Unit 1

Q1 What do you mean by Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors ?

Ans
1.1. Introduction: Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Conductors Materials with many free electrons. These electrons can easily be made to flow
through the material.
s: all metals, semi-metals like carbon-graphite, antimony and arsenic
Insulators Materials that have very few free electrons.
s: plastic, glass and wood
Semiconductors These materials lie between the extremes of good conductors and good insulators.
They are crystalline materials that are insulators when pure, but will conduct when
an impurity is added and/or in response to light, heat, voltage, etc.
Examples: elements like silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), selenium (Se); compounds
like gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium antimonide (InSb)

Insulators: The valence band of insulators remains full of electrons. The conduction band of those materials remains
empty. The forbidden energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band is widest. The difference is more
than 10ev. Crossing the forbidden energy gap from valence band to conduction band large amount of energy is
needed.
Conductors: In conductors, as shown in figure 1.2(c) shows the energy band of good conductor or metal. The valence
band and the conduction band is attached here on overlap each other. There is no forbidden energy gap here so Eg =0.
At absolute zero temperature large number of electrons remains in the conduction band. The resistance of conductor is
very low; large number charge carriers are available here. So, the electricity can pass easily through the conductors.
Semiconductors: Semiconductors are those materials whose electrical conductivity is between conductors and
insulators. The forbidden energy gap of a semiconductor is nearly same as insulator. The energy gap is narrower. The
value of Eg =1.1eV for silicon crystal and E g =0.7eV for germanium at 0k temperature. It can easily overcome due to
thermal agitation or light. A semiconductor remains partially full valence band and partially full conduction band at
the room temperature. The conduction band remains full empty of a semiconductor where the valence band remains
full of electrons at absolute zero temperature. So, silicon and germanium are insulators at absolute zero temperature.
On the other hand with the increasing of temperature the electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases.

Conduction Band

Conduction Band
Band Gap

Band Gap Conduction Band

Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

Figure.1.2. Energy band diagram for insulator, semiconductor and conductors

Q2 What do you mean by N Type Semiconductor ?
Ans
1.6.1 N-Type semiconductor:
Doping can produce two types of semiconductors depending upon the element added. If the element used for doping
has at least one more valence electron than the host semiconductor i.e. pentavalent, then an n-type (negative type)
semiconductor is created. Silicon is a group IV element on the periodic chart and has four electrons in its outermost
shell. When silicon is doped with arsenic (As), a group V element, the arsenic atoms replace silicon atoms at a small
number of points on the crystal lattice. Since arsenic has 5 electrons in its outer shell, it adds a loosely-bound “extra”
electron to the crystal. This extra electron (often called a “donor” electron) is easily excited into the conduction band
as a freely roaming current carrier. Doping with donors: ND (donor concentration) gives an n-type semiconductor.
Thus the density of free electrons nn is larger than the density of free holes p n in an n-type material.

Figure.1.2. N-Type semiconductor

Q3 What do you mean by P Type Semiconductor ?

Ans
1.6.2 P-Type semiconductor:
If the semiconductor is doped with an element having at least one less electron than the host material i.e. trivalent,
then a p-type (positive type) semiconductor is formed. If Silicon is doped with an element from group III of the
periodic table, such as gallium (Ga), the impurity has only three electrons in its outermost shell so there is a deficiency
of one electron at every point where a gallium atom replaces a silicon atom. This is called an “acceptor site” since the
gallium would very much like to have a fourth electron to complete its bonds. The gallium often “steals” an electron
from a neighboring silicon atom leaving a “hole” or empty state in the valence band of the silicon. This “hole” is free
to roam around in the valence band and effectively acts as a positive charge carrier. Doping with acceptors:
(acceptor concentration) gives a p-type material. The density of free holes p p is larger than the density of free electrons
np

Figure.1.3. P-Type semiconductor

 Q4 What do you mean by hall effect explain it ?
Ans
1.10. Hall Effect:
When a magnetic field is applied to a current carrying conductor in a direction perpendicular to that of the flow of
current, a potential difference or transverse electric field is created across a conductor. This phenomenon is known as
Hall Effect.

