxima and minima

Explanatory Notes:

Students should be able to use differentiation to solve problems involving tangent and rates
of change, where the concepts of displacement, velocity and acceleration are required.

Students should be able to apply the first derivative or the second derivative to solve problems
involving maximum and minimum. Local and global extrema are required.

13
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Calculus

7. Indefinite integration 7.1 recognise the concept of indefinite integration 10

and its applications 7.2 understand the basic properties of indefinite
integrals and basic integration formulae

7.3 use basic integration formulae to find the indefinite

integrals of algebraic functions and exponential
functions

7.4 use integration by substitution to find indefinite

integrals

7.5 use indefinite integration to solve problems

Explanatory Notes:

Students are required to recognise that indefinite integration is the reverse process of
differentiation, and understand the meaning of the constant of integration C in the relation

 f  x  dx  F  x   C .

Students are required to recognise the notation  f ( x) dx and the terms “integrand”, “constant
of integration” and “primitive function”.

Students are required to understand the basic properties of indefinite integrals and basic
integration formulae:
The properties include:

  kf ( x)dx  k  f ( x)dx , where k is a constant

   f ( x)  g ( x) dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
The formulae include:

  kdx  kx  C , where k and C are constants

x n 1
  x dx  n  1  C , where n  1
n

14
 1
  x dx  ln x  C , x  0 (students should recognise the concept of absolute value)

  e dx  e C
x x

Students should be able to use integration by substitution to find the indefinite integrals, such
 x 3
as   3  2  dx and  2 x x 2  1 dx , etc.

Using integration by parts to find indefinite integral is not required in the curriculum.

15
Learning Unit Learning Objectives Time

Calculus

8. Definite integration 8.1 recognise the concept of definite integration 12

and its applications 8.2 recognise the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
and understand the properties of definite integrals

8.3 find the definite integrals of algebraic functions and

exponential functions

8.4 use integration by substitution to find definite

integrals

8.5 use definite integration to find the areas of plane

figures

8.6 use definite integration to solve problems

Explanatory Notes:

Students are required to recognise that definite integral is defined as the limit of a sum of the
areas of rectangles under a curve, and should be able to distinguish its concept from that of
the indefinite integral.

b
Students are required to recognise the notation: a
f ( x) dx , and the concept of dummy
b b
variables, e.g. 
a
f ( x) dx  f (t ) dt .
a

Students are required to recognise the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

b d
 a
f ( x) dx  F (b)  F (a) , where
dx
F ( x )  f ( x ) , and recognise the relationship between

definite integral and indefinite integral by this theorem.

Students are required to understand the following properties of definite integrals:

 f  x  dx   f  x  dx
b a

a b

 f  x  dx  0
a

a

16
  f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f  x  dx
c b c

a a b

kf  x  dx  k  f  x  dx , where k is a constant
b b
 a a

  f ( x)  g( x) dx  
b b b
 f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx
a a a

Teachers may help the students explore the geometrical meaning of the above properties.

Students should be able to find the definite integrals of algebraic functions and exponential
functions and to use integration by substitution to find definite integrals. When the method of
substitution is used to evaluate a definite integral, students should change the upper and
lower limits of the definite integral accordingly.

Students should be able to use definite integration to find the area of the region bounded by
the curve y  f  x  , the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b.

Using definite integration to find the area between a curve and the y-axis and the area between
two curves are not required in the curriculum.

Students should be able to use definite integration to solve real-life problems, such as:
rectilinear motion, growth model, etc.

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Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Calculus

9. Approximation of 9.1 understand the trapezoidal rule and use it to 4

definite integrals using estimate the values of definite integrals
the trapezoidal rule

Explanatory Notes:

It is sometimes hard or even impossible for students to evaluate the values of some definite
2
integrals, such as  e x dx . The trapezoidal rule is one of the methods to approximate the values
2

of definite integrals.

In applying the trapezoidal rule, students are only required to use equal width of subintervals to
approximate the values. Students are required to understand that a better approximation of the
definite integral can be obtained by increasing the number of subintervals.

