Getting Started With Computer

Repair

A Practical Guide By:

Peter T. Paskowsky
Introduction by the Author
This book was originally written as a supplement for a seminar course of
mine while I served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Cameroon, West Africa,
from 2010 to 2012.
I joined the Peace Corps in 2010 after receiving my degree in Electrical
Engineering from the University of Pittsburgh. In Cameroon I served as an
Education Volunteer teaching Computer Science. This book is the result of
my work at the Cameroonian Delegation of Secondary Education where I
was assigned there as a teacher trainer, working with secondary school
teachers for the relatively new computer science program introduced to
schools across the country. My "students" were mostly experienced middle
aged teachers and supervisors who were experienced teachers but had little
training in computer skills.
This book was created from my various notes and lesson plans for the
seminars I gave for these teachers. The goal of the seminar was to help these
dedicated teachers understand more about how their computers worked and
how to keep them in working condition in the field. Cameroonian schools
are often very short staffed and the computer science teacher serves as an
educator, a technician, and tech support for the whole school. The better
educated these teachers were, the better they could maintain their aging
computer labs, and the more time students could spend using computers.
Seeing that my notes were filling an essential need for a practical guide for
basic computer troubleshooting and maintenance, I compiled them into this
short book.
I hope you enjoy reading this as much as I enjoyed writing it. I hope that
someone can learn something from this book, and please if you do learn
something - pass it on.
Thank you,
Peter Paskowsky
 Contents

Section One: Computer Hardware

Section Two: Computer Hardware Troubleshooting
Section Three: Computer Software
Section Four: Computer Software Troubleshooting
Section Five: Computer Networking
 Section One: Computer Hardware
1.1 Microprocessors

The microprocessor is often referred to as the "brain" of the computer. This

is the part of the computer which executes instructions, which carries out
data manipulation, and generally handles the main tasks of the computer. In
short, this component is where all decisions are made and carried out.

Microprocessors come in many shapes and sizes, and are used for one
purpose or another. Sometimes you need the fastest processor available, for
example when playing demanding video games or doing scientific
calculations. Other times performance is less of a factor but power
consumption is of utmost importance, for example in your smart phone or
tablet. One type of processor is unable to fulfill all of these criteria, so there
are many types of processors used for different purposes.

You may be familiar with Intel and AMD microprocessors. These are found
in most common desktop and laptop systems you are probably familiar with.
Both of these microprocessors are members of one type of instruction set
architecture (ISA), namely x86. An ISA defines how a microprocessor
works internally and computer programs are written for it. This is much like
the "language" the processor speaks. Processors from Intel and AMD
"speak" the same language, but there are many other ISAs and thus
microprocessor "languages"

Another common ISA you are probably familiar with - even if you don't
know it yet - is called ARM. ARM processors are incredibly common, found
in low power portable devices, such as your smart phone or tablet. Odds are
your phone has an ARM processor inside it right now, playing your music,
rendering your web pages, and sending your text messages. ARM processors
are designed to be very power efficient, so while they are much less
powerful than a typical x86 processor found in a desktop computer, they can
run on a small battery for hours or even days at a time.
 Figure 1 - The Apple A6, an ARM processor found in the iPhone 5

The amazing thing is while we are all so familiar with desktop and laptop
processors, these make up only a tiny fraction of the microprocessors
shipped today. For every one desktop and laptop processor made by Intel
and AMD, there are ninety nine (99!) processors of other ISAs used in
everything from tablets to microwave ovens! Of course the processors made
by Intel and AMD are much quicker, expensive, and flashy but even your
dish washer needs a processor these days!

Now, as I said before, these different ISAs speak different "languages" so

typically a software application written for one ISA will not function on
another. This is one of the reasons you run different applications on your
smart phone than you do on your desktop or laptop computers.

Below is a table which lists some common ISAs and their uses.
Table 1 - Instruction Set Architectures

Instruction Set Uses

Architectures
ARM Cell phones, PDAs, tablets, digital media
players, consumer electronics
Power PC Older Apple PCs, Game Consoles, Servers
 SPARC Servers
x86 Windows PCs, Servers

The x86 Architecture is the most common in typical laptop and desktop
computers. x86 was designed by Intel corporation, and while they own the
rights to the ISA they license it to two other vendors, Advanced Micro
Devices (AMD), and the relatively small VIA Technologies. Below is a table
listing the x86 processor vendors, their market share, and their common
uses.
Table 2 - x86 Processor Vendors

Intel Corporation AMD (Advanced VIA

Micro Devices) Technologies
Market 81% 18% 01%
Share
Uses Desktops, Laptops, Desktops, Laptops, Low Power
Servers Servers Devices
 Figure 2 - Various Microprocessors

When examining and evaluating microprocessors there are several

characteristics to be kept in mind including:

Microprocessor architecture - The internal design of the

microprocessor, the "language" the processor speaks.
Clock Speed (measured in Hertz) - The number of clock cycles per
second of the microprocessor. A useful measure of performance,
although higher clock speed does not always mean higher performance.
(For example Pentium 3 processors are faster hertz for hertz than
Pentium 4s. This means a Pentium 4 running at 1.4 GHz will be slower
than a Pentium 3 running at 1.4 GHz. The main advantage of the
Pentium 4 architecture was to allow higher clock frequencies while
sacrificing per clock efficiency.)
Number of Microprocessors on the package – more than one
microprocessor is useful for multithreaded applications and multitasking,
although more processors do not necessarily mean greater performance.
Applications must be written to take advantage of multiple processors,
and some tasks are more suited to multiprocessing than others.
 Amount of Cache Memory (measured in Bytes) - A type of memory
located on the CPU which helps speed up memory access by storing
commonly used information. Cache memory is many times faster than
system memory (RAM).
Power usage (measured in Watts) – Very important for mobile
computers (laptops, notebooks) which run on limited battery power. Also
important for servers, where generated heat of many computers close
together can become a problem.
Word Size (Numbers of Bits) – Early x86 processors were 8 or 16 bits
wide, most processors from the 386 to the Pentium IV were 32 bit, and
modern processors are 64 bits wide. This mostly determines the
maximum amount of memory that can be used, but also shows small
improvements in some types of applications. The microprocessor must
run an operating system designed for the word size. For example, a 32
bit processor can run 16 bit and 32 bit operating systems, but not 64 a bit
OS while a 64 bit processors can run 64 bit and 32 bit operating systems.
A 32 bit OS can address a maximum of 4GB of memory while a 64 bit
OS can address 2^64 bits of memory. 64 bit x86 processors also have
double the number of computer registers than 32 bit designs.
Fabrication Technology – The technology used to build the
microprocessor. Usually measured in nanometers, such as 90 nm, 65 nm,
45 nm, etc. Generally smaller fabrication processes allow for lower
power consumption and higher clock speeds at reduced costs.

Below is a graph showing the history of Intel's processors. The history of

x86 begins with the 8086 8 bit processor. This was followed by the 80286
16-bit processor and then the 80386 which was the first 32-bit
microprocessor built by Intel, and the forbearer of all modern
microprocessors, which itself was replaced by the 80486. The ISA is known
as x86 because each of the processor's names ends with 86.
 Figure 3 - Intel Product History

Generally there have been architectural improvements, increased clock

speeds, improved fabrication methods, and increased transistor counts
between Intel product generations. These changes allow for big
improvements in performance from one generation to the next. The table
below summarizes some of these improvements over part of Intel's product
history.

Table 4 – Partial Product Line History (Intel)

Fabrication
Clock Data
Name Date Transistors Technology MIPS
speed width
(Micrometers)

2
8080 1974 6,000 6 8 bits 0.64
MHz
16
5 bits
8088 1979 29,000 3 0.33
MHz 8-bit
bus

6 16
80286 1982 134,000 1.5 1
MHz bits
16 32
80386 1985 275,000 1.5 5
MHz bits
25 32
80486 1989 1,200,000 1 20
MHz bits
Pentium 1993 3,100,000 0.8 60 32 100
MHz bits
 64-bit
bus
32
Pentium 233 bits
1997 7,500,000 0.35 ~300
II MHz 64-bit
bus

32
Pentium 450 bits
1999 9,500,000 0.25 ~510
III MHz 64-bit
bus
32
1.5 bits
Pentium 4 2000 42,000,000 0.18 ~1,700
GHz 64-bit
bus
32
Pentium 4 3.6 bits
2004 125,000,000 0.09 ~7,000
"Prescott" GHz 64-bit
bus

1.2 Random Access Memory (or Computer Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM) stores programs which are being executed,
as well as data used by these programs. For example, when you are using
Microsoft Word or Internet Explorer on your computer, these programs are
being held in RAM.

Often increasing the amount of RAM in a computer can drastically increase

performance, preventing the need for slower virtual memory (which is when
disk drives are used as memory, which is typically much slower).

Like microprocessors when evaluating memory it is important to consider

many characteristics, for example:

Architecture – the type of memory used (SDRAM, DDR, etc.) each

architecture has a different slot type and performance characteristics.
 Capacity (measured in Bytes) – the overall storage capacity of the
memory, more is better.
Speed (measured in Hz) – the speed at which the memory operates, the
higher the better.
Timings (measured in clock cycles) – the amount of clock cycles
required to access a certain address in memory, the lower the better.

There are many different types of memory you may find in a computer. They
all have cryptic names which are long acronyms. Here are some of the types
listed in order from oldest to newest: EDO, SDRAM, RDRAM or
“RAMBUS”, DDR , DDR 2, and DDR 3.
 These types of memory differ in the physical package (number of pins used),
speed, capacity, voltage, etc. Speed and capacity have generally increased
from generation to generation, voltage requirements typically decreased, and
each generation has required different slots and thus different motherboards
which could support them.

