One of the earliest reasons

that human beings needed num-

bers was for reckoning time,
marking off days in the lunar
month, so the seasonal changes
that dictated human activity
could be anticipated. The
Mayans, the Egyptians, and the
ancient Britons constructed
monumental stone observato-
ries that enabled them to mark
the passage of the seasons, es-
pecially the summer solstice,
using the alignment of the sun
as a guide. The photo is Stone-
henge in England.

SYSTEMS OF NUMERATION
he number system we use-called the Hindu-Arabic system-seems to be a

T permanent, unchanging means of communicating quantities. However, just as

languages evolve over time, so do numerical symbols that represent numbers.
Mathematics began with the practical problem of counting and record keep-
ing. People had to count their herds, the passage of days, and objects of barter. They used
physical objects-stones, shells, fingers-to represent the objects counted.
As primitive cultures grew from villages to cities, the complexity of human activities
increased. Now people needed better ways of recording and communicating. It was a revo-
lutionary step when people started using physical objects to represent not only specific ob-
jects like sheep and grain, but also the concept of pure quantity.
Through the course of human history, the evolution of numeration systems has ex-
panded our knowledge and abilities for record keeping, communication, and computation.
As a society's numeration system changes, so do the capabilities of that society. Without an
understanding of the binary number system, the computer as we know it today could not ex-
ist. Without the computer, our lifestyle would not be as it is today.
4.1 ADDITIVE, MULTIPLICATIVE, AND CIPHERED
SYSTEMS OF NUMERATION
Just as the first attempts to write were made long after the development of speech, the
first representation of numbers by symbols came long after people had learned to
count. A tally system using physical objects, such as scratch marks in the soil or on a
stone, notches on a stick, pebbles, or knots on a vine, was probably the earliest
method of recording numbers.
In primitive societies, such a tally system adequately served the limited need for
recording livestock, agriculture, or whatever was counted. As civilization developed,
however, more efficient and accurate methods of calculating and keeping records
were needed. Because tally systems are impractical and inefficient, societies devel-
oped symbols to replace them. For example, the Egyptians used the symbol nand
the Babylonians used the symbol < to represent the number we symbolize by 10.
A number is a quantity, and it answers the question "How many?" A numeral is
a symbol such as n, <, or 10 used to represent the number. We think a number but
write a numeral. The distinction between number and numeral will be made here only
if it is helpful to the discussion.
In language, relatively few letters of the alphabet are used to construct a large
number of words. Similarly, in arithmetic, a small variety of numerals can be used to
DID YOU KNOW represent all numbers. In general, when writing a number, we use as few numerals as
possible. One of the greatest accomplishments of humankind has been the develop-
ment of systems of numeration, whereby all numbers are "created" from a few sym-
bols. Without such systems, mathematics would not have developed to its present
level.

A system of numeration consists of a set of numerals and a scheme or rule for

combining the numerals to represent numbers.

Four types of numeration systems used by different cultures are the topic of this
chapter. They are additive (or repetitive), multiplicative, ciphered, and place-value
systems. You do not need to memorize all the symbols, but you should understand the
principles behind each system. By the end of this chapter, we hope that you better un-
derstand the system we use, the Hindu-Arabic system, and its relationship to other
types of systems.

Additive Systems
A rchaeologist Denise Schmandt-
Besserat made a breakthrough
discovery about early systems of nu- An additive system is one in which the number represented by a particular set of nu-
meration. She realized that the little merals is simply the sum of the values of the numerals. The additive system of numer-
clay geometric objects that had been ation is one of the oldest and most primitive types of numeration systems. One of the
found in many archaeological sites first additive systems, the Egyptian hieroglyphic system, dates back to about 3000
had actually been used by people to B.C. The Egyptians used symbols for the powers of 10: 10° or 1, 10' or 10,
account for their goods. Later in his- 102 or 10· 10, 103 or 10 . 10 . 10, and so on. Table 4.1 on page 168 lists the Egyptian
tory, these tokens were impressed on
hieroglyphic numerals with the equivalent Hindu-Arabic numerals.
a clay tablet to represent quantities,
To write the number 600 in Egyptian hieroglyphics, we write the numeral for 100
the beginning of writing.
six times: gggggg.
DID YOU KNOW
Hindu-Arabic Egyptian
Numerals Numerals

1 Staff (vertical stroke)

10 n Heel bone (arch)
100 g Scroll (coiled rope)
1,000 i Lotus flower
10,000 \) Pointing finger
100,000 0<1 Tadpole (or whale)
1,000,000 it: Astonished person

M Uch of our knowledge of

Egyptian mathematics and nu-
meration comes from a roll of pa-
pyrus measuring 18 ft by 13 in. It was
discovered in a shop in Luxor, Egypt,
EXAMPLE 2 From Hindu-Arabic to Egyptian Numerals
in 1858 by Henry Rhind, a Scottish
lawyer turned archaeologist. Unlike Write 43,628 as an Egyptian numeral.
the straightforward accounting of
property and events common to SOLUTION:
Egyptian tombs, the Rhind Papyrus
43,628 = 40,000 + 3000 + 600 + 20 + 8
has inscribed on it 85 mathematical
problems and solutions involving ad- \)\)\)\)iU ggggggnnlllllill
dition, subtraction, multiplication, di-
0<1 II
vision, and geometry.
In this system, the order of the symbols is not important. For example, 99 nand
The key to translation of the papyrus 11990<1 n both represent 100,212.
was the Rosetta Stone, which had Users of additive systems easily accomplished addition and subtraction by com-
been discovered some 60 years ear-
bining or removing symbols. Multiplication and division were more difficult; they
lier by one of Napoleon's officers.
were performed by a process called dupLation and mediation (see Section 4.5). The
Both of these treasures now reside at
the British Museum in London.
Egyptians had no symbol for zero, but they did have an understanding of fractions.
The symbol = was used to take the reciprocal of a number; thus, 1n meant ~ and Ri
was fl. Writing large numbers in the Egyptian Hieroglyphics system takes longer than
in other systems because so many symbols have to be listed. For example, 45 symbols
are needed to represent the number 99,999.
The Roman numeration system, a second example of an additive system, was de-
veloped later than the Egyptian system. Roman numerals (Table 4.2) were used in
most European countries until the eighteenth century. They are still commonly seen
on buildings, on clocks, and in books. Roman numerals are selected letters of the
Roman alphabet.

Roman numerals C D M
Hindu-Arabic numerals 100 500 1000
 The Roman system has two advantages over the Egyptian system. The first is that
it uses the subtraction principle as well as the addition principle. Starting from the
left, we add each numeral unless its value is smaller than the value of the numeral to
its right. In that case, we subtract its value from the value of the numeral to its right.
Only the numbers I, 10, 100, 1000, ... can be subtracted, and they can only be sub-
tracted from the next two higher numbers. For example, C (100) can be subtracted
only from D (500) or M (1000). The symbol DC represents 500 + lOO, or 600, and
CD represents 500 - 100, or 400. Similarly, MC represents 1000 + 100, or 1100,
and CM represents 1000 - 100, or 900.

I SOLUTION: Since each numeral is larger than the one on its right, no subtraction is
necessary.

oman numerals remained popu- MMCCCLXII = 1000 + 1000 + 100 + 100 + 100 + SO + 10 + I + 1
R lar on large clock faces long af-
ter their disappearance from daily
L = 2362 ••.

transactions because they are easier

to read from a distance than Hindu- EXAMPLE 4 A Roman Numeral Involving a Subtraction
Arabic numerals. The clock shown
in this photo is in Vancouver, Canada. Write DCXLVI as a Hindu-Arabic numeral.

SOLUTION: Checking from left to right, we see that X (10) has a smaller value than
L (SO). Therefore, XL represents SO - 10, or 40.

I EXAMPLE 5 Writing a Roman Numeral

Write 289 as a Roman numeral.

SOLUTION:

I 289 = 200 + 80 + 9 = 100 + 100 + SO + 10 + 10 + 10 + 9

(Nine is treated as 10 - I.)

In the Roman numeration system, a symbol does not have to be repeated more
than three consecutive times. For example, the number 646 would be written
DCXLVI instead of DCXXXXVI.
The second advantage of the Roman numeration system over the Egyp-
tian numeration system is that it makes use of the multiplication principle for num-
bers over 1000. A bar above a symbol or group of symbols indicates that the symbol
or symbols are to be multiplied by 1000. Thus, V = 5 X 1000 = 5000,
X = 10 X 1000 = 10,000, and CD = 400 X 1000 = 400,000. Other examples are,
VI = 6 X 1000 = 6000, XIX = 19 X 1000 = 19,000, and XCIV = 94 X 1000 =
94,000. This greatly reduces the number of symbols needed to write large numbers.
Still, it requires 19 symbols, including the bar, to write the number 33,888 in Roman
numerals. Write the number 33,888 in Roman numerals now.
 Multiplicative Systems
Multiplicative numeration systems are more similar to our Hindu-Arabic system than
are additive systems. The number 642 in a multiplicative system might be written
(6) (100) (4) (10) (2) or

6
100
4
10
2

Note that no addition signs are needed to represent the number. From this illustration,
try to formulate a rule explaining how multiplicative systems work.
The principle example of a multiplicative system is the traditional Chinese sys-
tem. The numerals used in this system are given in Table 4.3.

Traditional Chinese numerals ~ 4-

Hindu-Arabic numerals 100 1000

Chinese numerals are always written vertically. The number on top will be a
number from 1 to 9 inclusive. This number is to be multiplied by the power of 10 be-
low it. The number 20 is written

.;. }2 X 10 = 20

~ }4 X 100 = 400

EXAMPLE 6 A Traditional Chinese Numeral

r Write 538as a Chinese numeral.

SOLUTION:
3i
500 =
{ 10~ ~
538 = 30 =
{ l~
-
T
8= 8 ~,

Note that in Example 6 the units digit, the 8, is not multiplied by a power of the base.
When writing Chinese numerals, there are some special cases that need to be con-
sidered. When writing a number between II and 19 it is not necessary to include the 1
before the 10. Thus, the number 18 would be written"'" rather than .,.... Another spe-
cial case involves the use of zero. J\ J\
When more than one consecutive zero occurs (except at the end of a number) you need
to write a zero, but only once for two or more consecutive zeros. Zeros are not included
at the end of numbers. The top two illustrations that follow show how zeros are used
within a number and the bottom two show that zeros are not used at the end of a number.