Figure.1.7. Hall effect in conductor

If a magnetic field is applied to this current carrying conductor or semiconductor in a direction perpendicular to that of
the flow of current (that is z-direction), an electric field is produced in it that exerts force in the negative y direction
(downwards). This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect. Hall Effect was named after American Physicist Edwin Hall,
who discovered the phenomenon in 1879. e
The electric field produced in the material pushes the charge carriers downwards. If the material is a conductor, th
electric field pushes the free electrons downwards (that is in negative y-direction). As a result, a large number of
charge carriers (free electrons) are accumulated at the bottom surface of the conductor.
Because of this large accumulation of negative charges (free electrons) at the bottom surface and deficiency of
negative charges (free electrons) at the upper surface, the bottom surface is negatively charged and the upper surface
is positively charged.
As a result, an electrical difference or potential difference develops between the upper surface and bottom surface of
the conductor. This potential difference is known as Hall voltage. In a conductor, the electric field is produced due to
the negatively charged free electrons. So the hall voltage produced in the conductor is negative.

Q5 Explain PN Junction Diode?

Ans
1.11. PN junction Diode:
If a junction between P-type and N-type semiconductor material is created within a single crystal, in such a way
that the crystalline structure is preserved across the junction, the result is a junction diode. Electrons from the N-
region migrate across the junction into the P-region, filling holes as they go. This creates a net charge build-up
around the junction positive in the N-region and negative in the P-region leading to an internal electric field as
shown. Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a voltage across its terminals leaves three


possibilities:


No bias (VD = 0 V),


Forward bias (VD>0 V),
Reverse bias (VD< 0 V).

Figure.1.8. Formation of depletion region

1.11.1. Formation of Depletion Region:
At the instant of the PN junction formation free electrons near the junction diffuse across the junction into the P region
and combine with holes. Filling a hole makes a negative ion and leaves behind a positive ion on the N side. These two
layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region, as the region near the junction is depleted of charge
carriers. As electrons diffuse across the junction a point is reached where the negative charge repels any further
diffusion of electrons. The depletion region now acts as a barrier.

1.11.2. Barrier Potential

The electric field formed in the depletion region acts as a barrier. External energy must be applied to get the electrons
to move across the barrier of the electric field. The potential difference required to move the electrons through the
electric field is called the barrier potential. Barrier potential of a PN junction depends on the type of semiconductor
material, amount of doping and temperature. This is approximately 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium. Once
the holes are filled, the junction region becomes devoid of charge carriers and thus acts as an insulator, preventing
further current flow.
1.11.3. Energy Diagrams of PN Junction.
The valence band and conduction band in N-Type material are slightly lower than that of P-Type material.

Figure.1.9. Energy diagram of PN junction

As diffusion occur the depletion region forms and the energy level of the N region conduction band drops, causing
alignment of the top of the N region conduction band and the bottom of the P region conduction band. At this point
the energy bands are at equilibrium as shown in figure 1.9. There is an energy gradient across the depletion region that
N region electron must climb to get to the P region.
The p-region has negative immobile ions and their corresponding holes as the majority carriers, while the n- e
region has positive immobile ions and their corresponding free electrons as the majority carriers. Thermally
generated electron-hole pairs are also not shown for simplicity. In the equilibrium state no conduction takes plac
at the PN junction. The conduction of PN junction involves the majority charge carriers diffusion and minority
charge carriers drift. Conduction of electrical current in PN junction physically involves in both conduction band
and valence band. At zero voltage bias equilibrium condition, the minority concentration of holes and electrons
will drift simply under the influence of incorporating electric field E. The diffusion of majority charge carriers
have to cross the potential barrier VB of the PN junction formed as the effect of the depletion region.

