GAS DETECTOR:

A Gas detector also called a smoke alarm is a device that detects smoke, typically as an indicator
of fire. Commercial, industrial, and mass residential devices issue a signal to a fire alarm system,
while household detectors, known as smoke alarms, generally issue a local audible or visual
alarm from the detector itself.
Gas detectors are typically housed in a disk-shaped plastic enclosure about 150 millimeters (6 in)
in diameter and 25 millimeters (1 in) thick, but the shape can vary by manufacturer or product
line. Most smoke detectors work either by optical detection (photoelectric) or by physical
process (ionization), while others use both detection methods to increase sensitivity to smoke.
Sensitive alarms can be used to detect, and thus deter, smoking in areas where it is banned such
as toilets and schools. Smoke detectors in large commercial, industrial, and residential buildings
are usually powered by a central fire alarm system, which is powered by the building power with
a battery backup. However, in many single family detached and smaller multiple family
housings, a smoke alarm is often powered only by a single disposable battery.

In the United States, the National Fire Protection Association estimates that nearly two-thirds of
deaths from home fires occur in properties without working smoke alarms/detectors.

Ultrasonic transducer:

Ultrasonic transducers are transducers that convert ultrasound waves

to electrical signals or vice versa. Those that both transmit and receive may
also be called ultrasound transceivers; many ultrasound sensors besides
being sensors are indeed transceivers because they can both sense and trans-
mit. These devices work on a principle similar to that of transducers used
in radar and sonar systems, which evaluate attributes of a target by interpret-
ing the echoes from radio or sound waves, respectively. Active ultrasonic
 sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is
received back by the sensor, measuring the time interval between sending
the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object. Pas-
sive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise
that is present under certain conditions, convert it to an electrical signal, and
report it to a computer.

IR SENSOR

IR the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic idea is to send infra red
light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any object in front of the sensor.

Then all you have to do is to pick-up the reflected IR light. For detecting the reflected
IR light, we are going to use a very original technique: we are going to use another IR-
LED, to detect the IR light that was emitted from another led of the exact same type. This is an
electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the fact that a led produce a voltage
difference across its leads when it is subjected to light. As if it was a photo-cell, but with much
lower output current. In other words, the voltage generated by the leds can't be - in any way -
used to generate electrical power from light, It can barely be detected. that's why as you will
notice in the schematic, we are going to use a Op-Amp (operational Amplifier) to accurately
detect very small voltage changes.
 The sender is composed of an IR LED (D2) in series with a 470 Ohm resistor, yielding a
forward current of 7.5mA. The receiver part is more complicated, the 2 resistors R5 and R6
form a voltage divider which provides 2.5V at the anode of the IR LED (here, this led will be
used as a sensor). When IR light falls on the LED (D1), the voltage drop increases, the cathode's
voltage of D1 may go as low as 1.4V or more, depending on the light intensity. This voltage drop
can be detected using an Op-Amp (operational Amplifier LM358).
 You will have to adjust the variable resistor (POT.) R8 so the the voltage at the positive
input of the Op-Amp (pin No. 5) would be somewhere near 1.6 Volt. if you understand the
functioning of Op-Amps, you will notice that the output will go High when the volt at the
cathode of D1 drops under 1.6. So the output will be High when IR light is detected, which is the
purpose of the receiver.

If the +ve input's voltage is higher than the -ve input's voltage, the output goes High
(5v, given the supply voltage in the schematic), otherwise, if the +ve input's voltage is lower
than the -ve input's voltage, then the output of the Op-Amp goes to Low (0V). It doesn't
matter how big is the difference between the +ve and -ve inputs, even a 0.0001 volts difference
will be detected, and the the output will swing to 0v or 5v according to which input has a higher
voltage.

FIRE SENSOR

There are several types of flame detector. The optical flame detector is a detector that
uses optical sensors to detect flames. There are also ionization flame detectors, which use current
flow in the flame to detect flame presence, and thermocouple flame detectors.