~} 4 X 100 = 400 :} 4 X 1000 = 4000

406= ~ 4006 = ~} 0 X 100, =
~} 0 X 10 = 0 ~ OXlO 0
*} 6 6 *} 6 6

~ } 4 X 100 = 400 ~ } 4 X 1000 = 4000

460 = 4600 = }

:}, 6 X 10 = 60
*~ 6 X 100 = 600

Write the following as traditional Chinese numerals.

a) 7080 b) 7008
SOLUTION: In part (a) there is one zero between the 7 and the 8. In part (b) there
are two zeros between the 7 and the 8. As just mentioned, the symbol for zero is
used only once in each of those numbers.

~ } 7 X 1000 ~ }7 X 1000
b) 7008 = ~ 0 X 100
a) 7080 = ~} 0 X 100 ~}OXlO'
~,} 8
~}8XlO

TI MEL Y TI P Notice the difference between our Hindu-Arabic numeration sys-

tem, which is a positional numeration system, and the Chinese system, which is a
multiplicative numeration system. Consider the number 5678. Below we show
how that number would be written in Chinese numerals if the Chinese system was
a positional value system similar to ours.
Multiplicative Positional Value
3i 5 3i 5

4- 1000
*Ie
6

7
*
~
6

100
~, 8

Ie 7
T 10
~, 8

Note that the multiples of base 10 are removed when writing the number as a posi-
tional value number. We will discuss positional value systems in more detail shortly.
DID YOU KNOW Ciphered Systems
A ciphered numeration system is one in which there are numerals for numbers up to
and including the base and for multiples of the base. The numbers represented by a
particular set of numerals is the sum of the values of the numerals.
Ciphered numeration systems require the memorization of many different sym-
bols but have the advantage that numbers can be written in a compact form. The ci-
phered numeration system that we discuss is the Ionic Greek system (see Table 4.4).
The Ionic Greek system was developed in about 3000 B.C., and it used letters of their
alphabet for numerals. Other ciphered systems include the Hebrew, Coptic, Hindu,
Brahmin, Syrian, Egyptian Hieratic, and early Arabic systems.

TABLE 4.4 Ionic Greek Numerals

1 (l' alpha 60 ~ XI

T he Hindu-Arabic system of nu-

meration is used throughout the
world. In many countries, numbers
2 f3 beta 70 0 omicron
3 'Y gamma 80 7T pI
are displayed in Hindu-Arabic nu-
merals as well as the numerals used 4 8 delta 90 Q koph*
in the country itself. 5 E epsilon 100 p rho
6 2. vau * 200 (T sigma
7 b zeta 300 T tau
8 T/ eta 400 v upsilon
9 () theta 500 cP phi
10 iota 600 X chi
20 K kappa 700 l/J psi
30 A lambda 800 w omega
40 /.L mu 900 II sampl.*
50 v nu

'Taken from the Phoenician alphabet.

Since the Greek alphabet contains 24 letters but 27 symbols were needed, the
Greeks borrowed the symbols 2., Q, and II from the Phoenician alphabet.
The number 24 = 20 + 4. When 24 is written as a Greek numeral, the plus sign
is omitted:

The number 996 written as a Greek numeral is II Q 2. .

When a prime (') is placed above a number, it multiplies that number by 1000.
For example,

f3' = 2 X 1000 = 2000

(T' = 200 X 1000 = 200,000

r EXAMPLE 8
Write cP v
SOLUTION: cP =
The Ionic Greek System: A Ciphered System
'Yas a Hindu-Arabic

500, v =
numeral.

50, and 'Y = 3. Adding these numbers gives 553. A

 4.1 Additive, Multiplicative, and Ciphered Systems of Numeration 173
~ ~

r EXAMPLE 9 Writing an Ionic Greek Numeral

Write 9432 as an Jonic Greek numeral.

9432 = 9000 + 400 + 30 + 2

= (9 X 1000) + 400 + 30 + 2
= 8' v A f3
= 8'v A f3

Concept/Writing Exercises /n Exercises 2/-32, write the numeral as a Hindu-Arabic

numeral.
1. What is the difference between a number and a numeral?
2. List four numerals given in this section that may be used to 21. XIX 22. XVI
represent the number ten.
23. DXLvrr 24.DLXXV
3. What is a system of numeration?
25. MCDXCII 26. MCMXVllI
4. List four numerals given in this section that may be used to
27. MMCMXLVI 28. MDCCXLVI
represent the number one hundred.
29. XMMDCLXVI 30. LM CM XLIV
5. What is the name of the system of numeration that we
31. IXCDLXIV 32. YMCCCXXXIII
presently use?
6. Explain how numbers are represented in an additive nu-
meration system.
/n Exercises 33-44, write the numeral as a Roman
7. Explain how numbers are represented in a multiplicative numeral.
numeration system.
8. Explain how numbers are represented in a ciphered numer- 33. 59 34.94
ation system. 35. 134 36. 269
37. 2005 38. 4285
39. 4793 40.6274
In Exercises 9-/4, write the numeral as a Hindu-Arabic 41. 9999 42. 14,315
numeral. 43.20,644 44.99,999
9. g()()()()11 10. gg()()11
11. Ugggg()()111 12. \)\)\)\) g 9 9 () /n Exercises 45-52, write the numeral as a Hindu-Arabic
13. ~~UUgg()1111 14. i3:" i3:" i3:" ~ 01:J 9 9 ()()()I nUlI/eral.

/n Exercises /5-20, write the numeral as an Egyptian

45. 'c:
T
46.
"*T 47. W
4-
48.
-
4-
numeral.
w - ~ ~7
15.634
17.2045
16. 752
18. 1812
"7

J\, -
T
T 1L
19. 173,845 20. 3.235.614
174 CHAPTER 4 SYSTEMS OF NUMEMTlON

49. .I, SO. '= 51. W 52. 3i 78. 3i in Hindu-Arabic, Egyptian, Roman, and Greek
4- 4- 4- 4- 1]
3i W
1] 1]
.I, ~ '*
1]
T-
Ic:
3i T- -
T- Ic: ~ 79. VK{3 in Hindu-Arabic, Egyptian, Roman, and traditional
- Chinese

In Exercises 53-60, write the numeral as a traditional

Chinese numeral.
Challenge Problems/Group Activities
80. Write the Roman numeral for 999,999.
53. 53 54. 178 55. 378
81. Write the Ionic Greek numeral for 999,999.
56. '2001 57. 4260 58. 6905
82. Make up your own additive system of numeration and in-
59. 7056 60. 3009 dicate the symbols and rules used to represent numbers.
Using your system of numeration, write
a) your age.
In Exercises 61-66, write the numeral as a Hindu-Arabic
b) the year you were born.
numeral.
e) the current year.
61. T J.L (l' 62. t/J A l.. 63. K'{3'c/>c
64. p' v'w ~ 'Y 65. e'X~ 66. 8' 1T Q e
83. Without using any type of writing instrument, what can
In Exercises 67-72, write the numeral as an Ionic Greek you do to make the following incorrect statement a correct
numeral. statement?

67. 59 68. 178 69. 726

70. 2001 71. 82,704 72. 690,540 84. Words and numbers that read the same both backward and
forward are called palindromes. Some examples are the
words CIVIC and RACECAR, and the numbers 121 and
In Exercises 73-75, compare the advantages and disadvan-
32523. Using Roman numerals, list the last year that was a
tages of a ciphered system of numeration with those of the palindrome.
named system.
85. Which year in the past 2000 years required the most
73. An additive system Roman numerals to write? Write out the year in Roman
numerals.
74. A multiplicative system
75. The Hindu-Arabic system
Internet/Research Activity
In Exercises 76-79, write the numeral as numerals in the 86. In this section we discussed Egyptian hieroglyphics, Ionic
indicated systems of numeration. Greek numerals, and other numeration systems. Select
either Egypt or Greece.
76. g II II I in Hindu-Arabic, Roman, traditional Chinese, and a) Give the current numerals used in that country.
Greek b) Explain how their current system of numeration works.
77. MCMXXXVI in Hindu-Arabic, Egyptian, Greek, and If more than one numeration system is used in the country
traditional Chinese you selected, discuss the system most commonly used.
4.2 PLACE-VALUE OR POSITIONAL-VALUE
NUMERATION SYSTEMS
Eighteenth-century mathematician Today the most common type of numeration system is the place-value system. The
Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace, Hindu-Arabic numeration system, used in the United States and many other coun-
speaking of the positional principle, tries, is an example of a place-value system. In a place-value system, which is also
said: "The idea is so simple that this called a positional value system, the value of the symbol depends on its position in
very simplicity is the reason for our the representation of the number. For example, the 2 in 20 represents 2 tens, and the 2
not being sufficiently aware of how
in 200 represents 2 hundreds. A true positional-value system requires a base and a set
much attention it deserves."
of symbols, including a symbol for zero and one for each counting number less than
the base. Although any number can be written in any base, the most common posi-
tional system is the base 10 system which is called the decimal number system.
The Hindus in India are credited with the invention of zero and the other symbols
used in our system. The Arabs, who traded regularly with the Hindus, also adopted the
system, thus the name Hindu-Arabic. Not until the middle of the fifteenth century,
DID YOU KNOW however, did the Hindu-Arabic numerals take the form we know today.
The Hindu-Arabic numerals and the positional system of numeration revolution-
ized mathematics by making addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division much
easier to learn and very practical to use. Merchants and traders no longer had to de-
pend on the counting board or abacus. The first group of mathematicians, who com-
puted with the Hindu-Arabic system rather than with pebbles or beads on a wire,
were known as the "algorists."