Laptop memory is architecturally identical to desktop memory, but like

mobile microprocessors it is in a smaller form factor and designed to use less
power.

Reading memory speeds can be very confusing. Speeds ratings are listed
with values like “PC 100” or “PC 2 5300”; normally the higher the number
the higher the performance. The actual clock speed the memory runs at can
be calculated from this number using a different formula based on the type
of memory.

For example, for SDRAM a rating may look like this: PC 100. PC 100
translates into clock speed pretty easily, like this: 100 * 1 = 100MHz. But
things get more complicated for modern memory types. For DDR 2 a rating
may looks like this: PC 2 5300. This is more difficult to decipher, to find the
clock speed first divide by eight, so 5300 / 8 = 667 Mhz. Now, because it is
DDR memory (double data rate) you must divide this number by two 667 / 2
= 333 MHz. Are you confused yet? Don't worry about it too much, because
typically higher numbers mean higher frequencies and higher performance.

In terms of performance, faster memory speeds and quicker timings often

make very little real world impact. You should usually give preference to the
quantity of RAM, rather than its speed.

2.1 Sub topic - Memory hierarchy

There are several types of memory in a computer, and they are arranged
in a hierarchy ranging from fastest but smallest to slowest but largest.
They are also arranged from most expensive to least expensive.
 Figure 4 - Memory Hierarchy

On the microprocessor itself, there is cache memory. This type of

memory is the fastest available, and it is used to store information which
has been repeatedly used. For example, if there is data in main memory
which has just been accessed, it will be stored into cache memory so that
the next time it is needed it can be read from relatively fast cache
memory and not slower main memory, thus saving the long access time.
There are three levels of cache, Level One (L1), Level Two (L2), and
Level Three (L3). L1 is the smallest but fastest, and L3 is the largest but
slowest. Not all Microprocessors have all three levels of cache.

Main memory or RAM is the next layer and is where the majority of
running applications and data used by them are stored.

Virtual memory is the last layer of memory and it is the process of using
other storage mediums (flash memory, hard drives, solid sate drives) as
computer memory. This is by far the slowest form of memory, but it can
be very large (and cheap).

1.3 Hard disk drives

Hard disk drives are a form of computer storage. Files and folders are stored
on them. They are used to store documents, video, music, applications, and
the operating system itself.

The characteristics of hard disk drives are:

Spindle Speed (measured in rotations per minute) – the speed at

which the platters rotate measured in rotations per minute (RPM), the
faster the better, this measurement applies only for mechanical drives.
(5400 or 7200 RPM for desktops and 10000 or 15000 RPM for servers
are typical speeds found)
Cache Size (measured in Bytes) – The amount of memory onboard the
drive, increasing access speeds
Capacity (measured in Bytes) – The amount of storage capacity of the
drive, measured in Bytes. Hard drive manufacturers measure capacity in
decimal numbers (base ten) while most operating systems measure
capacity in binary numbers (base two), which leads to distinction
between the advertised size and the true size. For example a hard drive
manufacturer will advertise 1 GB as 10^9 bytes = 1,000,000,000 bytes
but 1 GB in actuality is 2^30 bytes = 1,073,741,824. Therefore the
capacity of hard drives is about 7.3% less than advertised.
Interface – The method used to connect the drive to the computer
(typically IDE or SATA)
Size – 3.5 inch or 2.5 inch. 3.5 inch drives are used primarily for
desktops and servers, 2.5 inch drives are used primarily for laptops and
SSDs.

There are two types of disk drives available today: mechanical hard disk
drives (HDDs) and solid state drives (SSDs). Conventional mechanical
drives which feature a rotating magnetic disc and magnetic heads to store
data. Solid state drives utilize flash memory for storing data. In general,
SSDs are much faster but offer less storage capacity for much more money.
SSDs are a much newer technology.
 Figure 5: Dissembled Hard Disk Drive (left) and Solid State Drive (Right)
Table 7 - HDD vs. SSD

Access times Transfer Speeds Capacity Price

Mechanical Hard Drives Slow Slow High Low
Solid State Drives Fast Fast Low High

Figure 6 - IDE Cables (left) and SATA Cables (right)

There are two main interface types for hard drives, IDE and SATA. IDE uses
a ribbon cable with 40 or 80 wires and can support up to two devices per
channel. The two devices on a channel are called Master and Slave. You may
only have one master and one slave per channel. IDE devices can be
configured master or slave using jumper caps located on the back of the
drive. SATA uses a seven wire cable and only supports one device per
channel. In general, most new computers use SATA which allows for higher
transfer speeds than IDE.
 Figure 7 - IDE Master / Slave configuration

Note: 80 wire IDE cables should be used for Hard disk drives, as they allow
for higher transfer speeds. Save 40 wire cables for low speed devices such as
optical drives.

There are several other interfaces such as SCSI and Fibre Channel which are
usually used in servers. SCSI and Fibre Channel can both connect multiple
devices per channel, and allow easy configuration of many hard drives as
well as data preservation methods.

1.4 Optical Drives

Optical drives are used to read optical media, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-
Ray Discs. These types of discs are often used to store music, videos, and
computer software.

Optical drives function by reflecting light off the disk which has different
reflectivity, one representing zero and the other representing one. Optical
drives use light in the visual spectrum (ROYGBIV), the newer standards use
smaller wavelengths and thus can fit more data per disk.

In general there are two types of drives, disc readers and disc readers/writers.
Disc readers can only read data on discs, they cannot create new discs.
However, disc readers/writers can both read and write to blank media.
 A CD read only drive is known as a CD-ROM drive and a CD read/write
drive is known as a CD-RW drive. This naming convention is also true for
DVD and BD drives as well.

Newer drives are backwards compatible with older medium types, but older
drives are not compatible with newer media types. For example, a CD-RW
drive can read/write CDs but not DVDs or Blu Ray Discs. Conversely a BD-
RW drive can read/write CDs, DVDs, and Blu Ray Discs.

Table 8 - Optical Disc Types

Capacity Uses
CDs (compact disc) 700 MB Music, Data
DVDs (digital video disc) 4.7 – 9 GB Video, Music, Data
BDs (blu ray discs) 25 – 50 GB Video, Data

1.5 Motherboards

The motherboard (sometimes referred to as a logic board) is a printed circuit

board which connects all the critical computer components together while
also providing connections to other peripheries. This is where the CPU,
memory, expansion cards, hard drives, optical drives, USB devices, etc are
connected.
 Figure 8 - A Motherboard

On the motherboard the CPU is connected to the northbridge where it can

access the main memory and the graphics card. The northbridge is then
connected to the southbridge where all other peripheries are connected, such
as SATA, IDE, USB, etc. These two chips in conjunction are known as the
chipset. Below is an example diagram of a motherboard layout.

Figure 9: Motherboard Functional Diagram

Newer microprocessors have moved components typically found on the
northbridge onto the microprocessor die (piece of silicon) itself. For
example, a modern Intel Core i5 has 4 CPUs, a memory controller, a
graphics card, and PCI express lanes all built on die. Because of this,
performance and features of a computer are less dependent on motherboards
and more on the CPU used.

There are several different form factors, or physical layouts, of

motherboards. The form factor determines the computer case which can be
used with the motherboard. The most common form factor in use today is
called ATX. There are versions of ATX which are created for compact
systems, such as mini ITX, nano ITX, and pico ITX which allow for much
smaller system footprints. For older machines (8086 - Pentium era) the
standard form factor was AT.

Although many computers use the ATX form factor, you will likely run
across many systems with non standard form factors. These form factors are
not compatible with ATX which can make switching out motherboards
difficult, requiring a motherboard of the same non standard form factor,
which will most likely be very difficult to find.

Figure 10 - Various Motherboard Form Factors

The motherboard contains many connections. On the motherboard one can

find:
 The CPU socket (often called a ZIF “Zero Insertion Force” socket)
where the CPU is connected.
Memory slots (where the RAM is inserted)
Expansions slots (ISA, PCI, PCI-X, PCI Express) which allow the
insertion of add-on cards which increase the functionality of the system
(sound cards, graphics cards, network cards, etc)
Disk drive connectors (IDE, SATA) which allow the connection of hard
disk drives and optical drives for storage.
The Power connectors which power the motherboard
Back panel connections such as USB, FireWire, PS/2, serial ports,
parallel ports, audio, etc. which allow for adding other peripheries such
as mice, keyboards, printers, speakers, etc.

Figure 11 - Motherboard Diagram

1.6 Power Supply

A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current from the wall (220
or 110 Volts) into the direct current used by digital electronics, such as a
computer. Computers use many voltage levels, commonly 3.3 V, 5 V, and 12
V, -5 V, and -12 V DC.
 Figure 12 - A Power Supply Unit (PSU) with the Case Removed

There have been several types of power supplies used over the history of
computing. Early computers used AT power supplies, which provide direct
power. With these early power supplies the power button was the only
source for turning on or off the computer. When you “shut down” the PC,
the power supply would still be running until you pressed a button on the
power supply to turn it off.

This problem was later addressed through the introduction of ATX power
supplies, which allow for soft power. When you touched the power button on
the motherboard of an ATX power supply, the motherboard would send a
signal to power on the machine. This allowed software to control the power
supply. Now when you “shut down” the machine, the motherboard sends a
signal to the PSU to power off. No need to press any buttons.