Infrared Flame Detector

Infrared (IR) flame detectors work within the infrared spectral band. Hot gases emit a specific spectral
pattern in the infrared region, which can be sensed with a thermal imaging camera (TIC) a type of thermo
graphic. False alarms can be caused by other hot surfaces and background thermal radiation in the area as
well as blinding from water and solar energy. A typical frequency where single frequency IR flame

detector is sensitive is in the 4.4 micrometer range. Typical response time is 3-5 seconds.
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR
INTRODUCTION:

An LDR (Light dependent resistor), as its name suggests, offers resistance in response to the
ambient light. The resistance decreases as the intensity of incident light increases, and vice versa.
In the absence of light, LDR exhibits a resistance of the order of mega-ohms which decreases to
few hundred ohms in the presence of light. It can act as a sensor, since a varying voltage drop
can be obtained in accordance with the varying light. It is made up of cadmium sulphide (CdS).
An LDR has a zigzag cadmium sulphide track. It is a bilateral device, i.e., conducts in both
directions in same fashion.

A Light Dependent Resistor (aka LDR, photoconductor, or photocell) is a device which has a resistance
which varies according to the amount of light falling on its surface.
A typical light dependent resistor is pictured above together with (on the right hand side) its circuit
diagram symbol. Different LDR's have different specifications, however the LDR's we sell in the REUK
Shop are fairly standard and have a resistance in total darkness of 1 MOhm, and a resistance of a couple
of kOhm in bright light (10-20kOhm @ 10 lux, 2-4kOhm @ 100 lux).

Uses for Light Dependent Resistors

Light dependent resistors are a vital component in any electric circuit which is to be turned on and off
automatically according to the level of ambient light - for example, solar powered garden lights, and night
security lighting.
An LDR can even be used in a simple remote control circuit using the backlight of a mobile phone to turn
on a device - call the mobile from anywhere in the world, it lights up the LDR, and lighting (or a garden
sprinkler) can be turned on remotely!

Light Dependent Resistor Circuits

There are two basic circuits using light dependent resistors - the first is activated by darkness, the
second is activated by light. The two circuits are very similar and just require an LDR, some
standard resistors, a variable resistor (aka potentiometer), and any small signal transistor
In the circuit diagram above, the LED lights up whenever the LDR is in darkness. The 10K variable
resistor is used to fine-tune the level of darkness required before the LED lights up. The 10K standard
resistor can be changed as required to achieve the desired effect, although any replacement must be at
least 1K to protect the transistor from being damaged by excessive current.

By swapping the LDR over with the 10K and 10K variable resistors (as shown above), the circuit will be
activated instead by light. Whenever sufficient light falls on the LDR (manually fine-tuned using the 10K
variable resistor), the LED will light up.

Using an LDR in the Real World

The circuits shown above are not practically useful. In a real world circuit, the LED (and resistor)
between the positive voltage input (Vin) and the collector (C) of the transistor would be replaced with the
device to be powered.
 Typically a relay is used - particularly when the low voltage light detecting circuit is used to switch on
(or off) a 240V mains powered device. A diagram of that part of the circuit is shown above. When
darkness falls (if the LDR circuit is configured that way around), the relay is triggered and the 240V
device - for example a security light - switches on.

LM35 TEMPERATURE SENSOR

LM35 is a precision IC temperature sensor with its output proportional to the

temperature (in oC). The sensor circuitry is sealed and therefore it is not subjected
to oxidation and other processes. With LM35, temperature can be measured more
accurately than with a thermistor. It also possess low self heating and does not
cause more than 0.1 oC temperature rise in still air.

The operating temperature range is from -55°C to 150°C. The output voltage varies
by 10mV in response to every oC rise/fall in ambient temperature, i.e., its scale
factor is 0.01V/ oC

Pin No Function Name

1 Supply voltage; 5V (+35V to -2V) Vcc

2 Output voltage (+6V to -1V) Output

3 Ground (0V) Ground

FIG: TEMPERATURE SENSOR LM35

TEMPERATURE SENSOR

This project uses IC LM35 as a sensor for detecting accurate centigrade temperature. Linearity defines how well
over a range of temperature a sensor’s output consistently changes. Unlike thermistor, Linearity of a precision IC Sensors
are very good of 0.5°C accuracy and has wide temperature range. its output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius
(Centigrade) temperature.