«< In the Hindu-Arabic system, the symbols 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6, 7, 8, and 9 are called
digits. The base 10 system was developed from counting on fingers, and the word
digit comes from the Latin word for fingers.
The positional values in the Hindu-Arabic system are

he form Babylonian numerals

T took is directly related to their
writing materials. Babylonians used
To evaluate a number in the Hindu-Arabic system, we multiply the first digit on the
right by 1. We multiply the second digit from the right by the base, 10. We multiply
the third digit from the right by the base squared, 102 or 100. We multiply the fourth
a reed (later a stylus) to make their
digit from the right by the base cubed, 103 or 1000, and so on. In general, we multiply
marks in wet clay. The end could be
used to make a thin wedge, T, which the digit n places from the right by 1017-1. Therefore, we multiply the digit eight
represents a unit, or a wider wedge, places from the right by 107. Using the place-value rule, we can write a number in
<, which represents lO units. The expandedjorm. The number 1234 written in expanded form is
clay dried quickly, so the writings
tended to be short but extremely
durable.
1234 = (1 X 103) + (2 X 102) + (3 X 10) + (4 Xl)

(1 X 1000) + (2 X 100) + (3 X 10) +4

The oldest known numeration system that resembled a place-value system was
developed by the Babylonians in about 2500 B.C. Their system resembled a pJace-
value system with a base of 60, a sexagesimal system. It was not a true place-value
system because it lacked a symbol for zero. The lack of a symbol for zero led to a
great deal of ambiguity and confusion. Table 4.5 gives the Babylonian numerals.
The positional values in the Babylonian system are
Babylonian Numerals T <
Hindu-Arabic numerals 1 10
 In a Babylonian numeral, a gap is left between the characters to distinguish between
DID YOU KNOW the various place values. From right to left, the sum of the first group of numerals is
multiplied by I. The sum of the second group is multiplied by 60. The sum of the
third group is multiplied by (60)2, and so on.

EXAMPLE 1 The BabyLonian System: A PositionaL VaLue System

Write << << T T T T as a Hindu-Arabic numeral.

SOLUTION:

(20 X 60) + (24 X I)

1200 + 24 = 1224

O ne of the earliest counting de-

vices, used in most ancient civ-
>-
ilizations, was the counting board. The Babylonians used the symbol T to indicate subtraction. The numeral
On such a board, each column repre-
>- >-
sents a positional value. The number < T T T represents 10 - 2, or 8. The numeral <<<< T TTT represents 40 - 3, or
of times a value occurs is repre-
sented by markers (beads, stones,
sticks) in the column. An empty col-
umn signifies "no value." The wide-
spread use of counting boards meant
that Europeans were already long EXAMPLE 2 From BabyLonian to Hindu-Arabic NumeraLs
accustomed to working with posi- >-
tional values when they were intro- Write TT < T < < T T T as a Hindu-Arabic numeral.
duced to Hindu-Arabic numerals in
the fifteenth century. Some people in
China, Japan, Russia, Eastern Eu-
rope, and the United States still (60f 60,
commonly use a type of counting 3600, 60,
board known as the abacus to per-
form routine computations.
The numeral in the group on the right has a value of 20 - 2, or 18. The numeral in
the center group has a value of 10 + 1, or I I. The numeral on the left represents
I + I, or 2. Multiplying each group by its positional value gives

(2 X 602)
+ (l1 X 60) + (I 8 X I)
= (2 X 3600) + (II X 60) + (18 X I)

= 7200 + 660 + 18
= 7878

To explain the procedure used to convert from a Hindu-Arabic numeral to a

Babylonian numeral, we will consider a length of time. How can we change 9820
seconds into hours, minutes, and seconds? Since there are 3600 seconds in an hour
 (60 seconds to a minute and 60 minutes to an hour), we can find the number of hours
DID YOU KNOW in 9820 seconds by dividing 9820 by 602, or 3600.

2 <-- Hours

3600)9820
7200
2620 <-- Remaining seconds

Now we can determine the number of minutes by dividing the remaining seconds by
60, the number of seconds in a minute.

43 <-- Minutes

60h620
2400
220
estiges of the Babylonian sexa-
180
V gesimal system are still with us
today, especially in navigation. Nav-
40 <-- Remaining seconds

igators use degrees, minutes, and I Since the remaining number of seconds, 40, is less than the number of seconds in a
seconds of longitude and latitude minute, our task is complete.
and global positioning systems
(GPS) to chart their course. If you
look at a globe or world map, you
will see that Earth is divided into The same procedure is used to convert a decimal (base 10) number to a Babylon-
3600 of latitude and 3600 of longi- ian number or any number in a different base.
tude. Each degree can be divided
into 60 minutes, and each minute
can be divided into 60 seconds.
-EXAMPLE 3 From Hindu-Arabic to Babylonian Numerals
Early explorers had to have an easy Write 25 19 as a Babylonian numeral.
means of computing angles as they
SOLUTION: The Babylonian numeration system has positional values of
guided their ships by the stars. Base
60 easily divides into halves, thirds, I

fourths, fifths, sixths, tenths,

twelfths, fifteenths, twentieths, and
thirtieths, making such computa-
tions easier. Hence, the use of a base
60 system became popular.
The largest positional value less than or equal to 2519 is 60. To determine how
many groups of 60 are in 2519, divide 2519 by 60.

41 <-- Groups of 60

60h519
240
119
60
59 <-- Units remaining

Thus, 2519 -'- 60 = 41 with remainder 59. There are 41 groups of 60 and 59 units
remaining. Because the remainder, 59, is less than the base, 60, no further division
is necessary. The remainder represents the number of units when the number is
 l
writtenin expanded form. Therefore, 2519 = (41 X 60)
DID YOU KNOW ten as a Babylonian numeral, 2519 is
. >-
««T «««P

EXAMPLE 4 Using Division to Determine a Babylonian Numeral

Write 6270 as a Babylonian numeral.

SOLUTION: Divide 6270 by the largest positional value less than or equal to 6270.
That value is 3600.

There is one group of 3600 in 6270. Next divide the remainder 2670 by 60 to deter-
mine the number of groups of 60 in 2670.

Another place-value system is the Mayan numeration system. The Mayans, who
lived on the Yucatan Peninsula in present day Mexico, developed a sophisticated numer-
ation system based on their religious and agricultural calendar. The numbers in this sys-
tem are written vertically rather than horizontally, with the units position on the bottom.
In the Mayan system, the number in the bottom row is to be multiplied by 1. The num-
ber in the second row from the bottom is to be multiplied by 20. The number in the third
row is to be multiplied by 18 X 20, or 360. You probably expected the number in the
third row to be multiplied by 202 rather than 18 X 20. It is believed that the Mayans
used 18 X 20 so that their numeration system would conform to their calendar of 360
days. The positional values above 18 X 20 are 18 X 202, 18 X 203, and so on.
naddition to their base 20 numer-
I als the Mayans had a holy num-
eration system used by priests to
create and maintain calendars. They ... 18 X (20?, 18 X (20)2, 18 X 20,
used a special set of hieroglyphs that or ... 144,000, 7200, 360,
consisted of pictograms of Mayan
gods. For example, the number 3 The digits 0,1,2,3, ... ,19 of the Mayan systems are formed by a simple grouping of
was represented by the god of wind dots and lines, as shown in Table 4.6.
and rain, the number 4 by the god TABLE 4.6 Mayan Numerals
of sun.
o 1
<9

10 11
DID YOU KNOW

18 X 20
20
I

9 X (18 X 20) = 3240

2 X 20 40
13 X I 13
3293

r E~:LE 6 From Mayan to Hindu-Arabic Numerals

Write • as a Hindu-Arabic numeral.

8 X (18 X 20) = 2880

11 X 20 = 220
4 X I 4

A lthough most countries presently

use a place value (or positional
value) numeration system with base
3104

10, the numerals used for the digits EXAMPLE 7 From Hindu-Arabic to Mayan Numerals
differ by country. The photo of the
artwork entitled Numbers by Jan Write 4025 as a Mayan numeral.
Fleck shows numerals currently used
in many countries of the world. For·
I SOLUTION: To convert from a Hindu-Arabic to a Mayan numeral, we use a proce-
.1 dure similar to the one used to convert to a Babylonian numeral. The Mayan posi-
example, in Burmese, the numeral ?
tional values are ... , 7200, 360, 20, 1. The greatest positional value less than or
has a value of 3.
equal to 4025 is 360. Divide 4025 by 360.

II X 360}
3 X 20
5 X 1
 TIMELY TIP Notice that changing a number from the Babylonian or Mayan
numeration System to the Hindu-Arabic (or decimal or base 10) system involves
multiplication. Changing a number from the Hindu-Arabic system to the Baby-
lonian or Mayan numeration system involves division.

Concept/Writing Exercises 19.4387 20. 23,468 21. 16,402

1. What is the most common type of numeration system used 22. 125,678 23. 346,861 24. 3,765,934
in the world today?
2. What is another name for a place-value system? In Exercises 25-30, write the Babylonian numeral as a
3. Consider the numbers 40 and 400 in the Hindu-Arabic Hindu-Arabic numeral.
>-
numeration system. What does the 4 represent in each 25. ««n 26.
number? «<Tnn
>-
4. What is the most common base used for a positional value 27. <nT nn 28. <T «pn
system? Explain why you believe the base you named is
the most common base. >- >-

5. In a true positional-value system, what symbols are re-

29. T «T <PT 30. < «pn n
quired?
6. a) What is the base in the Hindu-Arabic numeration In Exercises 31-36, write the numeral as a Babylonian
system? numeral.
b) What are the digits in the Hindu-Arabic numeration 31. 88 32. 97 33. 295
system?
34. 512 35. 3685 36. 3030
7. Explain how to write a number in expanded form in a posi-
tional-value numeration system.
In Exercises 37-42, write the Mayan numeral as a
8. Why was the Babylonian system not a true place-value
system? Hindu-Arabic numeral.

9. a) The Babylonian system did not have a symbol for zero.