Error estimation in the application of the trapezoidal rule is not required in the curriculum.

Students should be able to judge whether an approximation is an under-estimate or over-

estimate by the second derivative test and concavity, for example:
 If function f  x  in a  x  b is concave upwards, the trapezoidal rule will over-

estimate the required integral  f  x  dx .

b

 If function f  x  in a  x  b is concave downwards, the trapezoidal rule will under-

estimate the required integral  f  x  dx .

b

18
Statistics

Statistics consists of four sections: Conditional probability and Bayes’ theorem, Discrete
Probability Distributions and their Applications, The Normal Distribution and Its
Applications, Point and Interval Estimation.

Probability in Statistics of Module One is basic and important. The concept of a random
variable is new to students. The binomial, the Poisson and the normal distribution serve to
widen students’ knowledge on probability distributions. Discussions of statistical inference
are also included in the curriculum.

A study of population parameters and sample statistics depicts the relationship between
populations and samples. Point estimation and interval estimation are required.

Point estimation involves the use of sample data to calculate a statistic which is to serve as
a guess for an unknown population parameter. A confidence interval is an interval estimate
of a population parameter. The width of the confidence intervals is determined by the
corresponding confidence level.

19
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

10. Conditional 10.1 understand the concept of conditional probability 6

probability and Bayes’ 10.2 use Bayes’ theorem to solve simple problems
theorem

Explanatory Notes:

Students learnt the concept of independent events in Learning Unit “More about probability” of
the Compulsory Part and were able to judge whether two events were independent or not.
Students recognised the concept, the notation and the rule P  A  B   P  A   P  B A  of
conditional probability in the Compulsory Part. In this Learning Unit, students need to further
understand the concept of conditional probability, and by integrating the laws in “More about
probability”, to understand that if A and B are independent events, then P  A B   P  A  and
P  B A   P  B  , and vice versa.

Students are required to recognise that if A and B are independent events, then A and B, B 
and A, A and B  are also independent events.

In handling problems involving a finite number of outcomes, drawing a tree diagram is an

efficient way to consider all the outcomes. When using Bayes’ theorem to solve simple
problems, students may draw tree diagrams or other figures to list out the required conditional
probability.

Teachers may explain the concepts of conditional probability and independent events by daily
life examples.

20
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

11. Discrete random 12.1 recognise the concept of discrete random 1

variables variables

Explanatory Notes:

Teachers may introduce the concept of random variable by using daily life examples and the
concept of function in the Compulsory Part, and may guide the students to recognise the
differences between the concepts of random variables and variables in algebra.

21
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

12. Probability 12.1 recognise the concept of discrete probability 7

distribution, distribution and represent the distribution in the
expectation and form of tables, graphs and mathematical formulae
variance
12.2 recognise the concepts of expectation E  X  and

variance Var( X ) and use them to solve simple

problems

Explanatory Notes:

Teachers may introduce the concept of discrete probability distribution by daily life examples,
such as:

Suppose we toss two fair coins one time, we have four possible outcomes: HH, HT, TH and
TT. Considering the number of heads that we get, the random variable X is as follows:

X
HH 2

HT
1
TH

TT 0

The probability distribution of the random variable X can also be tabulated as follows:
x 0 1 2
P  X  x 0.25 0.5 0.25

where P  X  x  represents the probability of the random variable X getting a value x,

0  P  X  x   1 and  P  X  x  1.
x

22
The probability distribution of the random variable X can also be represented by a formula:
x 2 x
1 1
f  x   P  X  x   Cx2     , where x  0, 1, 2
2 2

The probability distribution of a random variable X can also be represented by a bar chart.

Discrete probability distribution of

tossing two fair coins
0.6
0.5
Probability

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2
Number of heads X

Students learnt the concepts and applications of the mean and standard deviation in the
Compulsory Part. Teachers may briefly review these concepts before introducing the
expectation and variance of a discrete random variable.

