Tex as A& M University

ECEN 314– Spring 2022

Signals and Systems

Module 2

Circuit/System Analysis Using Laplace Transforms

Learning Objectives

 Be able to find the Laplace Transform of common elementary functions.

 Be able to find the inverse Laplace transform of rational polynomial functions of
𝑠𝑠, using partial fractions, properties of LT’s, and table look-up.
 Be able to take a circuit involving Rs, Ls, and Cs (and op-amps) and convert it to
an equivalent circuit in the Laplace domain.
 Be able to use Laplace techniques to find the zero-state (forced) response of
first and second order circuits (and in principle higher order circuits).
 Be able to use Laplace techniques to find the zero-state (forced) response of any
system whose input/output relationship is described by a differential equation.
 Laplace Transforms
It is common to use Laplace Transforms to aid in the analysis of circuits/systems.
Recall for a signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) defined on 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 < ∞, its Laplace Transform is defined as
∞
ℒ 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = ∫0 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
Examples:
∞ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∞ 1
 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) (constant) ↔ 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 = ∫0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � =
−𝑠𝑠 0 𝑠𝑠
for 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑠𝑠] > 0,
−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∞ ∞ 𝑒𝑒 −(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)𝑡𝑡 ∞ 1
 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) ↔ 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 = ∫0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 𝑒𝑒 −(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
−(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎) 0
� =
(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)
for 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 > −𝑎𝑎,
∞ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) ↔ 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 = ∫0 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜔𝜔 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑠𝑠 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 �∞ = ,
𝑠𝑠 2 +𝜔𝜔2 0 𝑠𝑠 2 +𝜔𝜔2
for 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑠𝑠] > 0,
∞ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔
 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) ↔ 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 = ∫0 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑠𝑠 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 �∞ = ,
𝑠𝑠 2 +𝜔𝜔2 0 𝑠𝑠 2 +𝜔𝜔2
for 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑠𝑠] > 0,

These and a few other relevant Laplace Transforms are summarized on the table on
the next slide.
Table of Common Laplace
Transforms
Signal, 𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕) Transform, 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔) Signal, 𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕) Transform, 𝑿𝑿(𝒔𝒔)
𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 1 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2
sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝜔𝜔
𝛿𝛿(𝑡𝑡) 1
𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝜔 2
𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑛𝑛! 𝑠𝑠
cosh(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯ 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑠𝑠 2 − 𝜔𝜔 2
1
𝑛𝑛−2
𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡), 1 � 3 � 5 ⋯ (2𝑛𝑛 − 1) 𝜋𝜋 sinh(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝜔𝜔
𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯ 2𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛+1/2 𝑠𝑠 2 − 𝜔𝜔 2
𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎
𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 1
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎)2 +𝜔𝜔 2
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎
𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝜔𝜔
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 1
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎)2 +𝜔𝜔 2
𝑠𝑠 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cosh(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎
𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢
𝑡𝑡 , 𝑛𝑛!
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎)2 −𝜔𝜔 2
𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯ (𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛+1
𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sinh(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) 𝜔𝜔
𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑢𝑢
𝑡𝑡 , 𝑛𝑛!
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎)2 −𝜔𝜔 2
𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯ (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗)𝑛𝑛+1
Inverse Laplace Transforms
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼[𝑠𝑠]
The inverse Laplace transform is written in terms
of a complex contour integral in the s-plane
1
ℒ −1 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 = � 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) 𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅[𝑠𝑠]
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝐵𝐵
The contour of integration is the so-called
Bromwich contour which is a vertical line in the
complex plane located anywhere to the right of all 𝐵𝐵
of the singular points of 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠).