Why did this lead to some confusion?
b) Write the numbers 133 and 7980 as Babylonian
numerals.
10. Consider the Babylonian number represented by T . <
Give two numbers in Hindu-Arabic numerals this number
may represent. Explain your answer.
11. List the first five positional values, starting with the units
position, for the Mayan numeration system.
12. Describe two ways that the Mayan place-value system dif-
fers from the Hindu-Arabic place-value system. 43. 17 44. 257 45. 297
46.406 47. 2163 48. 1978
49. Comparisons of Systems Compare the advantages and dis-
advantages of a place-value system with those of
In Exercises 13-24, write the Hindu-Arabic numeral in ex- a) additive numeration systems.
pandedform. b) multiplicative numeration systems.
c) ciphered numeration systems.
13.63 14. 75 15. 359 50. Your Own System Create your own place-value system.
16. 562 17. 897 18. 3769 Write 2005 in your system.
In Exercises 51 and 52, write the numeral in the indicated
systems of nume ration.
61. Hidden in the box are the names of the four different types
of systems of numeration we discussed in this chapter:
ADDITIVE, MULTIPLICATIVE, CIPHERED, and
PLACE-VALUE (without the hyphen). You find them by
going box by box, but the boxes you move between must
touch vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. You can use
the same box more than once when spelling out a word.
In Exercises 53 and 54, suppose a place-value numeration Find the names of the numeration systems. Make sure you
system has base 0, with digits represented by the symbols understand how each system of numeration works.
D.O,D, and 0. Write each expression in expandedform.
M L P R E

A I A D H

V C T D P
55. a) Is there a largest number in the Babylonian numeration
E A L I C
system? Explain.
b) Write the Babylonian numeral for 999,999. A M U E V

56. a) Is there a largest number in the Mayan numeration sys-

tem? Explain.
b) Write the Mayan numeral for 999,999.

In Exercises 57-60, first convert each numeral to a

62. Investigate and write a report on the development of the
Hindu-Arabic numeral and then peiform the indicated op-
Hindu-Arabic system of numeration. Start with the earliest
eration. Finally, convert the answer back to a numeral in records of this system in India.
the original numeration system.
63. The Arabic numeration system currently in use is a base 10
positional-value system, which uses different symbols than
the Hindu-Arabic numeration system. Write the symbols
used in the Arabic system of numeration and their equiva-
lent symbols in the Hindu-Arabic numeration system.
Write 54,607, and 2000 in Arabic numerals.

The numbers 10 and 60 are called the bases of the Hindu-Arabic and Babylonian sys-
tems, respectively.
 Any counting number greater than 1 may be used as a base for a positional-value
DID YOU KNOW numeration system. If a positional-value system has a base b, then its positional val-
ues will be

T he Kewa people of Papua, New

Guinea, have gone well beyond
counting on their fingers: They use
the entire upper body. Going from
the little finger of one hand, down
the elbow, to shoulder to head to
shoulder, down the other elbow, to
the little finger of the opposite hand
provides them with a count of 68.

As we indicated earlier, the Mayan numeration system is based on the number 20. It is
not, however, a true base 20 positional-value system. Why not?
The reason for the almost universal acceptance of base 10 numeration systems is
that most human beings have 10 fingers. Even so, there are still some positional-value
numeration systems that use bases other than 10. Some societies are still using a base
2 numeration system. They include some groups of people in Australia, New Guinea,
Africa, and South America. Bases 3 and 4 are also used in some areas of South Amer-
ica. Base 5 systems were used by some primitive tribes in Bolivia, but the tribes are
now extinct. The pure base 6 system occurs only sparsely in Northwest Africa. Base 6
also occurs in other systems in combination with base 12, the duodecimal system.
We continue to see remains of other base systems in many countries. For exam-
ple, there are 12 inches in a foot, 12 months in a year. Base 12 is also evident in the
dozen, the 24-hour day, and the gross (12 X 12). English uses the word score to
mean 20, as in "Four score and seven years ago." Remains of base 60 are found in
measurements of time (60 seconds to a minute, 60 minutes to an hour) and angles (60
seconds to one minute, 60 minutes to one degree).
The base 2, or binary system, has become very important because it is the inter-
nallanguage of the computer. For example, when a grocery store's cash register com-
puter records the price of your groceries by using a scanning device, the bar codes it
scans on the packages are in binary form. Computers use a two-digit "alphabet" that
consists of the numerals 0 and J. Every character on a standard keyboard can be rep-
resented by a combination of those two numerals. A single numeral such as 0 or 1 is
called a bit. Other bases that computers make use of are base 8 and base 16. A group
of eight bits is called a byte. In the American Standard Code for Information Inter-
change (ASCII) code, used in most computers, the byte 0 I00000 I represents the char-
acter A, 01100001 represents the character a, 00110000 represents the character 0,
and 0011000 I represents the character I.
A place-value system with base b must have b distinct symbols, one for zero and
one for each number less than the base. A base 6 system must have symbols for the
numbers 0, I, 2, 3, 4, and 5. All numbers in base 6 are constructed from these 6 sym-
bols. A base 8 system must have symbols for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. All numbers in
base 8 are constructed from these 8 symbols, and so on.
A number in a base other than base 10 will be indicated by a subscript to the right
of the number. Thus, 1235 represents a number in base 5. The number 1236 represents
a number in base 6. The value of 1235 is not the same as the value of 12310, and the
value of 1236 is not the same as the value 12310. A base 10 number may be written
without a subscript. For example 123 means 12310 and 456 means 45610. For clarity
in certain problems, we will use the subscript 10 to indicate a number in base 10.
 Remember the symbols that represent the base itself, in any base b, are lOb' For
example, in base 5, the symbols 105 represent the number 5. Note that
105 = 1 X 5 + 0 X I = 5 + 0 = 510, or the number 5 in base 10. The symbols
105 mean one group of 5 and no units. In base 6, the symbols 106 represent the num-
ber 6. The symbols 106 represent one group of 6 and no units, and so on.
To change a number in a base other than 10 to a base 10 number, we follow the
same procedure we used in Section 4.2 to change the Babylonian and Mayan numbers
to base 10 numbers. Multiply each digit in the number by its respective positional
value. Then find the sum of the products.

EXAMPLE 1 Convertingfrom Base 6 to Base 10

r Convert 4536 to base 10.

I SOLUTION: In b~se 6, the positional values are ... ,63,62,6, 1. In expanded form,

4536 = (4 X 62) + (5 X 6) + (3 XI)

= (4 X 36) + (5 X 6) + (3 Xl)
144 + 30 + 3
= 177

In Example 1, the units digit in 4536 is 3. Notice that 36 has the same value as 310
since both are equal to 3 units. That is, 36 = 310, If n is a digit less than the base b,
and the base b is less than or equal to 10, then nb = n 10.

-,EXAMPLE 2 Convertingfrom Base 8 to Base 10

Convert 36158 to base 10.
SOLUTION:

36158 = (3 X 83) + (6 X 82) + (1 X 8) + (5 X 1)

(3 X 512) + (6 X 64) + (1 X 8) + (5 X 1)
1536 + 384 + 8 + 5
1933

A base 12 system must have 12 distinct symbols. In this text, we use the symbols
0, 1, '2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, T, and E, where T represents ten and E represents eleven.
Why will the numerals 1012 and 1112 have different meanings than 10 and II? The
number 1012 represents 1 group of twelve plus 0 units, or twelve. The number 11]2
represents 1 group of twelve plus 1 unit, or 13.

rEXAMPLE 3 Converting from Base 12 to Base 10

Convert 12T612 to base 10:

SOLUTION:

12T6]2 = (1 X 123) + (2 X 122) + (T X 12) + (6 X 1)

= (1 X 1728) + (2 X 144) + (lOX 12) + (6 Xl)
1728 + 288 + 120 + 6
= 2142
•..EXAMPLE 4 Converting from Base 2
Convert 1011012 to base 10.

SOLUTION:

1011012 = (1 X 25) + (0 X 24) + (1 X 23) + (1 X 22) + (0 X 2) + (1 X 1)

32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 45

To change a number from a base 10 system to a different base, we will use a pro-
cedure similar to the one we used to convert base 10 numbers to Babylonian and
Mayan numbers, as was explained in Section 4.2. Divide the base 10 number by the
highest power of the new base that is less than or equal to the given number. Record
this quotient. Then divide the remainder by the next smaller power of the new base
and record this quotient. Repeat this procedure until the remainder is a number less
than the new base. The answer is the set of quotients listed from left to right, with the
remainder on the far right. This procedure is illustrated in Examples 5 through 7.

SOLUTION: We are converting a number in base 10 to a number in base 8. The posi-

tional values in the base 8 system are ... , 83, 82, 8, 1, or ... , 512, 64, 8, 1. The
highest power of 8 that is less than or equal to 486 is 82, or 64. Divide 486 by 64.

First digit in answer

!
486 -7- 64 ~ 7 with remainder 38

Second digit in answer

!
38 -7- 8 ~ 4 with remainder 6
i
Third digit in answer

There are 4 groups of 8 in 38 and 6 units remaining. Since the remainder, 6, is less
than the base, 8, no further division is required.
vlvl.Y '7)- >P

= (7 X 64) + (4 X 8) + (6 Xl)
2
= (7 X 8 ) + (4 X 8) + (6 X 1)
= 7468

Notice that we placed the subscript 8 to the right of 746 to show that it is a base 8
Lnumber. .••
 Convert 273 to base 3.

SOLUTION: The place values in the base 3 system are ... , 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 3, 1, or
· .. , 729, 243, 81, 27, 9, 3, 1. The highest power of the base that is less than or equal
to 273 is 35, or 243. Successive divisions by the powers of the base give the follow-
ing result.

273 -;- 243 = J with remainder 30

30 -;- 81 = 0 with remainder 30
30 -;- 27 = I with remainder)
3 -;- 9 = 0 with remainder 3
3 -;- 3 = 1 with remainder 0

The remainder, 0, is less than the base, 3, so no further division is necessary. To ob-
tain the answer, list the quotients from top to bottom followed by the remainder in
the last division.
The number 273 can be represented as one group of 243, no groups of 81, one
group of 27, no groups of 9, one group of 3, and no units.

I 273 = (1 X 243) + (0 X 81) + (1 X 27) + (0 X 9) + (I X 3) + (0 Xl)

(1 X 35) + (0 X 34) + (1 X 33) + (0 X 32) + (1 X 3) + (0 X 1)

L = 1010103

Convert 558 to base 12.

SOLUTION: The place values in base 12 are ... , 123, 122,12, I, or ... , 1728, 144,
12, 1. The highest power of the base that is less than or equal to 558 is 122, or 144.