Students should be able to use the following formulae to solve simple problems:

 E  X    xP( X  x)

 Var( X )  E ( X   ) 2 

 E  g ( X )   g ( x)P( X  x)

 E aX  b  aE  X   b

 Var( X )  E  X 2   ( E  X ) 2

 Var(aX  b)  a 2Var( X )

The notation E  X  can also be used.

The sums and differences of random variables, and joint probability distributions are not
required in the curriculum.

23
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

13. The binomial 13.1 recognise the concept and properties of the 5
distribution binomial distribution

13.2 calculate probabilities involving the binomial

distribution

Explanatory Notes:

Before learning the binomial distribution, students need to recognise Bernoulli distribution.

Students are required to recognise that a binomial experiment has the following properties:
 There are n identical trials.
 There are only 2 possible outcomes for each trial: success and failure.
 The probability of success is p and the probability of failure is 1 – p in each trial. The
probability p will not change in the experiment.
 The trials are independent.

A binomial random variable X is the number of successes in n trials. Students are required to

recognise that E  X   np and Var  X   np 1  p  , but the proofs of these two formulae are

not required in the curriculum.

Besides, using the binomial distribution table to find corresponding probabilities is also not
required in the curriculum.

The binomial formula requires time-consuming computation. Teachers may introduce free
online calculator or using the built-in function in the spreadsheet software, such as
BINOM.DIST(r, n, p, T), to find the individual and cumulative binomial probabilities.

24
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

14. The Poisson 14.1 recognise the concept and properties of the 5
distribution Poisson distribution

14.2 calculate probabilities involving the Poisson

distribution

Explanatory Notes:

Teachers may use real-life examples to introduce the Poisson distribution, and may discuss
with students that the Poisson distribution is in fact a binomial distribution under the limiting
condition, and when n is large and p is small a binomial distribution can be approximated by a
Poisson distribution.

Students are required to recognise that a Poisson experiment has the following properties :
 The occurrence of every event in an interval is independent of the occurrences of the
events in other non-overlapping intervals.
 In any interval, the mean number of occurrences of events in an interval is proportional
to the size of the interval.
 The probability of more than one event occurs in a very small interval is negligible.

Students are required to recognise that if X follows a Poisson distribution with λ as the mean

number of occurrences of events in the interval, then E  X    and Var(X) = λ. But the proofs

of these formulae are not required in the curriculum.

Besides, using the Poisson distribution table to find the corresponding probabilities is not
required in the curriculum.

The Poisson formula requires time-consuming computation. Teachers may introduce free online
calculator or using the built-in function in the spreadsheet software, such as
POISSON.DIST(x, n, T), to find the individual and cumulative Poisson probabilities.

25
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

15. Applications of the 15.1 use the binomial and the Poisson distributions to 5
binomial and the solve problems
Poisson distributions

Explanatory Notes:

To identify the discrete probability distribution followed by a random variable, students are
required to recognise the characteristics of discrete probability distributions. In the binomial
distribution, the variance is less than the mean, whereas in the Poisson distribution, the variance
is equal to the mean. These facts provide clues for students in the identification of the two
distributions. If several random samples are collected, an appropriate probability distribution
may be chosen by comparing the mean and variance of each sample.

26
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

16. Basic definition 16.1 recognise the concepts of continuous random 3

and properties of variables and continuous probability
the normal distributions, with reference to the normal
distribution distribution

16.2 recognise the concept and properties of the

normal distribution

Explanatory Notes:

Students have already grasped the concepts of discrete random variable and discrete probability
distribution. Teachers should extend those concepts to continuous random variables and
continuous probability distributions.

Students are required to recognise the differences between the probability distributions of a
discrete random variable and a continuous random variable.

Teachers may introduce the concept and properties of probability density function (p.d.f.)
f  x.

Finding the expectation and variance of a continuous probability distribution, and derivations
of the mean and variance of the normal distribution are not required in the curriculum.

Students are required to recognise that the formulae in Learning Objective 12.2 are also
applicable to continuous random variables.

Students are required to recognise the concept of the normal distribution, where X N   , 2 
represents that X follows a normal distribution with mean  and standard deviation .