We almost never use the contour integral to Example

compute inverse Laplace transforms. Rather, we 1
manipulate the given transform 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) into known 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 5
forms (table entries) and then use a table lookup 1
=
to compute inverse transforms. (𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 +4
1 2
Partial fractions are used extensively to help = �
2 (𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 +22
manipulate functions of 𝑠𝑠 which are in the common 1 −𝑡𝑡
form of rational fractions (quotients of polynomials 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 sin 2𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
2
involving 𝑠𝑠).
Quick Review of Partial Fractions

 For rational functions of s (where the order of the numerator is smaller than the
order of the denominator) with no repeated roots, the function can be expressed
in the form
(𝑠𝑠−𝑧𝑧1 )(𝑠𝑠−𝑧𝑧2 )⋯(𝑠𝑠−𝑧𝑧𝑚𝑚 )
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = (with 𝑚𝑚 < 𝑛𝑛).
(𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝2 )⋯(𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 )

 In such cases, the function can be expressed via partial fractions in the form
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝1 + 𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝2 + ⋯ 𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 where 𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘 = lim𝑠𝑠→𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝1 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠).
1 2 𝑛𝑛

𝑠𝑠+3
Example: Find the partial fraction expansion of 𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 2 +3𝑠𝑠+2

Answer:
2 1
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = − .
𝑠𝑠+1 𝑠𝑠+2
Quick Review of Partial Fractions

 For rational functions of s (where the order of the numerator is smaller than the
order of the denominator) with no repeated roots in the denominator, the
function can be expressed in the form
𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠)
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 =
(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝2 ) ⋯ (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 )
 In such cases, the function can be expressed via partial fractions in the form
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝1 + 𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝2 + ⋯ 𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 where 𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘 = lim𝑠𝑠→𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠).
1 2 𝑛𝑛

𝑠𝑠+3
Example: Find the partial fraction expansion of 𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 2 +3𝑠𝑠+2

Answer:
2 1
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = − .
𝑠𝑠+1 𝑠𝑠+2
Quick Review of Partial Fractions

 If denominator has repeated roots, then there is a similar but more complicated
result
𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠)
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝑟𝑟2 ⋯ 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛
 In this case, the function is expressed via partial fractions in the form
𝑛𝑛
𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘,1 𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘,2 𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘,𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = � + + ⋯
𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 2 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘=1
1 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 −𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘
where 𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘,𝑚𝑚 = lim𝑠𝑠→𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘−𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠).
𝑟𝑟𝑘𝑘 −𝑚𝑚 !

𝑠𝑠
Example: Find the partial fraction expansion of 𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 2 +4𝑠𝑠+4

Answer:
1 2
𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = − .
𝑠𝑠+2 (𝑠𝑠+2)2
Examples of Inverse L.T.s
Find the inverse Laplace Transforms for
𝑠𝑠
a) 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 = 2+4𝑠𝑠+3 ,
𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠
b) 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = ,
𝑠𝑠 3 +𝑠𝑠 2 +𝑠𝑠+1

Answers:
3 −3𝑡𝑡 1
a) 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡),
2 2
1
b) 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝑡𝑡 + sin 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 .
2
Circuit Analysis Using Laplace
Transforms
An important property of Laplace Transforms is that it transforms derivatives into
multiplication by 𝑠𝑠 as seen below:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∞ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
ℒ = ∫0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∞
= 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �∞ + 𝑠𝑠 ∫0 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (using integration by parts once).
0

= −𝑥𝑥 0 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠).

In a similar way we can also show that integration corresponds to dividing by s in the Laplace
domain.

In the following, we will use this property of Laplace transforms to observe the behavior of
typical circuit elements in the Laplace domain. The first, resistors, is trivial:

Resistors: 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) + 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) +

Time domain: 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠

Laplace domain: 𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) _ _

Time Domain Laplace Domain
Circuit Analysis Using Laplace
Transforms
Inductors: Capacitors:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Time domain: 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿 Time domain: 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Laplace domain: Laplace domain:

𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(0) 𝐼𝐼 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(0)
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) 𝑖𝑖(0) 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝑣𝑣(0)
𝐼𝐼 𝑠𝑠 = + 𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠 = +
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)
+ 1
+ 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
+ +
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 𝑖𝑖(0)
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣(0)
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 _ +
_
𝑠𝑠
_ _ _
Time Domain Laplace Domain Time Domain Laplace Domain
Circuit Analysis Using Laplace
Transforms
Here is an example of a 2nd order circuit that we can analyze using Laplace domain
techniques.