558 -;- 144 = 3 ith remainder 126

126 -;- 12 = T with re~ainder 6

TIMELY TIP It is important to remember the following items presented in this

section.
• If a number is shown without a base, we assume the number is a base 10
number, and
• When converting a base 10 number to a different base, your answer should
never contain a digit greater than or equal to that different base.
You should also remember that changing a number given in a base other than
10 to a number in base 10 involves multiplication. Changing a base 10 number to
a number in a different base involves division.
 Computers make use of three numeration systems: the binary (base 2), octal
(base 8), and hexadecimal (base 16) numeration systems. Computers and calculators
use the binary system to perform their internal computations. The binary number sys-
tem contains only two digits, 0 and 1. All numbers we enter into a computer are con-
verted internally into a series of O's and 1 's. When a computer performs a calculation
W e use our place-value system
daily without thinking of its
complexity. The place-value system
it treats 0 as an "off" switch and 1 as an "on" switch. Using these electronic switches,
the computer performs calculations using binary numbers, and then the internal result
has come a long way from the first is converted back to a decimal number for us to view.
and oldest type of numeration sys- The octal system is used by computer programmers who work with internal com-
tem, the additive numeration system. puter codes. In a computer, the central processing unit (CPU) often uses the hexadec-
The changes in numeration systems
imal system to convey information to the printer and other output devices.
evolved slowly. Most countries now
We have already given examples of converting numbers given in the binary sys-
use a place-value system. For exam-
tem and the octal system to numbers in the decimal system, and vice versa. Now let's
ple, the numeration system used in
China today is different from the work an example using the hexadecimal system. Since a hexadecimal system contains
traditional system discussed in this 16 symbols, it is treated similarly to a base 12 system in that we need to use additional
chapter. The present-day system in symbols for numerals. See Examples 3 and 7.
China is a positional-value system
rather than a multiplicative system,
and in some areas of China, 0 is used
as the numeral for zero. Often when
you travel to ethnjc areas of cities or EXAMPLE 8 Convert to andfrom Base 16
to foreign countries, numbers are in-
dicated using both that country's nu- In this example, let the numerals 0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F rep-
merals and Hindu-Arabic numerals, resent the numerals in a base 16 system where A through F represent ten through
as shown in the photo. fifteen, respectively.
Ann.. Skin C", , S""ly C,nlfl I a) Convert 7DEI6 to base 10. b) Convert 6713 to base 16.

~.n~~t.j; SOLUTION: ;;., ~ / VI

-::939-7105 =tlWi~ a) In a base 16 system the positional values are ... , 163, 162, 16,1 or
... 4096,256, 16, 1. Since D has a value of 13 and E has a value of 14, we
It is likely that when new numeration perform the following calculation.
systems are presented they appear ab-
stract to the public. Abstract mathe- 2
7DEI6 = (7 X (6 ) + (D X 16) + (E X I)
matics often becomes the basis for
important discoveries and inventions (7 X 256) + (13 X 16) + (14 X I)
in the future. That is the case with the 1792 + 208 + 14
binary numeration system. When the
= 2014
binary numeration system was first
introduced, nobody could have
dreamed that it would form the basis b) The highest power of base 16 less than or equal to 6713 is 163, or 4096. If we
for our computers. Today, computers obtain a quotient greater than nine but less than sixteen, we will use the corre-
are found everywhere: in our cars, sponding letter A through F.
cameras, watches, calculators, sewing
machines; at checkout counters; and
in hundreds of other places. When a
2617 256 A with remainder 57
number or letter is entered into a
computer it is converted internally 57 16 3 with remainder 9
into a binary number. The computa-
tions within a computer are made us-
ing binary arithmetic, and the binary
answer is converted back to a decimal
number for us to read. Computers
also use octal (base 8) and hexadeci-
mal (base 16) numeration systems.
Concept/Writing Exercises In Exercises 45-50, convert 2005 to a numeral in the base
1. In your own words, explain how to change a number in a indicated.
base other than base 10 to base 10. 45. 2 46. 3 47. 5
2. In)our own words, explain how to change a number in 48. 7 49. 12 SO. 16
base 10 to a base other than base 10.
In Exercises 51-56, if any numerals are written incorrectly,
explain why.

In Exercises 3-20, convert the numeral to a numeral in 51. 50135 52. 12033
hase 10. 53. 6748 54. 120612
55.40867 56. 30045
3. 56 4. 607 5. 425
6. 1012 7. 10112 8. 11012
Problem Solving
9.8412 10. 210213 11. 5658
In Exercises 57-60, assume the numerals given are in a
12. 654r 13. 204325 14. 1011112
base 5 numeration system. The numerals in this system and
15.40036 16. 123E12 17. 1238 their equivalent Hindu-Arabic numerals are
18.20438 19. 147058 20. 673429

In Exercises 21-36, convert the base 10 numeral to a I1U-

/'
Write the Hindu-Arabic numerals equivalent to each of the
rneral in the base indicated.
following.
21. 8 to base 2 22. 16 to base 2
57. w8 58. c)8 59. wc)8 60.808
23. 23 to base 2 24. 243 to base 6 s s s s
25. 635 to base 6 26. 908 to base 4
In Exercises 61-64, write the Hindu-Arabic numerals in
27.2061 to base 12 28. 200 to base 4 the numeration system discussed in Exercises 57-60.
29. 529 to base 8 30. 8 I to base 3
31. 2867 to base 12 32. 4312 to base 6
33. 1011 to base 2 34. 1589 to base 7 In Exercises 65-68, suppose colors as indicated below rep-
35. 2307 to base 8 36. 13,469 to base 8 resent numerals in a base 4 numeration system.

In Exercises 37-40, assume that a base 16 positional-value

system uses the numerals 0, I, 2, 3,4, 5, 6; 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, Write the Hindu-Arabic numerals equivalent to each of the
0, E, and F, where A through F represent ten through fif- following.
teen, respectively. Convert the numeral to a numeral in
hase 10. See Example 8.

37. 73516 38.58116 In Exercises 69-72, write the Hindu-Arabic numerals in

40. 24FEA16 the base 4 numeration system discussed in Exercises
39.6038716
65-68. You will need to use the colors indicated above to
write the answer.
In Exercises 41-44, convert the numeral to a numeral in
hase 16. See Example 8.
73. Another Conversion Method There is an alternative
41. 573 42. 349 method for changing a number in base 10 to a different
43. 5478 44. 34,721 base. This method will be used to convert 328 to base 5.
 Dividing 328 by 5 gives a quotient of 65 and a remainder different orderings of O's and I's (or how many different
of 3. Write the quotient below the dividend and the re- characters) can be made by using the last seven positions
mainder on the right, as shown. of an eight-bit byte?

51328 remainder
65 3

Continue this process of division by 5.

']'28 rem",d"
5
5
65
13
3
0
r ~
(In the last division, since the
dividend, 2, is smaller than
the divisor, 5, the quotient is
5 2 3 ~ o and the remainder is 2.)
o 2
Note that the division continues until the quotient is zero.
The answer is read from the bottom number to the top
number in the remainder column. Thus, 328 = 2303s.
a) Explain why this procedure results in the proper
Recreational Mathematics
answer. 77. Find b if ll1b = 43. 78. Find d if ddds = 124.
b) Convert 683 to base 5 by this method. 79. Suppose a base 4 place-value system has its digits repre-
c) Convert 763 to base 8 by this method. sented by colors as follows:

a) Determine the value of ••••• 4 in base 10.

b) Write 177 in the base 4 system using only the four
74. a) Use the numerals 0, 1, and 2 to write the first 20 num-
colors given in the exercise.
bers in the base 3 numeration system.
b) What is the next number after 2223 ?
75. a) Your Own Numeration System Make up your own
base 20 positional-value numeration system. Indicate 80. Write a report on how digital computers use the binary
the 20 numerals you will use to represent the 20 num- number system.
bers less than the base. 81. We mention at the beginning of this section that some soci-
b) Write the numbers 523 and 5293 in your base 20 eties still use a base 2 and base 3 numeration system.
numeration system. These societies are in Australia, New Guinea, Africa, and
76. Computer Code The ASCII code used by most computers South America. Write a report on these societies, covering
uses the last seven positions of an eight-bit byte to repre- the symbols they use and how they combine these symbols
sent all the characters on a standard keyboard. How many to represent numbers in their numeration system.

When computers perform calculations, they do so in base 2, the binary system. In this
section, we explain how to perform calculations in base 2 and other bases.
In a base 2 system, the only digits are 0 and 1, and the place values are

... , 24, 23,22,2, 1

or ... ,16,8,4,2,1
 Suppose we want to add 12 + 12, The subscript 2 indicates that we are adding in base

° °
2. Remember the answer to 12 + 12 must be written using only the digits and 1. The
sum of 12 + 12 is 102, which represents 1 group of two and units in base 2. Recall
that 102 means 1(2) + 0(1).
If we wanted to find the sum of 102 + 12, we would add the digits in the right-
hand, or units, column. Since O2 + 12 = 12, the sum of 102 + 12 = J 12,

jj_; 1_1~ _
We are going to work additional examples and exercises in base 2, so rather than
performing individual calculations in every problem, we can construct and use an
addition table, Table 4.7, for base 2 (just as we used an addition table in base 10 when
we first learned to add in base 10).

EXAMPLE 1 Adding in Base 2

Add 11012
~
SOLUTION: Begin by adding the numbers in the right-hand, or units, column. From pre-
°
vious discussion, and as can be seen in Table 4.7, 12 + 12 = 102, Place the under the
units column and carry the 1 to the 2's column, the second column from the right.

Place value of columns

23 22 2 1
~ ~ ~ ~
1 1 10 1
1 1 1
O2

Now add the three digits in the 2's column, 12 + O2 + 12, Treat this as
(12 + 02) + 12. Therefore, add 12 + O2 to get 12, then add 12 + 12 to get 102'
°
Place the under the 2's column and carry the 1 to the 22 column (the third column
from the right).

Now add the three l's in the 22 column to get (12 + 12) + 12 = 102 + 12 = 112.
Place the 1 under the 22 column and carry the 1 to the 23 column (the fourth col-
umn from the right).