With modern computers, power demands have grown substantially. Because

of this fact, the number of pins required to power the motherboard has
increased as well. Original ATX power supplies have 20 pin headers. These
are used for most PCs before Pentium IVs. Pentium IVs require not only the
20 pin ATX connector, but also a supplementary 4 pin 12 Volt connector.
Even newer machines require 24 pin connectors as well as a supplementary
4 or 8 pin connectors.
 Just like with motherboards, some computer makers use non standard
designs. These are not compatible with normal ATX power supplies and thus
a replacement can be difficult to find.

Aside from the main power connector, you can also find:

4 pin Molex connectors for connecting IDE hard drives and optical
drives
4 pin SATA connectors for connecting SATA hard drives and optical
drives
6 or 8 pin PCI-E connectors used for powering high end graphics cards
Floppy connectors used for connecting floppy drives (now obsolete)

Figure 13 - Power Supply Connectors

1.7 Expansion Cards

An expansion card is a printed circuit board that can be added to an

expansion slot on a computer motherboard to add extra functionality to the
system.

There are four main types of expansion slots you will commonly see. The
oldest is ISA, which is used for computers mostly below the Pentium 3 era.
Next is PCI, which has been used for a very long time and is still common
even on new motherboards. AGP connectors were used for graphics cards
until superseded by PCI express. The newest standard is PCI Express, which
can be found in all modern computers. PCI Express comes in 1x, 4x, and 8x,
and 16x slots. The higher the number the more data lanes are available, the
higher the bandwidth, and the larger physical connector is needed. Most
graphics cards use 8x or 16x slots, and most other add in cards use 1x or 4x
slots.
Table 9 - Expansion Slots

Slot Description
Type
ISA General connectivity, 16 bit interface, now obsolete
PCI General connectivity, 32 bit interface, very common even in
new computers, many devices available
AGP Special purpose slot for graphics cards, superseded by PCI
Express
PCI General connectivity, serial interface, found in all new PCs,
Express many devices available, comes in 3 physical connectors 1x, 4x,
and 8x

Figure 14 - Comparison of Different Expansion Buses

Laptop computers have two common expansion slots: PCMCIA (sometimes
called Cardbus) which is an older standard, and ExpressCard the newer
standard for high end laptops.

Figure 15 - PCMCIA (left) and ExpressCard (right)

Table 10 - Comparison between Laptop and Desktop Expansion Slots

LAPTOP DESKTOP
ISA (obsolete)
PCMCIA PCI
EXPRESS CARDS (2 types) PCI EXPRESS (3 slots)
34 and 54 1x, 4x and 8x (increases in speed)

Common types of expansion cards include:

Network cards (for connecting computer together for file sharing or

internet access)
Graphics cards create images on the computer monitor (for video
gaming or photo/video editing)
Sound cards (for improved sound quality, and inputs/outputs for audio
recording)
TV Tuners (for watching/recording television on your computer)
Periphery expansion (adding additional connections for USB, FireWire,
IDE, SATA, etc.)

Networking cards come in two main types, wired (Ethernet) and wireless
(802.11). Network adapters are rated by their transfer speeds in bits per
second. For example Fast Ethernet operates at 100 Mbps (megabits per
second, 1 megabit = 106 bits = 1000000 bits).

Wired Ethernet cards come in three speeds, which are backwards compatible
with older standards, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1000 Mbps. Wireless cards
(technically referred to as 802.11 after the IEEE standard which defines
them) come in four main speeds: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, and
802.11ac. Their top speeds are 54 Mbps, 11 Mbps, 54 Mbps, 150 Mbps, and
1Gbps respectfully.

Higher speeds are backwards compatible with older standards, however all
equipment operates at the speed of the lowest common denominator. To use
for example 1 Gbps Ethernet, you need a 1 Gbps switch and 1 Gbps ethernet
card, while using 802.11n requires a 802.11n access point and a 802.11n
wireless adapter. Below is a table summarizing the different wireless
protocols.

Figure 16: Wired (left) and Wireless (right) network cards

Table 11 - Ethernet and Wireless Standards

Wired Wireless
Ethernet 802.11
10 Mbps, 802.11a 54Mbps same Hz as phones
100Mbps and 5GHz
1000Mbps or 1Gbps

802.11b 11Mbps
802.11g 54Mbps 2.4GHz
802.11n 150Mbps
 Cheap but less Not as reliable and slower but more flexible
flexible

Graphics cards come in two varieties, integrated and discrete. Integrated

graphics cards are integrated onto the computer motherboard or CPU.
Discrete graphics cards are in the form of an expansion card. Most low cost
computers use integrated graphics because of the low cost, although they
also typically have lower performance then discrete cards.

There are three main vendors for graphics cards, Intel, NVIDIA, and AMD.
Intel only supplies integrated graphics cards, and because most computers
use Intel processors, most computers also use Intel integrated graphics.
AMD and NVIDIA supply both integrated and discrete cards, and are
focused on high performance cards for gaming and photo/video editing.

Figure 17 - A Graphics Card

There are 5 main graphics connector types. The oldest is VGA, a 15 pin
connector used on most CRT (cathode ray tube, big and bulky) monitors.
The replacement for VGA is DVI, a digital connector used for LCD
monitors. SVideo is a connector used specifically to connect a graphics card
to an analog television. HDMI is a newer connector which is compatible
with DVI and used to connect to digital TVs. The newest connector type is
called display port, which hopes to standardize connectors across PC
monitors and televisions.
Table 12 - Graphics Connectors

Type Uses Description

VGA Analog monitors Very common (analog)
 DVI (similar Digital monitors, For high resolution digital images
to HDMI) typically LCDs
SVideo TVs Analog TVs
HDMI TVs Digital televisions, video and sound are
both transferred on one cable, uses DRM
to prevent piracy
Display port TVs / monitors An attempt for computers and TVs to
use the same connector

Figure 18 - Different Video Connectors

1.8 – Hardware trends

Microprocessors today are growing more and more integrated. Things
like graphics cards, memory controllers, and expansion lanes are being
moved onto the microprocessor chip itself. This can improve performance
because these components are now directly on the same piece of silicon as
the CPU, so communication is much faster than communicating through
the north bridge.
Parallelism is a huge trend in today’s microprocessors. Most
microprocessors have at least two and up to four or eight CPUs on chip.
Some processors also implement SMT (simultaneous multithreading)
which allows two threads to be run on a single CPU, causing each CPU to
appear as two CPUs to your operating system. When using SMT
performance typically increases in multithreaded workloads, although not
as much as adding a second physical CPU.
Software today is being written with parallelism in mind, allowing code to
take advantage of the added resources. However more microprocessors
does not necessarily mean more performance, it depends on how well the
application can use the added resources. Certain applications such as
video editing and password cracking can easily make use of multiple
microprocessors. Other applications, such as older software, cannot and
gain performance from multiple microprocessors. New software is
starting to take more and more advantages of these extra cores, so they
will become more and more useful over time.
Processors today are not making large gains in clock speed – in 5 years
microprocessor clock speeds have barely increased, however
microprocessors typically now use less power for more performance. A
new shift in thinking is taking place, where one measures performance
per watt of power instead of raw performance. That is to say an
improvement to a CPU that increased performance by 1% should increase
power consumption by no more than 1%.
Most microprocessors today are 64 bit, allowing the use of 64 bit
operating systems and software.
Memory today is higher capacity, faster, uses less power, and cheaper
than ever before. All trends in this department are great for consumers.
Hard drives are getting higher capacities, larger cache sizes, and faster
interfaces. Storage is cheaper than ever before. SSDs are becoming more
and more popular, especially among enthusiasts for their large
performance gains, and their prices are falling sharply.
Optical drives are becoming less and less important as data is more often
stored and transported using USB flash drives, external hard drives, and
the internet (cloud storage), which many people think is more convenient
and has less problems such as scratched disks.
Motherboards are becoming less complex as components typically found
on the motherboard are moved to the CPU. This means performance
between motherboards is often negligible, and motherboards can be
chosen for features rather than raw performance.
Power Supplies are growing in wattage and efficiency. PSUs are also
gaining more and more connectors to meet the demand for higher power
components such as newer motherboards and graphics cards.
Expansion Slots are getting faster and faster, allowing higher connection
speeds for expansion cards. PCI express has undergone many revisions
increasing speed.
Video Cards are getting faster, having more execution units, and holding
more memory than ever before. There is a new trend towards GPGPU
(general-purpose computing on graphics processing units) which allows
GPUs to perform tasks much like a typical microprocessor. A GPU is
much more efficient than typical CPUs for certain tasks such as video
editing and scientific or mathematical applications.
Network Cards such as 1 Gbps Ethernet networks and 802.11n are
becoming more and more common, replacing older 100 Mbps and
802.11g networks everywhere, providing higher bandwidth for file
sharing / video or audio streaming in the home or office.
 Section Two: Hardware Troubleshooting
2.1 Hardware Troubleshooting Basics
Hardware Troubleshooting is the process of determining the cause of a
problem caused by computer hardware through analysis and research. This
deals with problems which take place before the operating system has been
loaded. Therefore a problem with the machine training on, unrecognized
hardware, blurry distorted or blank images on the screen all fall into this
category. Hardware troubleshooting requires applying your knowledge of
computer hardware and the functionality of a computer system to determine
where the problem lies.
In general there are a few steps needed to be taken when troubleshooting.
First one must define the problem, for example “The machine does not
power on” or “The machine powers on but I see nothing on the screen”. The
second step is to do research on a problem. Included in this section are
some common hardware problems and their solutions, but research can come
from many other sources such as the internet or other repair manuals or even
your own experience and knowledge. After having some understanding of
the problem you should be able to narrow down the possible problems using
the process of elimination. Once you think you have determined where the
problem lies, you can go along and try to test your hypothesis by switching
out the problem parts with known working parts. So in short, the steps to
be taken are in this order:
Define Problem
Do Research
Process of Elimination
Switching out parts

2.2 Common problems and solutions

There are many common problems when it comes to hardware

troubleshooting. Most symptoms cause an error during the boot-up process
when the machine is being powered on. We will be focusing right now on
problems that prevent the operating system from loading.
Common problems include the machine simply not responding when the
power button is pressed, to having the machine start up but with no visuals
on the screen sometimes accompanied by beeps. Other problems could be
constant rebooting, seemingly undetected hardware components, or
problems with the monitor. We are going to step through these problems one
by one, determine their possible causes and their probable solutions.