The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55° to +150°C temperature range.It draws only 60 µA from its supply, it has very
low self-heating, less than 0.1°C in still air. LM35 Operates from 4 to 30 volts.

Output of IC is 10mv/degree centigrade for eg if the output of sensor is 280 mV then temperature is 28 degree C. so by
using a Digital multimeter we can easily calculate the degree temperature. For trigger point you should set the voltage of
pin 2 of IC 741 by using preset or potentiometer.
Our aim of this project is not to construct a thermometer but to activate or deactivate a device at a particular margin
temperature. For simplicity we have used 2 LED for indication of both low (Green) and high (Red) temperature.
 Circuit Diagram of temperature sensor

Working: The output of IC2 increases in proportion to the temperature by 10 mV per degree. This varying voltage is feed
to a comparator IC 741 (OP Amplifier). OP Amplifier are among the most widely used electronic devices today.The op-
amp is one type of differential amplifier. It has two input inverting (-) and non-inverting (+) and one output pin. We have
used IC741 as non-inverting amplifier which means pin 3 is the input and the output is not reversed. This circuit amplifies
the difference between its input terminals.

As a comparator, Bistable output of an op amplifier is as follows :-

Part list:
IC LM35, IC LM741
Resistance: 10K Ohms, 470 Ohms X 2Pcs
Preset or P.O.T of 2K Ohms
LED 2pcs (Red and Green)
9V Battery with Snap
Switch, wire
*By making this Temperature Sensor Project, student will be capable of making many similar project i.e Automatic room
heater controller, determine hotness of Tea or Coffee to avoid burning your tongue,Automatic Fan Controller etc.
PIR SENSOR

More advanced security systems include passive infrared (PIR) motion

detectors. The "motion sensing" feature on most lights (and security systems) is a
passive system that detects infrared energy. These sensors are therefore known as
PIR (passive infrared) detectors or pyro electric sensors. These sensors "see" the
infrared energy emitted by an intruder's body heat. When an intruder walks into the
field of view of the detector, the sensor detects a sharp increase in infrared energy.
In order to make a sensor that can detect a human being, you need
to make the sensor sensitive to the temperature of a human body. Humans, having
a skin temperature of about 93 degrees F, radiate infra red energy with a
wavelength between 9 and 10 micrometers. Therefore, the sensors are typically
sensitive in the range of 8 to 12 micrometers. The devices themselves are simple
electronic components not unlike a photo sensor. The infrared light bumps
electrons off a substrate, and these electrons can be detected and amplified into a
signal.

You have probably noticed that your light is sensitive to motion,

but not to a person who is standing still. That's because the electronics package
attached to the sensor is looking for a fairly rapid change in the amount of
infrared energy it is seeing. When a person walks by, the amount of infrared
energy in the field of view changes rapidly and is easily detected. You do not want
the sensor detecting slower changes, like the sidewalk cooling off at night.

Your motion sensing light has a wide field of view because of the
lens covering the sensor. Infrared energy is a form of light, so you can focus and
bend it with plastic lenses. But it's not like there is a 2-D array of sensors in there.
There is a single (or sometimes two) sensors inside looking for changes in infrared
energy.

If you have a burglar alarm with motion sensors, you may have
noticed that the motion sensors cannot "see" you when you are outside looking
through a window. That is because glass is not very transparent to infrared energy.
This, by the way, is the basis of a greenhouse. Light passes through the glass into
the greenhouse and heats things up inside the greenhouse. The glass is then opaque
to the infrared energy these heated things are emitting, so the heat is trapped inside
the greenhouse. It makes sense that a motion detector sensitive to infrared energy
cannot see through glass windows.

The above figure (top view) illustrates how the PIR sensors
can be used in the home security system. A PIR sensor can be placed at a corner of
the desired room so that it can sense the motion of the intruder.
 Metal Detector:

Metal detectors were first used, after their invention by the Polish officer Józef
Kosacki. Allies used his invention, known as the Polish mine detector, to clear the

German mine fields during the Second Battle of El Alamein when 500 units were
shipped to Field Marshal Montgomery. The "Polish" mine detector was later used
together with the ERA mine-locator for detecting beach mines.