10 1
1 1

° O2
LTherefore, the sum is 101002'
TABLE 4.8 Base 5 Addition Table Let's now look at addition in a base 5 system. In base 5, the only digits are 0, 1,2,
3, and 4, and the positional values are
+ 0 1 2 3 4

0 0 I 2 3 4 54, 53, 52,5, J

or ... , 625, 125, 25, 5, 1
1 1 2 3 4 10
2 2 3 4 10 11 What is the sum of 45 + 35? We can consider this to mean (J + 1 + I + I) +
3 3 4 10 11 12 (1 + I + 1). We can regroup the seven l's into one group of five and two units as
(1 + I + 1 + I + 1) + (1 + 1). Thus, the sum of 45 + 35 = 125 (circled in
4 4 10 II © 13
Table 4.8). Recall that 125 means J (5) + 2(1). We can use this same procedure in
obtaining the remaining values in the base 5 addition table.

E~PLE 2 Use the Base 5 Addition TabLe

I Add 425
335

SOLUTION: First determine that 25 + 35 is 105 from Table 4.8. Record the 0 and
carry the 1 to the 5's column.

Add the numbers in the second column, (J 5 + 45) + 35 = 105 + 35 = 135.

Record the 13.

•EXAMPLE 3 Add in Base 5

Add 12345

I 20425

SOLUTION:

12 13 45
2 0 4 25
3 3 3 15

You can develop an addition table for any base and use it to add in that base. As
you get more comfortable with addition in other bases, however, you may prefer to
add numbers in other bases by using mental arithmetic. To do so, convert the sum of
the numbers being added from the given base to base 10 and then convert the base 10
number back into the given base. You must clearly understand how to convert from
base 10 to the given base, as discussed in Section 4.3. For example, to add 79 + 89,
add 7 + 8 in base 10 to get 1510 and then mentally convert 1510 to 169 using the
procedure given earlier. Remember, 169 when converted to base 10 becomes
1(9) + 6( J), or 15. Addition using this procedure is illustrated in Examples 4 and 5.
DID YOU KNOW

spealWtj to M~

F or the past 600 years, we have used the Hindu-Arabic system of numeration without change. Our base
10 numeration system seems so obvious to us, perhaps because of our 10 fingers and 10 toes, but it
would be rash to think that numbers in other bases are not useful. In fact, one of the most significant
numeration systems is the binary system, or base 2. This system, with its elemental simplicity, is what is
used by computers to process information and "talk" to one another. When a computer receives a command
or data, every character in the command or data must first be converted into a binary number for the com-
puter to understand and use it. Because of the ever-expanding number of computers in use, the users of the
binary number system may soon outnumber the users of Almost all packaged goods
base 10. we buy today are marked
with a universal product
code (UPC), a black-and-
white bar code. An optical
On digital video discs (DVDs) and compact discs scanner "reads" the pattern
(CDs), video and sound are digitally encoded on the of black and white, thick and
underside of the disc in a binary system of pits and thin, and converts it to a bi-
"lands" (non pits). To play the disc, a laser beam tracks nary code that is sent to the
along the spiral and is reflected when it hits a land scanner's computer, which
(signal sent = 1), but it is not reflected by the pits (no then calls up the appropri-
signal = 0). The binary sequence is then converted ate price and records the
into video images and music. sale for inventory purposes.

EXAMPLE 4 Adding in Base 10; Converting to Base 3

Add 10223

r 21213

SOLUTION: To solve this problem, make the necessary conversions by using men-
tal arithmetic. 2 + 1 = 310 = 103, Record the 0 and carry the 1.

1 '0
2 1

1 '0
2 1
2
 10223
21213
102203

EXAMPLE 5 Adding in Base 10; Converting to Base 5

Add 3325
3445
4435
3145

SOLUTION: Adding the digits in the right-hand column gives 2 +4 +3 +4 =

1310 = 235, Record the 3 and carry the 2. Adding the 2 with the digits in the next
column yields 2 + 3 + 4 + 4 + 1 = 1410 = 245, Record the 4 and carry the 2.
Adding the 2 with the digits in the left-hand column gives 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 3 =
1510 = 305, Record both digits. The sum of these four numbers is 30435,

23 23 25
3 4 45
4 4 35
3 1 45
3 0 4 35

Subtraction can also be performed in other bases. Always remember that when you
"borrow," you borrow the amount of the base given in the subtraction problem. For
example, if subtracting in base 5, when you borrow, you borrow 5. If subtracting in
base 12, when you borrow, you borrow 12.

...EXAMPLE 6 Subtracting in Base 5

Subtract 30325
-10045

SOLUTION: We will perform the subtraction in base 10 and convert the results to
base 5. Since 4 is greater than 2, we must borrow one group of 5 from the preced-
ing column. This action gives a sum of 5 + 2, or 7 in base 10. Now we subtract 4
I from 7; the difference is 3. We complete the problem in the usual manner. The 3 in
the second column becomes a 2, 2 - 0 = 2, 0 - 0 = 0, and 3 - I = 2.

30325
-10045
20235
 EXAMPLE 7 Subtracting in Base 12
Subtract 46812
-29512

SOLUTION: 8 - 5 = 3. Next we must subtract 9 from 6. Since 9 is greater than 6,

borrowing is necessary. We must borrow one group of 12 from the preceding col-
umn. We then have a sum of 12 + 6 = 18 in base 10. Now we subtract 9 from 18,
and the difference is 9. The 4 in the left column becomes 3, and 3 - 2 = l.

46812
-29512
19312

Multiplication
Multiplication can also be performed in other bases. Doing so is helped by forming a
multiplication table for the base desired. Suppose we want to determine the product of
45 X 35, In base 10,4 X 3 means there are four groups of three units. Similarly, in a
base 5 system, 45 X 35 means there are four groups of three units, or

TABLE 4.9 Base 5 Multiplication

Table

X 0 1 2 3 4
or two groups of five, and two units. Thus, 45 X 35 = 225,
0 0 0 0 0 0 We can construct other values in the base 5 multiplication table in the same way.
1 0 I 2 3 4 You may, however, find it easier to multiply the values in the base 10 system and then
2 0 2 4 II 13 change the product to base 5 by using the procedure discussed in Section 4.3. Multi-
plying 4 X 3 in base 10 gives 12, and converting 12 from base 10 to base 5 gives 225,
3 0 3 II 14 22
The product of 45 X 35 is circled in Table 4.9, the base 5 multiplication table.
4 0 4 13 @ 31 The other values in the table may be found by either method discussed.

EXAMPLE 8 Using the Base 5 Multiplication TabLe

Multiply 135
X 35

SOLUTION: Multiply as you would in base 10, but use the base 5 multiplication
I tableto find the products. When the product consists of two digits, record the right
digit and carry the left digit. Multiplying gives 35 X 35 = 145, Record the 4 and
carry the I.
L The product is 445,

Constructing a multiplication table is often tedious, especially when the base is

large. To multiply in a given base without the use of a table, multiply in base 10 and
convert the products to the appropriate base number before recording them. This pro-
cedure is illustrated in Example 9.

r EXAMPLE 9 Multiplying in Base 7

Multiply 437
X 257

2 X 4 = 810 = 1(7) + 1(1) = 117, Record the 11. Now add in base 7 to deter-
mine the answer. Remember, in base 7, there are no digits greater than 6.

2437
X 257
311
116
15017
 DID YOU KNOW
Division is performed in much the same manner as long division in base 10. A
detailed example of a division in base 5 is illustrated in Example 10. The same proce-
dure is used for division in any other base.

12th
century
1 Z. 3~ Y c:. J\. 'D
, 0
13th
century J 13 9- ~ C; 1\ 8 9 & EXAMPLE 10 Dividing in Base 5
About
1300 ~~ Yc- Ae> "6" Divide 25h435.
" .)

,
About
1429 12 ~ f V A& ?~
SOLUTION: Using the multiplication table for base 5, Table 4.9 on page 193, we list
15th
century r 2 ;'i 6 7'i ?o the multiples of the divisor, 2.
20th
century :L 2 3 ~ Sb ?8 q 0 25 X 15 = 25
Computer* I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 25 X 25 = 45
25 X 35 = 115
25 X 45 = 135

D uring the Middle Ages, Western

Europeans were reluctant to
give up Roman numerals in favor of Since 25 X 45 = 135, which is the largest product less than 145,25 divides into 145
Hindu-Arabic numerals. The rapid four times.
expansion of trade and commerce
during the fifteenth century, how-
4
ever, caused the need for quicker
systems of calculation. The inven- 25h435
tion of movable type in 1450 also 13
ensured a certain consistency in the 1
way numerals were depicted, yet we
still find ways to alter them. Subtract 135 from 145, The difference is 15, Record the 1. Now bring down the 3 as
when dividing in base 10.

4
25h435
13
13

445
25h435
13
13
13
o
 A division problem can be checked by multiplication. If the division was per-
formed correctly, (quotient X divisor) + remainder = dividend. We can check Ex-
ample 10 as follows.

(445 X 25) + 05 = 1435

445
X 25
1435 Check

EXAMPLE 11 Dividing in Base 6

Divide 46h4306.
SOLUTION: The multiples of 4 in base 6 are
i
46 X 16 = 46
46 X 26 = 126
46 X 36 = 206
46 X 46 = 246
46 X 56 = 326

4046
46h4306
24
03
00
30
24
2

Thus, the quotient is 4046, with remainder 26,

Be careful when subtracting! When subtracting 4 from 0, you will need to bon·ow.
Remember that you borow 106, which is the same as 6 in base 10.

I Check: Does (4046 X 46) + 26 = 24306?