The main idea here is to find and separate the part causing the problem, so
that you can verify were the problem lies and correct it.

General advice

For a computer to turn on it requires a motherboard, power supply,

processor, memory, and video card. When the machine is not working with
only these components, one component is not well connected or broken.
When troubleshooting hardware problems, it is a good idea to disconnect all
components other than these vital components to narrow down the problem.
This may solve the problem, in which case you can keep adding components
again one by one to find where the problem lies.

You should clean computers regularly. Dust buildup inside of computers,

especially on CPU heat sinks, can cause overheating and erratic behavior.
Heat sinks like the one below help keep the microprocessor cool, and should
be cleaned regularly to avoid dust buildup.
 Figure 19 - A Microprocessor Heat Sink and Fan

If possible a voltage regulator or uninterruptable power supply (UPS)

should be used to protect the computer from power spikes and low voltage.
Investing in a voltage regulator could save you the cost of replacing many
power supplies, it is a good investment.

The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is used for configuring basic options
on your computer, such as boot order, power options, and enabling/disabling
onboard components. Many problems can be solved through making
changes in the BIOS or by resetting the BIOS to its factory defaults.

Problem 1 – Computer does not start (no lights, fans are not moving)

If the machine does not seem to respond at all when pushing the power
button, there is most often a problem with the power coming to the
computer. This can manifest itself in many ways, it could be as simple as a
power outage, an unplugged power cord, an incorrect setting on the power
supply, a broken power button, or as serious as a broken power supply or
motherboard.

To troubleshoot this problem, first verify power is working correctly. If other

machines are running OK, then the power from the wall is likely OK.
Remember the problem could be caused by low voltage. Having a voltage
regulator will ensure that is not the problem. Next, check the cable and
socket you are using are both working properly and well connected. If the
problem wasn’t this simple, it is time to examine the power supply.

First check to see if all the connections on the power supply are firmly
connected to the motherboard and other components. A simple loose cable
could cause your computer not to boot.

If everything is well connected, the best troubleshooting solution is to try

another known working power supply. Open another machine that has a
functioning power supply of the same type (ATX, ATX +4, etc.) and swap
the PSUs. If the known working power supply can power on the troubled
machine, then you know the problem was with the old power supply.

If you don’t have other known parts to work with you can still try to assess
the problem by testing the power supply directly. To test the power supply
separate from the computer, you must first disconnect the power supply from
all other devices (motherboard, optical drives, hard drives, etc).

Note: This is a dangerous procedure and listed for educational value only.
This can break your PSU or could hurt you. Perform this at your own risk.

Next, connecting the green wire and any black wire on a standard ATX
power supply will cause it to turn on. Note that you can break non standard
supplies using this method! This process can be done with a paper clip rather
easily. Make sure to unplug the power before connecting black and green.
Afterwards connect power and see if the fan spins. If the fan spins the power
supply is likely functional, although not always. You can use a multimeter to
measure the voltage outputs of the pins which should give you a good idea if
the PSU is functioning correctly.

If you have not found a problem with the power supply at this point, then it
is unfortunately most likely a problem with the motherboard.
 Figure 20 - Testing an ATX power supply

Problem 2 – Computer starts, nothing is on the screen, and the machine

is beeping

Normally when a computer is beeping it is giving you an error code. The

motherboard is trying to communicate that there is a problem with one or
more system components. These error codes, sometimes called beep codes,
communicate the problem. An example of a beep code is one long beep
followed by two short beeps. This could state there is a problem with the
system memory, microprocessor, or video card. Unfortunately, beep codes
are different from manufacturer to manufacturer, so you must search the
internet or a manual for each specific computer.

Although even without the manual you can troubleshoot this problem. It is
most likely a problem with the CPU, memory, or graphics card. First
disconnect all parts besides the CPU, memory, and graphics card. If the
problem persists, check that the CPU, memory, and graphics card are well
connected. Next, try swapping out the memory graphics card, and CPU with
known working components, one at a time. If one of the replacements works
then you have found the problem. Remember to always power off the
computer before changing hardware components!

If changing out the components does not work, it is often a problem with the
motherboard.

Problem 3 – Computer starts, nothing is on the screen, and there is no

beeping
Often if there is no beeping it is often a problem with the motherboard or
power supply. However this problem should be treated as the problem
above. The reasoning is that the motherboard may have no speaker or its
speaker is disconnected. Therefore you cannot hear any beep codes. Follow
the instructions above to solve this problem.

Sometimes the motherboard is not beeping because there is a problem with

the board itself, rendering it incapable of even emitting an error code. If you
cannot find the problem, the motherboard is probably to blame.

Problem 4 – Computer reboots / freezes often

If the computer is rebooting often, there can be three culprits – poor cooling,
low voltage, or bad memory.

It is good practice to clean your computer regularly by removing dust and

other debris from inside the computer case. Special care should be taken to
clean out the heat sinks on the motherboard and/or graphics card. When
these are clogged with dirt they are much less effective at cooling. When the
computer overheats, the machine has a small thermometer which turns the
computer off to prevent the chips from damage due to overheating. If your
machine keeps rebooting, it could be caused to poor airflow due to dust or
perhaps a broken fan. Make sure all fans are working and replace them
immediately if they are not functioning.

In addition, you should test your memory. Reboots/freezes can be caused by

memory errors. Luckily it is very simple to test computer memory. Windows
Vista and later come with a memory testing program, just press F8 when
booting to see the test memory option. Otherwise there are many other
programs for testing memory, such as Memtest86, which can be found for
free download at memtest.org.

Memtest86 can be run on any computer from the CDROM drive. Simply
place the disc in the drive while the computer is booting and the application
will run automatically. It will report if there are memory errors. These could
be solved as simply as reseating your memory or they could be caused by
defective memory chips. If the chips have errors, they should be sent back to
the manufacturer for replacement if still under warranty or else tossed out.

A voltage regulator or UPS should be used to eliminate problems caused by

low voltage.

Problem 5 – Computer cannot find components (Hard drives, Memory,

etc.)

This problem is often caused simply because of poor connections. Make sure
all connections are well attached, including the IDE/SATA cables, power
cables, memory modules, etc.

If reseating the component in question isn’t working, try known working

cables. If you have no luck, try replacing the component with another known
working part. If the new part works, then the problem lies with the
component, not with the connections.

Problem 6 – Monitor Problems (Fuzzy images, mixed up colors, etc.)

If your computer seems to be booting fine but you are seeing problems with
your monitor there could be many problems.

Most likely it is simply a problem with the connection between the video
card and the monitor. Try firmly connecting the cables. If this does not solve
the problem, it could be caused by the monitor itself. Check the
brightness/contrast settings through the menu on the monitor.

If the monitor is a CRT model and the image is fuzzy, it is often just a
problem caused by age. There is no solution to this problem aside from
getting a new monitor.

If the monitor sometimes turns black, or shows strange moving dots or lines,
it could be a problem with the graphics card. Try another graphics card you
know is working to see if the problem is caused by the GPU.

Summary
In summary, here is a list of some common hardware problems and their
solutions:

Computer doesn’t start (no lights, fans)

Power supply, Power Cord, Outlet Power, Power Button, Cables
Try new cords, check connections, try known working PSU
Computer starts, but nothing on screen (audible beeps)
Something not well installed, bad components
Check connections, check beep codes, process of elimination, try
known working parts
Computer Starts, but nothing on screen (no beeps)
Motherboard, sometimes power supply, try known working parts
Computer Reboots Often
Heat, Memory
Clean out dust, check memory (using memtest86)
Computer doesn’t recognize components
Bad connections, bad hardware
Check connections, try known working parts
Monitor Problems
Check power, cables, brightness/contrast, check which video card,
backlight problems, try known working monitor
 Section 3: Computer Software
3.1 Operating Systems
An operating system (OS) is software which manages computer hardware
resources and provides common services for execution of applications. The
OS operates as an intermediary between the computer software and
computer hardware. It manages things such as memory management, disk
management, microprocessor scheduling, etc.

Figure 21 - Operating System Interaction Diagram

The main advantage an operating system offers is the added layer of

abstraction between computer programs and computer hardware.
Abstraction is the process of dividing a problem into smaller more
manageable parts.
When using and operating system, a user interacts directly with an
application. The application interacts with the OS, and the OS interacts with
the hardware. With this model, the user doesn't have to understand the inner
workings of the operating system, or of the hardware itself to use the
application. This makes things easier for both the user and the designer of
the application.
An operating system allows any program written for it to work on any
hardware supported by the operating system. This way a programmer only
has to write a program for one operating system and the program can
function on any hardware that runs this operating system. This means that
computers with vastly different hardware configurations can run the same
programs without the need to re-write the program for each specific
hardware configuration. The software designer does not have to know
anything about the underlying hardware at all for their programs to function
as desired.
3.2 Operating Systems Basics

Today there are three main operating systems in use on desktop computers:
Microsoft Windows, Apple Macintosh Operating System (Mac OS), and
GNU/Linux. The most commonly used is Microsoft Windows by a large
margin, followed by Mac OS, and then by Linux. Windows has about 90%
of the PC OS market share, followed by apple at around 9% and about 1%
for Linux. Other Operating systems such as UNIX and BSD are designed for
and often run on servers.