Teacher may introduce the probability density function of normal distribution

 x 
2
1
f  x  e 2 2 , where x  -,   with mean µ and standard deviation .
 2

27
Students are required to recognise the properties of the normal distribution:
 the normal curve is bell-shaped and symmetrical about the mean
 the mean, mode and median are all equal
 the flatness of the normal curve is determined by the value of σ
 the area under the normal curve is 1

28
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

17. Standardisation of a 17.1 standardise a normal variable and use the 2

normal variable and standard normal table to find probabilities
use of the standard involving the normal distribution.
normal table

Explanatory Notes:

Students are required to recognise Z N  0,1 represents that Z follows the normal distribution
with mean   0 and standard deviation   1 . N  0,1 is called “the standard normal
distribution”.

For Z N  0,1 , students should be able to use the standard normal table to find the values of

P  Z  a  , P  Z  b , and P  a  Z  b , etc. Students should also be able to transform those

distributions in N   ,  2  to N  0,1 before referring to the table.

X 
Students are required to recognise that if X 
N  , 2  and Z 

, then

 Z N  0,1
 E  Z   0 and Var  Z   1
a X  b
 P(a  X  b)  P(   )  P( z1  Z  z2 )
  

To find the standard score, the individual and cumulative probabilities of a normal random
variable, teachers may introduce free online calculator or using some built-in functions in the
spreadsheet software, such as:

 NORM.DIST (x, , σ, T): For X ~ N(, σ2), when T = 1, we get P(X  x)

 NORM.INV(p, , σ): For X ~ N(, σ2), we get the value of x such that P(X  x) = p

 NORMSDIST(z): For Z ~ N(0,1), we get P(Z  z)

29
 NORMSINV(p): For Z ~ N(0,1), we get z such that P(Z z) = p

x
 STANDARDIZE (x, , σ): We get Z 


30
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

18. Applications of the 18.1 find the values of P( X  x1 ) , P( X  x2 ) , 7

normal distribution P( x1  X  x2 ) and related probabilities, given
the values of x1, x2,  and  , where
X N  , 2 

18.2 find the values of x, given the values of P( X  x ) ,

P( X  x ) , P ( a  X  x ) , P( x  X  b) or a

related probability, where X N  , 2 

18.3 use the normal distribution to solve problems

Explanatory Notes:

In finding the corresponding probabilities, students are required to recognise:

 P( X  x1 )  P( X  x1 )

 P( X  x2 )  P( X  x2 )

 P  x1  X  x2   P  x1  X  x2   P  x1  X  x2   P  x1  X  x2 

 P  X  x1   0

31
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

19. Sampling 19.1 recognise the concepts of sample statistics and 9

distribution and population parameters
point estimates
19.2 recognise the sampling distribution of the sample
mean X from a random sample of size n

19.3 use the Central Limit Theorem to treat X as

being normally distributed when the sample size
n is sufficiently large

19.4 recognise the concept of point estimates

including the sample mean and sample variance

Explanatory Notes:

Students learnt the concepts of population and sample in the Compulsory Part. Students in
this Learning Unit should recognise the concepts of sample statistics and population
parameters and their relationships:

Sampling

Population Sample

Calculation

Statistic
Population Parameter (known)
(unknown)

Inference
(Estimation)

32
Students are required to recognise that:
 A sample statistic is not necessarily the same as the corresponding population parameter,
but it can provide good information about that parameter.
 Most sample statistics are close to the population parameters. Few are extremely larger
or extremely smaller than the corresponding population parameter.
 In general, samples that are larger produce statistics that vary less from the population
parameter.

Students are required to recognise the following formulae about population mean μ and
population variance  2 :
N

x i
  i 1
N
N

 (x i   )2
 2  i 1
N

Teachers may conduct some sampling activities to help students recognise the concept of the
sampling distribution of the sample mean X , and that if the population mean is  and the
2
population variance is  2 , then E  X    and Var( X )  .
n

2
Students are required to recognise that if X ~ N ( , 2 ) , then X ~ N (  , ) , but the proof is
n
not required in the curriculum.