𝑡𝑡 = 0 In the circuit shown, steady

50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 state has been reached before
+ the switch moves at time 𝑡𝑡 = 0.
+
_ 10𝑉𝑉 Find the voltage on the resistor
300Ω 𝑉𝑉
4𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 for 𝑡𝑡 > 0
_

𝑡𝑡 < 0 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 (0)

Step 1: Find the initial + 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 0 = 0

inductor current and +
_ 10𝑉𝑉
capacitor voltage using 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (0) 300Ω 𝑉𝑉
_ 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 0 = 10
steady state techniques
Circuit Analysis Using Laplace
Transforms
Step 2: Re-draw the circuit in the
Laplace domain for 𝑡𝑡 > 0. 10 𝑠𝑠
+
_ +
𝑠𝑠 20
Note: In this case there is no current 250000 300 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠)
source in parallel with the inductor _
𝑠𝑠
since we found 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 0 = 0.

Step 3: Solve for the voltage/current of interest using resistive circuit

techniques.
10 300
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = � (using a voltage divider)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 300 + 250000
20 𝑠𝑠

60000
= (simplifying)
𝑠𝑠 2 + 6000𝑠𝑠 + 5000000

60000
= (factoring)
(𝑠𝑠 + 5000)(𝑠𝑠 + 1000)
Circuit Analysis Using Laplace
Transforms
Step 4: Bring voltage/current of interest back to the time domain by finding
the inverse Laplace transform.
60000 o Since we found the roots of the
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) =
(𝑠𝑠 + 5000)(𝑠𝑠 + 1000) denominator (poles) to be real,
we are expecting exponential solutions
15 15 in the time domain.
= −
𝑠𝑠 + 1000 𝑠𝑠 + 5000
o As such, we should manipulate the
(the previous step was form of 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) to match the form of an
accomplished using partial exponential in our table of Laplace
fractions) Transforms.

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 15𝑒𝑒 −1000𝑡𝑡 − 15𝑒𝑒 −5000𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) o The relevant entry in the table is:
1
𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ↔ .
𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎

 Using the Laplace approach allows us to find both the transient and the
steady state components (or the forced and the natural components) of the
voltage. If we used phasor techniques, we only get the steady state
response.
Example
In the circuit shown, the current source
produces: 24Ω 8Ω
1/2, 𝑡𝑡 < 0,
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡 = �
1/4, 𝑡𝑡 > 0. 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 (𝑡𝑡)
Find 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) for 𝑡𝑡 > 0. +
160𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡)
400𝜇𝜇𝐹𝐹 _

1
Answer: 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 = 6 + 6𝑒𝑒 −100𝑡𝑡 cos 75𝑡𝑡 − 𝑒𝑒 −100𝑡𝑡 sin 75𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)
3
System Analysis Using Laplace
Transforms
The same techniques can be used to analyze any system described by a
differential equation
𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏2 2 + 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎2 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Taking L.T. of both sides results in

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1 𝑦𝑦
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) ∑𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘=0 𝑏𝑏𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘 − 𝑦𝑦(0) ∑𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘=1 𝑏𝑏𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘−1 𝑛𝑛
− (0) ∑𝑘𝑘=2 𝑏𝑏𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘−2
− ⋯ − 𝑛𝑛−1 (0) 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑚𝑚−1 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) ∑𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘 ∑𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘−1 − 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 (0) ∑𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘−2 − ⋯ − 𝑑𝑑
𝑘𝑘=0 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑥𝑥(0) 𝑎𝑎
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘=2 𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚−1
(0) 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 .

Define the polynomials 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 = ∑𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘=0 𝑏𝑏𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 = ∑𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘=0 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 . Then
𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 + terms that depend on I.C.’s.
𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠

There are two parts of the output:

 Zero-State Response (Forced response) = when all ICs are zero, due only to
input
 Zero-Input Response (Natural Response) = when input is zero, due only to ICs.
System Analysis Using Laplace
Transforms
We are often most interested in the response of a circuit/system to a given input.
So moving forward, we will assume all ICs are 0 and focus on the Zero-
State/Forced Response
𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) where 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠 .
𝑏𝑏

Example: Find the forced response (zero-state), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), of the system described by
𝑦𝑦 ′′ 𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡),
when the input is 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡).

Answer: 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 1 − cos 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)