Figure 22 - OS Market share

For the most part, an application written for one operating system cannot be
executed on another. Therefore a windows application (such as Winzip)
cannot be installed on Linux or Mac OS. Some applications are cross
platform, meaning they can be run on several of these operating systems,
although you do need the correct installer for your operating system. This is
the case for most common internet browsers (such as firefox, chrome, and
opera) and some audio/video players (such as VLC and Mplayer).

Different Operating Systems also use different file systems (the method of
storing data on a hard disk) so data stored by one operating system is often
unreadable by another operating system. It is as if different operating
systems use different "languages" to speak to the hard drive. However,
certain third party software can allow interoperability between different file
systems acting as "interpreters". Modern Windows versions use NTFS,
modern Mac OS versions use HFS+, and modern Linux versions use Ext 4.

Table 13 - File System Comparisons

OS Windows Mac Linux

File FAT 32 ( 4GB HFS Ext 2, cannot easily recover
System max file size) HFS from errors without file
NTFS (Windows + system check
NT and newer) Ext 3, can easily recover
from errors
Ext 4, improved Ext 3

3.3 Common Operating Systems

3.3.1 – Microsoft Family

Microsoft Windows is by far the most common desktop operating system in

use today. Microsoft Corporation was founded by Bill Gates, who designed
early Microsoft products. Microsoft and its early disk operating system
(DOS) was able to win out over competing operating systems such as IBM’s
OS/2, despite being a very small and new company.
 Figure 23 - Microsoft Disk Operating System (DOS)

The Microsoft operating system family began with an operating system

named MS-DOS (disk operating system). MS-DOS uses a command line
interface (CLI), meaning that all functions of the operating system are
achieved by typing in commands to a text only interface. The default
interface has no images, only text.

Windows 3.1 came with a graphical user interface (GUI) like we are
accustomed to today. Windows 3.1 was based on DOS but with added
graphical features. Windows 95 and 98 and Windows ME (millennium
edition) followed Windows 3.1 with the same software base but with
improvements to usability and performance.

Windows NT (New Technology) was Microsoft’s attempt at a new

redesigned operating system. It is no longer based on DOS but a newer high
performance kernel. Because of this, not all legacy (old) applications run
properly on Windows NT based systems. Windows NT is the basis for all
subsequent operating systems including Windows 2000, Windows XP,
Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows 8, the most recent Microsoft
Operating System.

Windows is known for its near domination of the industry, everywhere one
goes you see Microsoft Windows. And because of this widespread use
Microsoft Windows has excellent hardware support and many applications
have been written for it.

3.3.2 – Apple Family

The Apple Macintosh Operating System (Mac OS) is designed by Apple Inc.
Mac OS can only be run on specific Apple branded hardware. That is to say
that a machine which was not built by Apple cannot run Mac OS.

Figure 24 - Mac OS X

Apple Inc. has used several computer architectures over the years, each
switch eliminated software compatibility with older software, although
emulation was used to provide some software compatibility at reduced
performance. Early Macs such as the Apple II used a Motorola based
microprocessor, second generation Macs, such as Power Macs, used IBM
Power PC processors, and current third generation Macs use Intel x86
processors which are the same as the processors found in most PCs.

Similar to Microsoft Windows, Mac OS has underwent great changes. Early

versions of Mac OS (before version 10) were based on a custom Apple
design. The current versions of Mac OS (Mac OS X – the X is for 10) are
based on BSD (a type of UNIX), which again broke software compatibility
with legacy applications. There are currently 8 versions of Mac OS X, 10.0 –
10.8. The versions Mac OS X are named after "big cats" with names such as
Puma, Cheetah, Tiger, and Lion.

Apple is less afraid to break software compatibility with legacy applications

than Microsoft, thinking that this is a sacrifice which has to be made to
improve the user experience. These drastic changes often come with great
rewards. Because Apple computers (hardware) come directly from Apple,
their hardware library is smaller and very controlled. This allows great ease
of configuration, because there are only a handful of different hardware
configurations unlike what is seen with Windows or Linux computers.

OS X is known for its ease of use and intuitive interface. For example it
utilizes intuitive features such as hand gestures to improve the user
experience and it uses a streamlined system for application installation,
where an installation file is simply dragged into the application folder to
install it. It has less software compatibility than Windows but also is more
protected from viruses by its design and because of its smaller market share.

3.3.3 – UNIX / UNIX-like family

Linux is a free operating system created by Linus Torvalds as an alternative

to UNIX, an operating system used mostly on servers. Because it was
designed as an alternative to UNIX, it is known as a UNIX-like operating
system. It can be used at no cost (gratis) and also its code is open to analysis
and editing by anyone. It is often very good at running on older outdated
hardware because it uses less computer memory than Windows or OS X.
Linux is also much more adaptable and flexible then Windows or OS X,
allowing the user to change almost anything and choose whatever software
they would like. Unlike Windows or OS X, the options for how the user
wants to interact with their computer are almost limitless.
 Figure 25 - Ubuntu Linux Operating System

Unlike Windows or Mac OS, there is not one provider of Linux. Instead
there are many different organizations which create different “distributions”
of Linux. All of these distributions can run the same applications.
Differences between these distributions can range from package
management systems (how to install applications) to different graphical user
interfaces. Popular distributions include Ubuntu, Fedora, SUSE, and Debian.
They can all be downloaded and installed for free, so if you are interested
please give Linux a try.

Many Linux distributions have a package management system, which allows

programs to be installed at a click of the button directly from the internet.
This one system can manage, organize, and update all of the currently
installed applications. This way, installation files are rarely needed and
installations are quick and painless.

Linux is also known for its stability and security. Because of its design, it is
less prone to viruses, and because of its small market share very few viruses
are written for Linux. Linux is also often used for servers, such as web
servers, because of its stability, security, and adaptability. Linux machines
are known for their ability to run for years without requiring rebooting, a
feature very important on enterprise servers.
3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Operating Systems

Below is a chart summarizing some advantages and disadvantages of

different operating systems. These are generalizations made by the author
and here are many more differences which are not covered in this chart. You
should try them all and make your own list!
Table 14 - Advantages / Disadvantages of OS

Windows GNU/Linux Macintosh

Advantages Large user Price (free) Simple and
base Package intuitive interface
Large management Not a target for
software library Stability viruses
Backwards Security Easy program
compatibility installations
Excellent Configurability
Hardware Easy second
support OS

Disadvantages Malware / Can be Costly hardware

Viruses complicated Less
Price Less hardware hardware/software
Instability / software support support
Proprietary
hardware

3.5 Installation of Operating Systems

Operating systems are commonly distributed on optical discs (CDs, DVDs),
but they are beginning to be distributed on flash drives or as online installers
through your current operating system. When an operating system is
installed on a hard drive partition all data on that partition is lost. Therefore
when installing an operating system, it is important to back up all the data on
the disk beforehand.
To install an operating system you must first boot to the installation medium.
This may be as simple as inserting the disk in the CD/DVD drive and
rebooting the computer. However, if this does not work you may have to
change the boot order. Changing the boot order requires accessing the BIOS
(Basic Input/Output System). This is done by pressing delete, F1, F2, F12, or
another key while the system is booting. Often there is a message during the
booting process telling which button to press, such as “Press F10 to enter
setup.”
Once you have entered the setup, you need to search for the boot tab. On this
tab you will find a setting for the boot order. Unfortunately the BIOS setup
on all machines is not the same, although they are all similar. The boot order
tab determines in which order devices are allowed to boot.
When installing an operating system, the CD-ROM drive or USB should be
first in the order, followed by the hard drive. This way, the CD-ROM drive
or USB key used for the installation will be checked before the hard drive. If
a bootable CD or USB key is found, the system can boot from it. If nothing
is found, it will load the OS from the hard drive. If you do not change the
order, the computer will try to load from the hard drive without checking to
see if it can boot from the USB key or CD-ROM drive, so you will not get a
chance to start the installer.
 Figure 26 - BIOS Boot order menu

Installations for different operating systems vary, although they have many
common features. It is necessary to choose the location for the OS to be
installed, and to partition (divide) the hard drive accordingly. This can be
done automatically by the installer, which often results in using the entire
disk in one partition. Following this method you would destroy any existing
data on the hard drive.
A more advanced method of installing an operating system involves using
two disk partitions. When using this method, you create two logical drives
on your one physical hard drive. That is to say you can have a C: and a D:
drive on the same physical hard drive by allocating a certain amount of
space to one and the remainder to another.
By using one partition solely for the operating system, data can safely be
stored on the other. If the operating system becomes corrupt, one can
reinstall the OS only, destroying data on the first partition while keeping all
data intact on the second partition.
3.5.1 Installing multiple operating systems
More than one operating system can be installed on a computer; however
only one operating system may be running at the same time. To install
multiple operating systems at least two partitions must be created on the
disk, one for each OS. As stated before, Mac OS can only run on Apple
branded computers, so unless the computer is an Apple Mac, you are limited
to Windows and Linux.
This method can be used to install Windows and Linux together, multiple
Windows versions, or multiple Linux distributions.
The order of installation is important, as it can avoid problems with the boot
loader. The boot loader is a piece of software that selects which operating
system will be loaded. When installing multiple Windows operating systems
they should be installed in order of oldest to newest. This is because newer
versions of Windows can recognize older versions and update the boot
loader accordingly, but older ones cannot.
When installing both Windows and Linux, its best to install Windows first.
This is because Windows cannot recognize Linux partitions, whereas Linux
will find any Microsoft operating systems and update the boot loader
accordingly. Windows does not recognize Linux partitions by default, so
more work is required to edit the Windows boot loader to recognize Linux
partitions.
To dual boot, simply install the operating systems to different partitions. It is
important to partition your hard drive accordingly when installing the first
OS (leaving space for the second OS), so that it will not be necessary to
repartition the disk after installing the first time.
Below is an image of the GRUB boot loader, used by many Linux
distributions. You can see options to boot Ubuntu (a Linux distribution), or
Windows XP.
 Figure 27 - A boot loader with multiple OS selections