4046
X 46
24246 + 26 = 24306 True
Concept/Writing Exercises 22. 10112 23. 78212 24. 12213
- 1012 -13T12 - 2023
1. a) What are the first five positional values, from right to
left, in base b? 25. 10012 26. 2T3412 27. 42237
b) What are the first five positional values, from right to - 1102 - 34512 - 3047
left, in base 6?
2. In the addition 28. 42325 29. 21003 30.* 4E716
-23415 -10123 -18916
3678
+248

what are the positional values of the first column on the 1n Exercises 31-42, multiply in the indicated base.
right, the second column from the right, and the thjrd col- 31. 335 32. 3236 33. 3427
umn from the right? Explain how you determined your X 25
answer. ~ ~
3. Suppose you add two base 5 numbers and you obtain an 34. 1012 35. 5126 36. 12412
answer of 4635, Can your answer be correct? Explain. ~ X 236 ~
4. Suppose you add two base 3 numbers and you obtain an
answer of 20323. Can your answer be correct? Explain. 37. 4369 38. 6T312 39. 1112
X 259 X2412 X 1012
5. In your own words, explain how to add two numbers in a
given base. In your explanation, answer the question, 41.
40. 5849 3167 42. 8TI2
"What happens when the sum of the numbers in a column
X 249 X 167 X 2TI2
is greater than the base?"
6. In your own words, explain how to subtract two numbers
in a given base. Include in your explanation what you do
In Exercises 43-54, divide in the indicated base.
when, in one column, you must subtract a larger number
from a smaller number. 43.12h102 44. 46h316 45.35)1435
46. 78h358 47. 24J3124 48. 612)43112
Practice the Skills
49. 24h134 50. 56h146 51. 35)2245
In Exercises 7-18, add in the indicated base.
52. 46h106 53. 67)4047 54. 37hl017
7.435 8. 338 9. 23034
415 658 2324
Problem Solving
10. 1012 11. 79912 12. 2223 In Exercises 55-58, the numerals in a base 5 numeration
~ 21812 223 system are as illustrated with their equivalent Hindu-
Arabic numerals.
13.11123 14. 47012 15. 146317
10113 34712 60407

16. 13418 17. 11102 18:"43AI6

3418 1102 49616
55. G) 56'8
5
fj
_5
8
_5

21. 23425 G)8

-14425
57. 8
58'G)
5 5
C) 8
___ 5 88
___ 5
In Exercises 59-66, assume the numerals given are in a Challenge Problems/Group Activities
base 4 numeration system. In this system, suppose colors Divide in the indicated base.
are used as numerals, as indicated below.
69. 14sh42s 70. 204h234
71. Consider the multiplication
4628
Add the following base 4 numbers. Your answers will con- X 358
tain a variety of the colors indicated. a) MUltiply the numbers in base 8.
62.••• 4
b) Convert 4628 and 358 to base 10.
••• 4
c) Multiply the base 10 numbers determined in part (b).
d) Convert the answer obtained in base 8 in part (a) to
base 10.
Subtract the following in base 4. Your answer will contain a e) Are the answers obtained in parts (c) and (d) the same?

63.
-
..4
variety of the colors indicated.

•• 4
64.
Why or why not?

Recreational Mathematics
72. Determine b, by trial and error, if 1304b = 204.
73. In a base 4 system, each of the four numerals is repre-
For Exercises 67 and 68, study the pattern in the boxes. The sented by one of the following colors:
number in the bottom row of each box represents the value
of each dot in the box directly above it. For example, the
following box represents (3 X 72) + (2 X 7) + (4 Xl), Determine the value of each color if the following addition
or the number 3247, This number in base 10 is 165. is true in base 4.

67. Determine the base 5 number represented by the dots in

the top row of the boxes. Then convert the base 5 number
to a number in base 10. 74. Investigate and write a report on the use of the duodecimal
(base 12) system as a system of numeration. You might
contact the Dozenal Society (formerly the Duodecimal So-
~ ciety), Nassau Community College, Garden City, NY
11530 or use their website
68. Fill in the correct amount of dots in the columns above the
www.polar.sunynassau.edu/-dozenall for information.
base values if the number represented by the dots is to
equal 327 in base 10. 75. One method used by computers to perform subtraction is the
"end around carry method." Do research and write a report
explaining, with specific examples, how a computer per-
~ forms subtraction by using the end around carry method.

Our present procedures for multiplying and dividing numbers are the most recent to
be developed. Early civilizations used various methods for multiplying and dividing.
Multiplication was performed by duplation and mediation, by the galley method, and
by Napier rods. Following is an explanation of each method.
Duplation and Mediation
I EXAMPLE 1 A Pairing Technique for Multiplying
Multiply 17 X 30 using duplation and mediation.

I SOLUTION: Write 17 and 30 with a dash between to separate them. Divide the num-
ber on the left, 17, in half, drop the remainder, and place the quotient, 8, under the
17.Double the number on the right, 30, obtaining 60, and place it under the 30.You
will then have the following paired lines.

17-30
8-60

Continue this process, taking one-half the number in the left-hand column, disre-
I gardingthe remainder, and doubling the number in the right-hand column, as
shown below. When a 1 appears in the left-hand column, stop.

17-30
8-60
4-120
2-240
1-480

Cross out all the even numbers in the left-hand column and the corresponding num-
bers in the right-hand column.

17-30
~
4---tW
2-2zl:O
1-480

Now add the remaining numbers in the right-hand column, obtaining

I 30 + 480 = 510, which is the productyou want. If you check, you will find
that 17 X 30 = 510.

The Galley Method

The galley method (sometimes referred to as the Gelosia method) was developed after
duplation and mediation. To multiply 312 X 75 using the galley method, you con-
struct a rectangle consisting of three columns (one for each digit of 312)and two rows
(one for each digit of 75).
Place the digits 3, 1, 2 above the boxes and the digits 7, 5 on the right of the
boxes, as shown in Fig. 4.1. Then place a diagonal in each box.
Complete each box by multiplying the number on top of the box by the number
to the right of the box (Fig. 4.2). Place the units digit of the product below the diago-
nal and the tens digit of the product above the diagonal.
 Add the numbers along the diagonals, as shown with the blue shaded arrows in
Fig. 4.3, starting with the bottom right diagonal. If the sum in a diagonal is 10 or
greater, record the units digit below the rectangle and carry the tens digit to the next
diagonal to the left.
For example, when adding 4, I, and 5 (along the second blue diagonal from the
right), the sum is 10. Record the 0 below the rectangle and carry the I to the next blue
4 diagonal. The sum of 1 + I + 7 + 0 + 5 is 14. Record the 4 and carry the I. The
Figure 4.3 sum of the numbers in the next blue diagonal is I + 0 + I + I or 3.
The answer is read down the left-hand column and along the bottom, as shown by
the purple arrow in Fig. 4.3. The answer is 23,400.

PROFILE IN Napier Rods

MATHEMATICS The third method used to multiply numbers was developed from the galley method by
John Napier in the seventeenth century. His method of multiplication, known as
Napier rods, proved to be one of the forerunners of the modern-day computer. Napier
JOHN NAPIER developed a system of separate rods numbered from 0 through 9 and an additional
strip for an index, numbered vertically I through 9 (Fig. 4.4). Each rod is divided into
10 blocks. Each block below the first block contains a multiple of the number in the
first block, with a diagonal separating the digits. The units digits are placed to the
right of the diagonals and the tens digits to the left. Example 2 explains how Napier
rods are used to multiply numbers.

uring the seventeenth century.

D the growth of scientific fields
such as astronomy required the abil-
ity to perform often unwieldy calcu-
lations. The English mathematician
John Napier (1550-1617) made
great contributions toward solving
the problem of computing these
numbers. His inventions include
simple calculating machines and a
device for performing multiplication
and division known as Napier rods.
Napier also developed the theory of
logarithms.

Multiply 8 X 365, using Napier rods.

SOLUTION: To multiply 8 X 365, line up the rods 3, 6, and 5 to the right of the in-
dex, as shown in Fig. 4.5 on page 201. Below the 3,6, and 5 place the blocks that
 contain the products of 8 X 3,8 X 6, and 8 X 5, respectively. To obtain the an-
swer, add along the diagonals as in the galley method.

INDEX 000
L020~~ 920

Example 3 illustrates the procedure to follow to multiply numbers containing

more than one digit, using Napier rods.

EXAMPLE 3 Using Napier Rods to Multiply Two- and Three-Digit

Numbers

Multiply 48 X 365, using Napier rods.

SOLUTION: 48 X 365 = (40 + 8) X 365

Write (40 + 8) X 365 = (40 X 365) + (8 X 365). To find 40 X 365, deter-

mine 4 X 365 and multiply the product by 10. To evaluate 4 X 365, set up Napier
rods for 3, 6, and 5 with index 4, and then evaluate along the diagonals, as indicated.

000
INDEX

01C2TI[z]~
460

Therefore, 4 X 365 =
I

l
48 X 365 = (40 X 365) + (8 X 365) 8 x 365 = 2920
from Example 2
= 14,600 + 2920
= 17,520

4. a) Explain in your own words how multiplication using

Napier rods is performed.
1. What are the three early computational methods discussed b) Using the procedure given in part (a), multiply 25 X 6.
in this section?
2. a) Explain in your own words how multiplication by
duplation and mediation is performed.
b) Using the procedure given in part (a), multiply
267 X 193.
5.23 X 31 6. 35 X 23
3. a) Explain in your own words how multiplication by the
galley method is performed. 7. 9 X 162 8. 175 X 86
b) Using the procedure given in part (a), multiply 9. 35 X 236 to. 96 X 53
362 X 29. 11.93 X 93 12. 49 X 124
 Challenge Problems/Group Activities
13.6 X 375 14. 8 X 365 1n Exercises 33 and 34, use the method of duplation and
15.4 X 583 16. 7 X 125 mediation to perform the multiplication. Write the answer
17.75 12 in the numeration system in which the exercise is given.
X 18. 47 X 259
19.314 X 652 20. 634 X 832 33. (nlll). (nnll) 34. (XXVI) . (LXVII)
35. Develop a set of Napier rods that can be used to multiply
numbers in base 5. Illustrate how your rods can be used to
multiply 35 X 215,
21. 8 X 63 22. 7 X 63
23. 7 X 58 24. 7 X 125 In Exercises 36 and 37, (a) use the galley method to per-
25. 5 X 125 26. 75 X 125 form the multiplication. (Hint: Be sure not to list any num-
27. 9 X 6742 28. 7 X 3456 ber greater than or equal to the base within the box). Write
the answer in the base in which the exercise is given.
Problem Solving (b) Multiply the numbers as explained in Section 4.4. If you
do not obtain the results obtained in part (a), explain why.
In Exercises 29 and 30, we show multiplications using the gal-
ley method. (a) Determine the numbers being multiplied. Ex-
plain how you determined your answer. (b) Find the product.
Recreational Mathematics
29.
38. Obtain a clean U.S. $1 bill. On the back side of the bill is a
circle containing a pyramid. On the base of the pyramid is .
a Roman numeral. a) Determine the value of that Roman
numeral in our Hindu-Arabic system.
While you have that bill out, let's consider something
else. For many people the number 13 is considered an un-
lucky number. In fact, many hotels do not have a thirteenth
floor because many guests refuse to stay on the thirteenth
floor of a hotel. Yet, if you look at the back of a $1 bill,
you will find
13 steps on the pyramid.
13 letters in the Latin words Annuit Coeptis.
13 letters in "E Pluribus Unum".
13 stars above the eagle.
13 plum feathers on each span of the eagle's wing.
13 bars on the eagle's shield.
In Exercises 31 and 32, we solve a multiplication problem 13 leaves on the olive branch.
using Napier rods. (a) Determine the numbers being multi- 13 fruits.
13 'llTOws.
plied. Each empty box contains a single digit. Explain how
you determined your answer. (b) Find the product. In addition, the U.S. flag has 13 stripes, there were 13
signers of the Declaration of Independence, there were 13
original colonies, and don't forget the important Thirteenth

INDEXDDD Amendment that abolished slavery. b) So why, in your

opinion, do we as a society fear the number 13? By the

DC2:JC8J~ way, the official name for the fear of the number 13 is
triskaidekaphobia.