The first step in manual demining is to scan the area with metal detectors, which are
sensitive enough to pick up most mines but which also yield about one thousand
false positives for every mine.[6] Some mines, referred to as minimum metal mines, are

constructed with as little metal as possible - as little as 1 gram (0.035 oz) - to make
them difficult to detect. Mines with no metal at all have been produced, but are
rare. Areas where metal is detected are carefully probed to determine if a mine is
present; the probing must continue until the object that set off the metal detector is
found.
Mercury Sensor

mercury sensor switch

1. General
1-1.Scope: Scope: This specification applies to mercury switch(mercury type) for 220V current circuits,
used in electronic equipment.
1-2. Standard atmospheric conditions:
Unless otherwise specified, the standard range of atmospheric conditions for making measurements and
tests is as follows:
(1). Ambient temperature : 15 to 35
(2). Relative humidity : 25% to 85%
(3). Air pressure : 86 KPa to 106 KPa
2.If there is any doubt about the results, measurements shall be made within the following
limits:
(1). Ambient temperature: 20 ± 1
(2). Relative humidity : 63% to 67%
(3). Air pressure : 86 KPa to 106 Kpa
1-3. Operating temperature range : -20 to +100
1-4. Storage temperature range : -20 to +40
MEMS ACCELEROMETER
INTRODUCTION

An accelerometer is an micro-electromechanical device that measures acceleration forces.

These forces may be static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at our feet, or they could be
dynamic - caused by moving or vibrating the accelerometer. There are many types of
accelerometers developed and reported in the literature. The vast majority is based on
piezoelectric crystals, but they are too big and to clumsy. People tried to develop something
smaller, that could increase applicability and started searching in the field of microelectronics.
They developed MEMS (micro electromechanical systems) accelerometers.

FIG MEMS SENSOR

MEMS accelerometer use nanotechnology in order to enhance the natural abilities common
between all accelerators; hence, these devices are extremely fine-tuned and accurate. MEMS
stands for Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, and when discussing the technicalities of
accelerometers it refers specifically to a mass-displacer that can translate external forces such as
gravity into kinetic motion energy. This part of the accelerometer usually contains some type of
spring force in order to balance the external pressure and displace its mass, thus leading to the
motion that produces acceleration.

Features
 3-axis single-chip accelerometer
 Built-in IC integrating temperature sensor and self-diagnosis function
 High sensitivity: up to 1,000 mV/G
 Automatic correction of mounting angle
  Small size: 5.0 x 5.0 x 2.3mm
 Inertial sensing (linear, angular) in small, PCB-capable packaging
 Reliable operation
 Low power dissipation
 Cost effective
 Simple Integration

DESCRIPTION
Most accelerometers function on oneaxis, but two-axis and three-axis(i.e., x, y and z) models
have been invented. The three-axis model is naturally more expensive but also far more accurate;
if this model isn’t used then three one-axis accelerometers will typically be combined after
construction, with far less accurate results. There is also a direct relationship between the number
of g’s that can be measured and the accuracy and sensitivity of the device. Usually the higher the
device can measure, the more the accuracy suffers.

Fig 3.2.3: Mems Sensor Showing Various Direction

Nanotechnology has already enhanced many industrial areas, and now its effects can be seen in
devices as specialized as the accelerometer.

One of the crucial uses for MEMS accelerometers in particular has been airbag deployment
systems; they literally save lives because they are able to judge when two cars have struck each
other and even ascertain the severity of the collision, adjusting airbag size and rate of
deployment accordingly.
The mechanism works like this external force is applied and shifts the position of the proof mass
from a neutral position to an active position; typically the amount of this deflection is measured
by analog or digital readouts. The variations can be charted by using a set of beams that are fixed
in place contrasting with a set of beams that have been attached to the surface of the proof mass
somehow. Such a simple system makes the accelerometer not only reliable but also relatively
inexpensive to manufacture.

Applications
 Accelerometers can be used to measure vehicle acceleration. They allow for evaluation of
overall vehicle performance and response. This information can then be used to make ad-
justments to various vehicle subsystems as needed.
 Navigation system
 Automotive stability system
 Roll-over system
 Stability control of industrial machinery
 Industrial and home appliances
 Humanoid robots