3.6 – Computer Software

Applications are a sequence of instructions written to perform a specified
function on a computer. Examples of computer applications are Microsoft
Word and Internet Explorer. Microsoft Word is used to type documents, and
Internet Explorer is used to browse the Internet.
There are two main categories of computer software, system software and
application software.
System software is the operating system which manages computer
hardware and allows the execution of application software. Utilities are
also considered system software, as they help manage the computer.
These programs help to configure the OS. Examples of system software
includes antivirus applications and automated backup applications.
Application software is all other software on the computer. This
includes software for word processing, audio/video playback, scientific
programs, internet browsers, programming software, video games, etc.
3.7 – Software Trends
Software is growing more and more parallel in nature, taking advantage of
modern multi-core microprocessors
Operating Systems are working off the strengths of their competitors,
choosing the best features and incorporating them into their design. For
example Microsoft Windows is changing its security approach to take
advantage of the more secure architecture used by OS X and Linux.
Windows and Linux are incorporating Exposé-like graphical features found
in OS X into their own desktops. OS X has adopted multiple workspaces as
has been commonplace in Linux for years.
Many different hardware platforms are being supported by modern software
through cross platform programing. This is because of the trend towards
and growing importance of low power devices, which often use different
underlying hardware than normal PCs.
The cloud or internet storage is quickly becoming a more and more
important part of computer software. Most software now has some online
component allowing users to sync data, store data online to access anywhere,
or share with their friends. Because of the many conveniences offered by
these services and the proliferation of high speed internet connections in the
developed world, they are really taking off. However, due to the severe
bandwidth restrictions and high cost of internet, these services are not
feasible in some parts of the world.
Section 4: Software Troubleshooting for Microsoft
Windows
4.1 – Software Troubleshooting
Software troubleshooting is the process of identifying and solving problems
with computer software. This involves using many types of utilities designed
to aid in software maintenance, such as antivirus software, anti-malware
software, firewalls, and performance tune-up software.
Because most desktop and laptop computers run Microsoft Windows, this
section will only cover software troubleshooting and maintenance for this
operating system
4.2 – Common software problems
Often Windows computers begin to slow down with age and use. Common
problems include general slowdown, and unresponsiveness. The machine
could take minutes to boot to desktop or minutes to launch a simple program
such as Microsoft Word. Other common problems include the infestation of
malicious software such as viruses, malware, or adware. These can manifest
themselves by popup ads, strange messages, or general erratic behavior.
Other aspects of software troubleshooting have to do with the inability of the
operating system to boot properly, or for various hardware resources to be
nonfunctional.
4.4 – Software troubleshooting good practices
When managing a computer system, there are several activities that can
drastically reduce the need for software maintenance. These include
installing antivirus/antimalware software, disabling startup items, using ad
blocking, etc.
4.4.1 - Antivirus/Antimalware software
Antivirus and antimalware software is installed on a computer to detect and
remove malicious software from a computer.
The term "computer virus" is often used as a catch-all phrase to include all
types of malware, which is software which performs some unwanted
function on the computer, such as compromising a system’s data or
performance.
There are many types of malware such as computer worms, Trojan horses,
root kits, spyware, adware and other malicious and unwanted software,
including true viruses. In general these programs perform an unwanted
action on your computer, from compromising your data security to using
your computer for cybercrime.

Figure 28 - Common types of Malware

Antivirus software should always be the first thing installed after the
operating system and then kept up to date using automatic updates.
There are many free antivirus programs, such as AVG, Avira, Avast,
Clamwin, Comodo, Microsoft Security Essentials, and more. You can also
purchase commercial products such as Norton 360 and McAffe Total
Protection which may suit your needs.
All of these products have various strengths and weaknesses and you should
try multiple to see which one works best for you. For example, Microsoft
Security Essentials is installed by default on Windows 8 and you may like its
easy integration with Windows. On the other hand, maybe you like the free
and open source nature of Clamwin. Or perhaps you have a free trial of
McAffe and want to give it a try.
For extra protection a specialized tool such as Malware Bytes (a malware
detection program) should be used. Scans with this software should be run
regularly to ensure that the system is virus and malware free.
Antivirus and Antimalware should be used in conjunction with one another.
Antimalware is not a replacement for antivirus, but an addition to it.
4.4.2 - System Cleanup Software
Disk Cleanup is used to remove old unused files from a computer. This can
free up hard drive space for other uses and increase performance.
Note: When using System Cleanup you are permanently deleting
information on your hard drive. Make sure you don't delete something you
need!
Windows comes with basic cleanup program that can be accessed by going
to Start Menu  Accessories  System Tools  Disk Cleanup.
Once you have opened Disk Cleanup, select the files you would like to
delete and press OK to free up the hard drive space.

Figure 29 - Disk Cleanup

Another third party software package offering more advanced features is
called CCleaner. This software can clean up even more temporary files and
other unneeded data than the Windows Disk Cleanup tool. There is a free
version available on their product website.
4.4.3 – Hard Drive Defragmenting
Mechanical hard drives store data on rotating magnetic platters. When data
is written to the hard disk, it is best that the data is placed sequentially,
where all of the data is placed together. Sometimes however, data is written
to several parts of this disk, instead of in one big chunk, which slows down
reading and writing of this data. Disk defragmentation helps solve this
problem by consolidating files on the disc, pulling together the fragments
into one complete piece.

Figure 30 - Disk Defragmenter

To access the disk defragmentation tool in windows, click on Start Menu 

Accessories  System Tools  Disk Defragmenter. Choose the drive you
would like to defragment and choose Optimize to begin the defragmentation.
4.4.4 – Disabling boot up items
One cause of poor computer performance is having too many running
applications. When applications are running in the background, they are
using computer memory even when they are not currently in use.
When many computer programs are installed, they are set to be loaded into
memory as the computer powers on. This can be good if you use the
program often, but bad if the program is rarely used. By disabling certain
boot items, you can free up memory and thus increase performance.
To disable start up programs, click on Start Menu  Run and enter
MSCONFIG into the run dialog box. Once the window opens, go to the
startup tab. Here are all the applications that are loaded when Windows
starts. You can disable them one by one, or press the disable all button and
then choose only those applications you want to load on startup.

Figure 31 - MSCONFIG startup utility

You can also use the services tab to disable startup services. To do this, click
on the services tab and choose “hide all Microsoft services.” Disabling
Microsoft services could render the machine unusable. The services that
remain can be disabled one by one, or one can press the disable all button
and choose the services which will remain.
 Figure 32 - MSCONFIG Services

Using the MSCONFIG utility can greatly increase performance on

computers with little memory and should be a part of any technician’s tools.
4.4.5 - Firewalls
If your computer in question is going to be connected to the internet a
software firewall should be used. A firewall is used to secure a computer
connected to the internet by controlling which network traffic is allowed in
and out. It analyzes data packets and based on a rule set and determines if it
should be allowed through or not. This can protect your computer by
denying access to potentially harmful computers on the internet.
For some applications firewall rules must be defined allowing access in or
out, circumventing the default rules which are set up for maximum
protection. For example, to host a web server on your computer you would
have to allow computers on the internet to connect to your web server. By
default this is not allowed to maximize protection. Firewall rules can be
altered to meet your needs, although the specifics of how to do this vary
from firewall to firewall, and are outside the scope of this book.
Since Windows XP Service Pack 2 (SP2) there has been a firewall installed
by default. Commercial firewall alternatives are also available, which you
may find offer more control. Again, choose the product which is best for
you.
4.4.6 - Ad Blocking
Sometimes internet advertisements seen on websites can be annoying.
Flashing ads and popups can really get in your way when you are trying to
do research on the internet. Luckily there are ways to block these ads if they
are causing a problem.
For Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome browsers, there is a simple ad
blocking add-on named Adblock. Adblock simply leaves blank areas where
ads are used to be on websites. It is very easy to install and is under a
megabyte in size. Simply search for the Firefox “add-on” or the Chrome
“extension” in Google and click a button to install.
For system wide protection, the HOSTS file can be modified. This file is
used to map IP addresses to domain names, but can be used for ad blocking.
By replacing the HOSTS file with one containing the IP addresses of many
ad sites, these websites can be blocked entirely, preventing any data being
transferred from these sources.
There are many sources for these HOSTS files, do a quick Google search for
"ad block hosts" and you should see some results. For this example I use a
script located here: http://winhelp2002.mvps.org/hosts.htm.
To install the HOSTS file, unzip the package and double click on the
mvps.bat file. In windows 7 and Vista, it is necessary to run the program as
administer, by right clicking on the mvps.bat file and choosing “run as
administrator”. Below is an image of a successfully updated HOSTS file.
 Figure 33 - Updating the HOSTS file

Using ad blocking software can give you cleaner web pages and lower
bandwidth usage on your computer, but remember that many web sites
depend on ad revenue for funding. You should decide what amount of ad
blocking is right for you.
4.4.7 – Advanced performance options
Windows performance can be fine-tuned using the advanced performance
options found in the control panel. To access advanced performance options,
first open system properties. To do this, enter the control panel and double
click on the system icon. This will show the system properties box. To
change the performance options, click on the tab named advanced.
Here is where performance settings can be altered. The first tab called visual
effects allows choosing between best appearance and best performance. If
the machine is slow and unresponsive, adjusting for best performance can
help improve performance.
 Figure 34 - System Properties (left) Performance Options (right)

The advanced tab allows for changing the size of the page file. To change
these settings, click on the advanced tab and then choose the change… box
under virtual memory.
Normally this should not be altered unless you have a computer with very
little memory (less than 512 MB), where altering this setting could increase
performance.