INDEXDDD 39. In addition to Napier rods, John Napier is credited with

making other important contributions to mathematics.
Write a report on John Napier and his contributions to

D[Z][8J~ mathematics.
40. Write a paper explaining why the duplation and mediation
method works.
rr."fgIJ z

CHAPTER 4
IMPORTANT FACTS Early Computational Methods

Types of Numeration Systems Dup1ation and mediation

Additive (Egyptian hieroglyphics, Roman) The galley method

Multiplicative (traditional Chinese) Napier rods

Ciphered (Ionic Greek)

Place-value (Babylonian, Mayan, Hindu-Arabic)

In Exercises 25-36, use the following ciphered numeration

system.
In Exercises 1-6, assume an additive numeration system in
Decimal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
which a = 1, b = 10, c = 100, and d = 1000. Find the
value of the numeral. Units a b c d e f 0
to h
Tens k m n 0 p q
1. dddcaaa 3. bcccad Hundreds t u v w x y z A
4. cbdadaaa 6. ccbaddac Thousands B C D E F G H I J
Ten thousands K L M N 0 p Q R S

In Exercises 7-12, assume the same additive numeration Convert the numeral to a Hindu-Arabic numeral.
system as in Exercises 1-6. Write the numeral in terms of
a, b, c, and d. 25. me 26. uh 27. woh
28. NGzqc 29. PEvqa 30. Pwki
7. 56 8. 125 9. 293
10. 2005 11. 6851 12. 2314
31. 85 32. 372 33. 493
34. 1997 35. 53,467 36. 75,496
In Exercises 13-18, assume a multiplicative numeration
system in which a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4, e = 5,
In Exercises 37--42, convert /462 to a numeral in the indi-
f = 6,g = 7,h = 8,i = 9,x = 1O,y = 100, and
z = 1000. Find the value of the numeral. cated numeration system.

14. bxg 37. Egyptian 38. Roman 39. Chinese

40. Ionic Greek 41. Babylonian 42. Mayan
15. gydxi 16. dzfxh

17. ezfydxh 18. fziye In Exercises 43-48, convert the numeral to a Hindu-Arabic
numeral.

In Exercises 19-24, assume the same multiplicative 44. "

numeration system as in Exercises 13-18. Write the
4-
Hindu-Arabic numeral in that system.

19.82 20. 295 21. 862

22. 3094 23. 6004 24. 2001

45. X7TE 46. MCMXCI
47. > 48.
«T «pn
70. 43215 71. 17138
- 4425 -12438

In Exercises 49-54, convert the numeral to a Hindu-Arabic

numeral.
49.478 50. 1012 51. 1304 73. 326 74. 345 75. 12612
52. 34257 53. TOEI2 54. 202203 X 46 X 215 X 4712

In Exercises 55-60, convert 463 to a numeral in the base 76. 2213 77. 10112 78. 4768
indicated. X 223 X 1012 X 238

55. base 4 56. base 3 57. base 2

58. base 5 59. base 12 60. base 8
79. 12) 10112 80. 24h204 81. 35) 1305
82. 46) 30206 83. 36h0346 84. 68) 50728

61. 527 62. 101102 63. TEI2 85. Multiply 142 X 24, using the duplation and mediation
557 110012 8712 method.
64.2347 65. 30245 66. 34078 86. Multiply 142 X 24, using the galley method.
4567 40235 70148 87. Multiply 142 X 24, using Napier rods.

1. Explain the difference between a numeral and a num- In Exercises 8-12, convert the number written in base
ber. 10 to a numeral in the numeration system indicated.

In Exercises 2-7, convert the numeral to a I-iindu- 8. 463 to Egyptian

Arabic numeral. 9. 2476 to Ionic Greek
10. 1434 to Mayan
11. 1596 to Babylonian
12. 2378 to Roman

In Exercises 13-16, describe briefly each of the sys-

~ tems of numeration. Explain how each type ofnumera-
::h- tion system is used to represent numbers.
i""
13. Additive system 14. Multiplicative system
6. o<li)'~Ugnnnnll 15. Ciphered system 16. Place-value system
 In Exercises 17-20, convert the numeral to a numeral
in base 10.
25. 1335
17.567 18. 4035
+ 4345
19. 1011012 20. 3689
27. 456
In Exercises 21-24, convert the base 10 numeral to a X 236
numeral in the base indicated.
29. Multiply 35 X 28, using duplation and mediation.
21. 36 to base 2 22. 93 to base 5
30. MUltiply 43 X 196, using the galley method.
23. 2356 to base 12 24. 2938 to base 7

GROUP PROJECTS
u.s. Postal Service Bar Codes long bar that is not used in determining the zip + 4. If
the code contains 52 bars, the code represents the
Wherever we look nowadays, we see bar codes. We find zip + 4 and an extra digit referred to as a check digit. If
them on items we buy at grocery stores and department the code contains 62 bars, it contains the zip + 4, the
stores and on many pieces of mail we receive. There are last two digits of the address number, and a check digit.
various types of bar codes, but each can be considered a If the code contains 52 bars, the sum of the zip + 4 and
type of numeration system. Although bar codes may vary the check digit must equal a number that is divisible by
in design, most are made up of a series of long and short 10. If the code contains 62 bars, the sum of the zip + 4,
bars. (New bar codes now being developed use a variety the last two digits of the address number, and the check
of shapes.) In this group project, we explain how postal digit must equal a number that is divisible by 10. The
codes are used. check digit is added to make each sum divisible by 10.
The U.S. Postal Service introduced a bar coding sys- In a postal bar code, each of the digits a through 9 is
tem for zip codes in 1976. The system became known as represented by a series of five digits containing zeros and
Postnet (postal numeric encoding techniqe), and it has ones:
been refined over the years. Our basic zip code consists
of five digits. The post office would like us to use the ba-
sic zip code followed by a hyphen and four additional
11000 (0) 00011 (1) 00101 (2) 00110 (3) 01001 (4)
digits. The post office refers to this nine-digit zip code as
01010 (5) 01100 (6) 10001 (7) 10010 (8) 10100 (9)
"zip + 4."
The Postnet bar code uses a series of long and short
bars. A bar code may contain either 52 or 62 bars. The
code designates the location to which the letter is being Consider the postal code from Pittsburgh given earlier. If
sent. The following bar code, with 52 bars, is for an ad- you disregard the bar on the left, the next five bars are
dress in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 11/11. Since each small bar represents a a and each large
1••• 11.1.1 ••• 1.1.1.1.11 ••• 1••• 1.1 •• 111 •••• 11•• 11••• 1 bar represents a I, these five bars can be represented as
15250-7406 (Pittsburgh, PA) 000 11. From the chart, we see that this represents the
number I. The first five bars (after the bar on the far left
In bar codes, each short bar represents a and each has been excluded) tell the region of the country in which
long bar represents 1. Each code starts and ends with a the address is located on the map shown on the next page.
Notice that Pennsylvania is located, along with New York,
in the region marked I on the map.
I 1000 and has a value of O. If, for example, the sum o~
the nine digits in the zip + 4 were 36, then the last five
-I
digits would need to represent the number 4, to make the
sum of the digits divisible by 10. The five bars to the left
of the last bar on the right are always llsed as a check.
Now let's work some problems.
a) For the Postnet code
1111 ••• 11••• 1•• 11••• 111 ••• 1.1 •• 1•• 1•• 11•• 1.1 ••••• 111
determine the zip + 4 and the check digit. Then
check by adding the zip + 4 and the check digit. Is
the sum divisible by 10?
b) For each of the following Postnet codes, determine
the zip + 4, the last two numbers of the address num-
Alaska and m m Puerto Rico and
ber (if applicable), and the check digit.
Hawaii Virgin Islands i) 1.1.1 •••• 11.1.1.1.1 •••• 11•• 11111 •• 111I11.1 ••• 1.1.1.1

The second five lines in the bar code, .1.1., represent

ii) 1••• 11.1 •• 1.1.1 ••• 1.11 ••• 11•• 1.1.1 •••• 1.1.1 •• 11'1.1.1.1 •• 11•• 1
01010 and have a value of 5. The other digits in the c) Construct the Postnet code of long and short bars for
zip + 4 are determined in a similar manner. This code each of the numbers. The numbers represent the
has 52 bars. The 45 bars, after the first bar, give the zip + 4 and the last two digits of the address number.
zip + 4. If you add the digits in the zip + 4, you get Do not forget the check digit.
I + 5 + 2 + 5 + 0 + 7 + 4 + 0 + 6 = 30. Since 30 i) 32226-8600-34 ii) 20794-1063-50
is divisible by 10, the five bars to the left of the bar on the d) Construct the 52-bar Postnet code for your college's
very right should be O. Note that 1111I is represented as zip + 4. Don't forget to include the check digit.