Teachers may use some special case, such as n = 1 or n = N, or using computer simulation
programmes to help students recognise that:
 no matter what the shape of the original distribution is, the sampling distribution of the
mean approaches a normal distribution as the sample size increases
 most distributions approach a normal distribution very quickly as the sample size
increases
 the number of samples is assumed to be infinite in a sampling distribution
 the spread of the distributions decreases as the sample size increases

Point estimation is one of the methods of parameter estimation. Students are required to
recognise the concept of the estimation of an unknown population parameter from a sample
statistic, e.g., to estimate a population mean μ by using a sample mean x . Teachers may point
out that sample median and sample mode can also be used as a point estimator.

33
In the process of sampling, different estimates may be obtained from different samples. It is
difficult to determine which estimator is the most suitable one. We may use the unbiased
estimator to estimate the unknown parameter. It is expected that, in the long run, the average
value of our estimates taken over a large number of samples should equal the population
value: E(sample estimator) = population parameter. Students are required to recognise that
the unbiased estimator of a population parameter is not unique.

Students are required to recognise that the concept of unbiased estimator, e.g. the sample mean
x is an unbiased estimator of the population mean , and the sample variance
1 n
s2    xi  x  is an unbiased estimator of the population variance  2 .
2

n  1 i 1

34
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Statistics

20. Confidence 20.1 recognise the concept of confidence interval 6

interval for a 20.2 find the confidence interval for a population
population mean mean

Explanatory Notes:

Students are required to recognise the concept of confidence interval, and that the 95%
confidence interval and the 99% confidence interval are most commonly used.

Before constructing a confidence interval for  , students should ask the following questions:
 Are the random samples taken from a normal population?
 Is the population variance known?
 Is the sample size large enough?

Teachers may use computer simulation programmes to create the diagram of confidence
interval, such as the following, to help students recognise that:

 If random samples are taken from a population and

95% confidence intervals constructed for each
sample, students may expect about 5% of the
intervals do not include the population parameter.
When students calculate a confidence interval, they
will not know whether the parameter is included in
the interval or not.

 The width of the confidence interval can be reduced

by increasing the sample size or decreasing the
confidence level.

 In constructing a confidence interval, it is desirable to have a narrow width (for a more

precise estimate) with a high confidence level, but in most cases, we cannot attain these
two conditions at the same time.

35
Students should be able to evaluate the confidence interval for the population mean μ under
the following conditions:
95% confidence 99% confidence
Conditions
interval for μ interval for μ
Normal population
 with known variance  2        
 x  1.96 , x  1.96   x  2.575 , x  2.575 
 large or small sample size n  n n  n n
 sample mean x
Non-normal population
 with known variance  2        
 x  1.96 , x  1.96   x  2.575 , x  2.575 
 large sample size n (n  30)  n n  n n
 sample mean x
Non-normal population
 with unknown variance  2
 s s   s s 
 large sample size n (n  30)  x  1.96 , x  1.96   x  2.575 , x  2.575 
 n n  n n
 sample mean x
 sample variance s 2

36
Learning Unit Learning Objective Time

Further Learning Unit

21. Inquiry and Through various learning activities, discover and 7

investigation construct knowledge, further improve the ability to
inquire, communicate, reason and conceptualise
mathematical concepts

Explanatory Notes:

This Learning Unit aims at providing students with more opportunities to engage in the
activities that avail themselves of discovering and constructing knowledge, further improving
their abilities to inquire, communicate, reason and conceptualise mathematical concepts when
studying other Learning Units. In other words, this is not an independent and isolated Learning
Unit and the activities may be conducted in different stages of a lesson, such as motivation,
development, consolidation or assessment.

37
 Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the members of the following Committees and Working Group for
their invaluable comments and suggestions in the compilation of this booklet.

CDC Committee on Mathematics Education

CDC-HKEAA Committee on Mathematics Education

Ad Hoc Committee on Secondary Mathematics Curriculum (Extended Part/Elective of Senior

Secondary)

CDC-HKEAA Working Group on Senior Secondary Mathematics Curriculum (Module 1)

38