Figure.1.10.PN junction Energy diagram

At the instant of junction formation, the p-material has excess holes and the n- material has excess electrons and
the depletion region does not exist. As soon as the p & n regions are formed, electrons on the n-side recombine
with holes by crossing onto the p-side of the junction due to diffusion. Soon after recombination both the
electrons & the holes disappear and leave behind immobile positive ions on the n-side and immobile negative ions
on p-side of the junction as shown in Fig.1.6. This electric field created by the immobile positive & negative ions
on either side of the junction prevents further diffusion of charges. Thus a depletion region is formed at the
junction even under unbiased conditions as shown in Fig.1.10. Once the electric field and the potential barrier
develop to sufficient level, migration of carriers across the junction stops. At this point the p-n junction is said to
have attained “thermal equilibrium”. An approximate idealized plot of the variation of the space charge density,
the electric field and the electric potential along the device is shown in Fig 1.9.
1.11.4.1. Built in Potential

The existence of this double layer of charges on either side of the PN junction, potential barrier varies sharply
within the depletion zone and the potential difference Vd, called the diffusion potential or built-in potential reach
non-negligible values. Electrostatic potential is constant all over the crystal together with the space charge zone,
because this potential takes into consideration not only the electric field but also the concentration of charge
carriers. The built in potential due to the concentration of charge carriers compensates accurately for the
electrostatic potential.
The built-in potential or diffusion potential is proportional to the difference of the Fermi energies of the two
unbounded semiconductors:
i = (1/q)*{EFp – EFn } = (kT/q) ln {[NAND]/ni2}
 Where E is the zero bias junction voltage
 (kT/q) the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature.
 NA and N B are the impurity concentrations of acceptor atoms and donor atoms
 n is the intrinsic concentration.

Figure.1.11. Space charge density, electric field and electric potential inside a p-n junction in thermal
equilibrium; (a) schematic diagram; (b) space charge density; (c) electric field; (d) electric potential.
the potential barrier. The reduced potential barrier allows a few high- energy electrons on the n-side to cross the
junction on to the p-side and constitute a small forward current. As the magnitude of forward bias voltage is
increased the depletion width further reduces & thereby further increases the forward current. The depletion width
& the potential barrier reduce to almost zero when the p-n junction is forward biased by a voltage greater than the
cut-in voltage �� (0.7 V for Silicon diode & 0.3 V for Germanium diode). At voltages greater than �� the p-n
junction diode acts like a closed switch and a heavy current starts flowing. At voltages greater than�� , the p-n
junction diode acts like a closed switch and a heavy current starts flowing. The thermally generated electron-hole
pairs present in both p and n regions & the minority carriers also move in the same direction as majority carriers,
i.e. they also add to the forward current.
P Depletion layer
N

- - + +
A K
- - + +

- - + +
IF
VF

Figure.1.13. Forward-biased p-n junction

When the forward bias voltage Vf = 0, the forward current If is also equal to 0. When the forward bias voltage is
increased, current through the diode gradually increases because some high-energy electrons start crossing the
junction. Any further increase in Vf causes an increase in forward current due to reduction in depletion width &
potential barrier. When Vf =�� , the depletion width is zero & potential barrier is also zero. Now a large current
starts flowing through the diode. Thus beyond �� the diode acts as a closed switch and offers very low resistance
resulting in a rapid rise in current.

P N
P N

V R Is V R Is

+ - - +
Forward-Biased Diode Reverse-Biased Diode

Figure.1.14. Biasing circuit of PN junction diode

1.12. VI Characteristics of PN Diode
When the P-type material is at a more positive voltage than the N-type material, the diode is said to be ‘forward-
biased’; this corresponds to V > 0 in Fig.1.9 When the P-type material is more negative than the N-type material, the
diode is said to be ‘reverse-biased’; this corresponds to V < 0 in Fig.1.15.
 Forward Bias Characteristics
If in mA

VBD 0 VT Vf in volts

Reverse Bias Characteristics

Breakdown Mechanism: Figure.1.15.V-I Characteristics of PN

1) Zener effect: when VZ < 5 V diode
 As electric field increases, covalent bonds begin to break: new hole-electron pairs are
created
 Electrons are swept into n side and holes into p side
 At V=VZ very large number of carriers are generated and large reverse current appears
 We can control over the value of reverse current
 Voltage is capped at V=VZ
2) Avalanche effect: when Vz > 7 V
 Ionizing collision: under electric field minority charge carriers (electrons in p side and
holes in n side) collide with atoms and break covalent bonds
 Resulting carriers have high energy to cause more carriers to be liberated in further
ionizing collision
 Process keeps repeating as avalanche
 We can control over the value of reverse current
 Voltage is capped at V=VZ