Figure 35 - Adjusting the size of the virtual memory

The page file is the name Microsoft uses for virtual memory, which is hard
drive space used as computer memory. By default windows uses an
adjustable paging file. This means the size can change during usage of the
computer.
When the page file changes sizes, performance can suffer due to
fragmentation. To alter this, it is best to create a static page file by setting the
initial size and maximum size to the same level.
(Initial size = maximum size)
Normally the page file should be 1.5 to 2 times the amount of system
memory. However, if you have little system memory, for example less than
512 MB try to create a page file at least 1024 MB in size.
4.4.7 – Other general advice
In general the operating system updates should be installed and kept up
to date.
If the machine is used to store any important data, backups should be
made regularly to ensure no data is lost in case of hardware or software
problems.
When making backup, back up data to many sources. For example make
backups to an external hard drive and a cloud storage service.
The computer should be scanned regularly for viruses and malware,
and the virus definitions should be updated regularly as well.
Disc clean up should be performed periodically to free up disk space and
improve performance.
The hard drive should be defragmented regularly to improve hard disk
performance. This is less important in modern versions of Windows.
Since Windows Vista your computer will automatically defragment your
hard disks for you.
 Section 5: Computer Networking
5.1 – Computer Networking Basics
A computer network is collection of computers connected to one another.
When computers are networked together it allows for sharing of information
and resources among these devices. The internet is also a network; It is a
collection of other networks, that is to say it is a network of networks.
Networks are very important to computing as a computer with access to the
resources of other computers is much more useful than a computer on its
own.
5.2 – Computer Network Topologies
A network topology is the physical method used for connecting computers
together. There are four main types of network topologies, star, ring, bus,
and mesh networks.

Figure 36 - Network Topologies

A star network is by far the most common today. It is very rare to see other
types of networks outside of obsolete hardware or enterprise environments.
A star network functions by having each machine connect to one centralized
point on the network. This centralized point can be a hub or a switch.
Modern Ethernet networks are based on star topologies. The cost of this
network is low and a break in a cable will only compromise one machine.
However, there is one centralized point of failure. If the hub/switch is
compromised, the entire network will cease to function.
In a ring network, each computer is connected to its two neighbors, forming
a circle with all the machines. Because each computer is connected to the
next, a fault (break) anywhere in the cable will usually cause the entire
network to fail. However some ring networks are able to detect faults and
continue working by passing information in the opposite direction.
A bus network simply uses one backbone cable to connect all machines
together. This means that the communication medium is shared, because all
the machines have only one wire on which to communicate. This can cause
many problems when many computers want to use the network at the same
time. When many computers attempt to transmit at the same time, collisions
can occur which prevents that data from being read. If the bus cable is
compromised in a bus network the entire network will fail. In old Ethernet
networks the two ends of the Bus cable require terminators installed.
Without these on the two ends the network will not function.
A mesh network is formed when each computer in the network has a direct
connection to each other computer. This allows for great speed of
communication between the machines, but also requires much more
hardware. This is the most expensive type of network, but for machines
which will be communicating regularly (such as servers) it is the fastest and
the most fault tolerant.
Table 15 - Network Topology Comparison

Number of Uses Point of failure

wires
Star N Most home/office networks Hub/switch
Ring N Older obsolete networks, fiber Any computer
optics
Bus n+1 Older obsolete networks Backbone cable
Mesh n(n - 1) / 2. Military applications, Almost
datacenters, servers impossible

5.3 – Networking Devices

In a common star network, there are three main devices in use. These are the
hub (now obsolete), the switch, and the router.
Both hubs and switches are used to connect computers together in a star
network. Hubs are an older form of technology. They work by directly
connecting all of the machines together. That is to say a hub in actuality
creates a bus network internally because all the machines are directly
connected and share the same medium for communication.
If two machines try to use the network at the same time, there will be a
collision. The collision will make all the data on the line unreadable and thus
useless. The computers will then wait a random amount of time before
sending again, hoping to avoid more collisions. Collisions can bring a
network to its knees when many machines are sharing the same medium.
With a small network of three computers, the odds that any two would like
to speak at the same time are not high. However, if you have 32 computers
on a hub, the likelihood of collisions is much higher.
Therefore, hubs should not be used in large networks, or where performance
is needed. Hubs are much cheaper than switches because they use very
simple hardware. They come in two types, powered and non-powered.
Powered hubs boost the signal of all incoming and outgoing data. Non-
powered hubs do not, and are thus cheaper.

Figure 37 - Ethernet Switch

Switches are a more advanced form of networking technology. When one

computer wants to speak to another on a switch, the switch will create a
direct connection between the two machines. The switch is smart enough to
understand the destination and will create a direct connection so that there
can be no collisions. This way, many machines may be transmitting at the
same time without any problems. Switches have mostly replaced hubs as
their prices have fallen sharply to be very affordable. When using large
networks or where performance is needed, a switch should be used.
A router is a device which sends data between networks. It is used to
connect networks together. Routers are often intelligent enough to determine
the best routes through communicating with its neighbors.
A router finds the correct path for any information traveling on the network
much like how a postman delivers a letter.
First the router reads the packet headers (the address line) to determine the
destination address. Next the router determines the best route (by looking at
a list of rules) and forwards the data to the next network on the way to the
destination. The next router determines the next step to get the packet one
step closer to its destination. This process continues until the packet arrives
at its destination.

Figure 38 - An example Computer Network

For example, in the network above, a computer connected to router 3 who

wishes to speak with a computer on router 1 would know the best route was
through router 2. It would also know the best route to router 4 was direct and
not through router 2. The router makes these decisions based on a routing
table. This table can be entered manually by an administrator, or can be
learned through routing protocols.
5.4 – Wired vs. Wireless networks
Modern networks often use a combination of these two networking types.
Wired Ethernet networks are used where reliability and speed is very
important. In general, wired networks are fuss free and simply work. They
also have higher transmitting speeds than their wireless counterparts. Most
computers come with integrated Ethernet cards, so the price of installing a
wired network is low, simply the cost of cables and a switch.
10 Mbps 100 Mbps - Fast 1 Gbps - Gigabit
Ethernet Ethernet
Uses 4 of 8 wires in Uses 4 of 8 wires in a Uses all 8 wires in a
a category 5 cable category 5 cable category 5 cable
Backwards compatible Backwards compatible
with 10 Mbps devices with 10 and 100 Mbps
devices
Figure 39 - Ethernet Standards

802.11 wireless networks are used where portability is needed. For example,
education inspectors who go in to the office or out into the field would
benefit from a wireless network. When the inspectors are in the field, they
can bring their work laptops to take notes. When they return to the office,
they can use the wireless network to work and share files. This way the same
computer can be used for tasks in the office and in the field, without having
to worry about wires.
Wireless networks can have problems with reception due to environmental
obstacles (walls, doors, rain, etc.) and other electronic devices (wireless
phones, microwaves). These problems can cause wireless networks to
sometimes not function as reliably as wired networks. Even in the best case
scenario wireless networks are slower than their wired counterparts. The cost
is often higher as well, as laptops are more expensive than desktops and
most desktops do not come with wireless cards installed by default.
Therefore both a wireless card and wireless access point are needed.
802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 802.11n
Bandwidth 54 11 54 150
Mbps Mbps Mbps Mbps
Frequency 5 GHz 2.4 GHz
 Figure 40 - Common 802.11 Wireless Standards

5.5 – Ethernet Cable Wiring

Ethernet networks use Category 5 cables, sometimes written as Cat V. These
cables contain 8 wires, twisted together in four pairs. For this reason, Cat V
is referred to as a twisted pair cable. Category 5 and Category 6 are very
similar cables and are interchangeable. Category 6 cables are the newest and
are used for gigabit Ethernet connections.
Ethernet cables come in two varieties, shielded twisted pair (STP) and
unshielded twisted pair (UTP). Shielded cables have a layer of tin foil inside
of the cables. This helps reduce EMF (electromagnetic force) interference.
Other electrical devices such as radios, florescent lights, cell phones,
electrical machines, other networking equipment can create interference
which can damage the integrity of data transmitted across the cable. Where
no such problem exists, UTP can be used.

The connectors used on Ethernet cables are called RJ-45 connectors. These
are normally clear plastic, have 8 pins, and small tab of plastic on top for
snapping into an Ethernet card. For shielded cables, the connectors are made
of metal to allow for electrical grounding.
 Figure 41 - Ethernet Cable with RJ-45 Connectors

There are two main types of Ethernet cables, straight through cables and
crossover cables. straight through, also known as patch cables, are used for
connecting a machine to a switch or hub. Crossover cables are used to
connect two computers or switches together directly. Straight through cables
are generally used unless you are directly connecting two devices together.
Standard Ethernet cables have orange, green, blue, and brown wires. Half of
these are striped with white leaving you with orange/white, orange,
green/white, green, blue/white, blue, brown/white brown, and brown wires.
To create a normal straight through or crossover cable, the colored wires are
arranged in the order shown in the images below.
 Figure 42 - Ethernet Cable Wiring

To make your own Ethernet cable, you need a crimping tool like the one
showed below. This tool helps you strip category 5 cable, and firmly attaches
the RJ-45 connector to the cable once the wires have been arranged
correctly.

Figure 43 - An Ethernet Crimper Tool

5.6 – Network Addressing

When computers want to communicate with one another, they must have a
way to refer to each other. Just as humans use names to address one another,
computers use addresses.
In Ethernet networks, all Ethernet cards use Media Access Control (MAC)
addresses. MAC addresses are 48 bits long and are unique to every Ethernet
card. These are usually written as 6 pairs of hexadecimal numbers, for
example 60-4E-9A-16-2C-11.
When computers communicate on a local network, they refer to one another
by their MAC addresses. For example when computer A wants to send data
to computer B which is on the same switch, computer A sends its MAC
address as the sender and sends computer B’s MAC address as the recipient.
The switch will then send the data to the correct computer. These addresses
are known as level 2 addresses.
IP (internet protocol) addresses are another method for addressing
computers on a network. Unlike MAC addresses, these addresses are used
on the internet to determine routes to and from different computers. Routers
make decisions where to send data based on the destination and source IP
address.
IPv4 addresses are read as 4 numbers separated by periods. An example IP
address is 192.168.0.1. Each number can be between 0 and 255, because
each field is 8 bits long (28 = 256).
IP addresses are used to refer to computers both on the local network and on
the internet. They allow the routing of data between hosts. There are two
versions of IP addresses in use today, IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 uses 32 bit
addresses, creating a total of 4.29 billion addresses. Because there are so
many computers in use today the world has almost run out of IPv4
addresses. IPv6 offers a solution to this problem. Unlike IPv4 it uses 128 bit
addresses, which is allows for a very large number of addresses. IPv6 is still
new and not extensively deployed at this time, but it is increasing in use as
time goes on.
Certain address ranges are reserved for private use. This way each internal
network can reuse certain IP addresses without using an IP used for the
public internet. Each computer on the public internet must use a unique IP
address. Computers on a local network do not need to have globally unique
IP addresses; only locally unique ones.
Private IP Range Uses
127.x.x.x Loopback Address (this allows a computer to speak
with itself)
192.168.x.x Local Use
10.x.x.x Local Use
172.16.0.0 – Local Use
172.31.255.255
Figure 44 - Special IP Ranges

To connect many computers to the internet only one public internet address
is needed for the internet connection. All other machines can use private IP
addresses to conserve the total number of IP addresses available. One public
IP address can be shared to many computers by using NAT (network
address translation) and is done commonly in most home/office routers.

Figure 45 - Network Address Translation

Above is an example of Network Address Translation. One public internet

address is used by several computers behind a router. The machines in the
local network are using local addresses to conserve to total number of IP
addresses available.
5.7 – Assigning IP Addresses Manually
The method for setting the IP address assigned to a network adapter varies
slightly between different versions of windows. Below is a guide to
changing the IP address in Windows 7 and 8.
By default network adapters in Windows are set as DHCP clients. Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) automatically assigns IP addresses
to client computers from a DHCP server, usually a broadband router in a
home network.
To manually edit the IP address assigned to a network adapter, first open the
control panel and choose network connections. Next, right click on the
network connection you would like to edit and choose properties.
On the next window choose IPv4 and click properties, then click “use the
following IP address” and enter the IP address and default gateway desired.
The subnet mask will be filled in automatically.
The default gateway is the IP address of your router which has access to the
internet. This is the path that your computer takes to access the internet.
The subnet mask is used to create sub networks, and is outside the scope of
this book. In most cases the default value filled in by windows will suffice.
You can also choose to set Domain Name System (DNS) servers manually.
These servers translate the domain names we know such as "google.com" or
"apple.com" to the IP addresses that computers understand. In this example I
am using 8.8.8.8, Google’s open DNS service.
 Figure 46 - Network Connections

Figure 47 - Network Adapter Properties (left) and IPv4 Properties (Right)

5.8 – Checking and Testing Your Network Connection

To see your current IP settings, open a command prompt by clicking on
Start  Run which will open a small run dialog box. Next type "cmd" into
this box and press enter. This will open a black command prompt window.
Next type the command "ipconfig" and press enter to view to current IP
configuration settings. For example in the image below the Ethernet adapter
has the IP address 192.168.3.11, a subnet mask 255.255.255.0, and a default
gateway of 192.168.3.1.

Figure 48 - IP Configuration Utility

To test network connectivity open a command prompt using the above

method and use the "ping" command. To test internet access, try pinging
google.com or another website you know to be working. Do this by typing
the command "ping google.com" and pressing enter.
If you receive a reply message like the one shown below, "Reply from
74.125.43.147," then you know the internet connection is functioning.
Otherwise you will see a message stating "request timed out" or "destination
host unreachable" both which indicate a problem with the network
connection which could be caused by incorrect addressing or even a bad
cable.
 Figure 49 - Ping Network Connectivity Test

5.9 – The OSI Model - A brief introduction

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a model used by computer network
professionals to understand how computer networks function. It divides the functionality of a network
into different layers, each with their own function.
This is only a brief introduction to a very complicated and exciting subject, look to other sources for
more information.
The lowest layer (layer one) of the model is called the physical layer, which relates to the physical
connections used to interconnect computers, for example Category 5 cables and Ethernet cards. This is
referring to actual bits being passed over a while being represented as high and low voltages.
The second layer is the data link layer, this layer involves physical addressing, such as MAC addresses
in Ethernet networks. This is how computers communicate over their local networks.
The third layer is the Network layer, which uses IP addresses to determine routing paths. This is how
computers communicate between networks and over the internet.
The fourth layer is the transport layer, which uses protocols such as TCP and UDP to ensure
connections are established from end to end.
The last 3 layers (session, presentation, and application) deal with authentication, encryption, and the
final applications you use, such as HTTP for web browsing or FTP for transferring files.
5.10 – Application Layer Protocols
Protocols at the application layer are used for a variety of common tasks on
the internet. This layer is seen and interacted with directly by the user. These
include the protocols used for transmitting web pages and data, protocols
used for file sharing, protocols for looking up websites and giving
commands to remote computer.
Below are examples of some popular application layer protocols in use
today.
Protocol Uses
DNS (Domain DNS is used to translate host names used by people
Name System) (www.google.com) to IP addresses used by
computers (74.125.230.80)
DHCP ( Dynamic DHCP is used to automatically assign computers IP
Host Configuration addresses. This allows for easier network
Protocol) configuration, as each machine does not need to be
assigned an IP address manually.
FTP (File Transport FTP is used to transmit files over the internet.
Protocol)
HTTP (Hypertext HTTP is used to transmit web sites over the
Transfer Protocol) internet.
SSH (Secure Shell) SSH allows terminal (command line) access to a
Unix like system remotely.
SMTP (Simple Mail SMTP is used for transmitting email over the
Transport Protocol) internet.
Gnutella / Bittorent These are examples of peer to peer file sharing
protocols, which allow users to share files on the
internet.
SMB (Server SMB is used by Windows computers for file, folder,
Message Block) and printer sharing.

5.11 – File folder and printer sharing

In networks of Windows computers sharing files and folders is simple and
can be incredibly useful. For example, storing one copy of an installer
application on a server can allow easy installation on all the other machines
through the network. This can save time and avoids the hassle of moving a
CD or USB flash drive around.
To share files in windows, simply navigate to the folder to be shared and
right-click on the folder and select properties. Next navigate to the sharing
tab and press the share button. Here you can choose who to share the file
with. If the file is for use by everyone, select “Everyone” and click add. The
permissions can be changed here as well. By default the users can read the
files but not edit them. To allow other users to edit, modify, and delete
files/folders, choose read/write permissions.
 Figure 50 - Sharing a folder

Figure 51 - Sharing permissions

To access the shared files from another computer, simply open an explorer
window and choose network. Here you will see the names of all the
machines on the network. Choose the computer you wish to connect to, and
double click. Here you will find a listing of all the files and folders shared to
the user. You can copy these files to your computer or even execute these
files over the network if need be.
There are some caveats with Windows file sharing. For example, older
versions of windows may have trouble connecting to newer versions, such as
a Windows XP machine attempting to connect to a Windows 7 shared folder.
Often, the permissions just need to be tweaked to allow access from these
systems.
5.9 – Internet sharing
Sometimes you do not have access to a router but need to share your internet
connection to multiple computers. For example when you are using your
tethered mobile phone to access the internet the go and you want many
computers to be able to access it.
To share a network connection in windows, open network connections from
the control panel. Right click on the connection to be shared and choose
properties and select the sharing tab. To share the connection, select “allow
other computers to connect through this computers internet connection.” The
local interface also needs to be selected, normally the Ethernet or 802.11
adapter in the computer. This will share the internet connection from your
phone to your 802.11 or Ethernet connection.
To connect to the internet with other machines, simply connect all the
computers to the local network. The other machines should be assigned an IP
address automatically (because your computer is now acting as a DHCP
server) and they will use your computer as their default route to the internet.

Figure 52 - Internet Connection Sharing

 Conclusion
Over the course of this book we have studied computer hardware
components and software systems, hardware and software troubleshooting,
and computer networking.
You should now have a good idea about the components that make up a
computer and how they interact with one another. You should have an
understanding of the common operating systems and the applications that
run on them. You should be familiar with common computer hardware and
software problems and their solutions, but most importantly you should
understand the procedure used in computer troubleshooting.
From what you have learned from this book you should now have the skills
to find the answer to any troubleshooting problem you might face, not only
those listed in this book. Remember when troubleshooting a problem you
must first define it, perform research, and apply the process of elimination
to localize the problem.
Good luck,
Peter Paskowsky

OceanofPDF.com