1

1 – What is chemistry?
The chemistry it is the science that deals with the properties of matter and in particular the
transformations that concern it. There matter it is everything that surrounds us, that has mass
and occupies space. It is made up of particles (atoms, molecules, ions) held together by the
cohesive force.

2 - Scientific method
App. 1 - 2
3 – Physical quantities
Chemistry is one experimental science and requires the measurement of the quantities involved in the
observed phenomena.
A physical size it is a characteristic objective property of a
body or phenomenon that can be measured.

To measure a quantity it is necessary to take a sample quantity as a reference, i.e. the unit of
measurement:
L'unit of measurement is the quantity to which the value 1
corresponds.

Measure it means comparing the quantity considered with the unit of measurement, or establishing how
many times the unit of measurement is contained in the quantity considered. To do this it is necessary to
use the appropriate unit of measurement and carefully choose its multiple or submultiple: if you need to
measure the distance between home and school use the metre, hectometer or kilometre, depending on
whether you live more or less close at the school itself, while if you have to measure the thickness of a
book you use the millimeter or centimeter.
Measurements can be carried out in a manner direct, or comparing the quantity with the unit of
measurement, or in a manner indirect, carrying out mathematical operations.

4 – The International System

The metric system named International System of Units (SI) it consists of an agreement, made within
the scientific community, on the choice of samples of the measurement units to which to refer. It came
into force in 1960, when the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) identified seven
fundamental quantities and the related units of measurement (see table):
the fundamental quantities they are independent from each
other and from all the others, i.e. they are not defined starting
from other quantities.
 2
For each unit of measurement, a sample was initially identified which had to be unalterable over time and
therefore not change in any way with changes in temperature and other environmental conditions.
The samples were kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres, near Paris, even
though several countries around the world kept, in specific bodies and metrology institutes, samples
absolutely identical to the Paris ones.
In November 2018 the CGPM revolutionized the system, linking the definitions of the
fundamental units to physical constants and no longer to material objects subject to change over
time.
On May 20, 2019, the last of the physical champions, the kilogram, retired.
Table of fundamental quantities of the International System

Name of the quantity Quantity symbol Unit of

Length l metro m

Time t second s

Mass m kilogram kg

Temperature T Kelvin K

Electric current intensity i ampere A

Light intensity iv candela cd

Amount of substance n mole mol

By multiplying or dividing the fundamental quantities together, the derived quantities are obtained:
the derived quantities they are defined starting from the fundamental
quantities.

Examples of derived quantities are:

• the area, which is obtained by multiplying two lengths together and is measured in m
⋅ m = m2; • speed, which is obtained by dividing a space by a time and is measured in
m/s.

5 – How the value of a quantity is expressed

When the value of a quantity, expressed using SI units of measurement, is very large or very small and
you obtain numbers that are inconvenient to use, you can overcome the problem in two ways:
1. using multiples or submultiples
Each multiple or submultiple corresponds to a prefix which must precede, without spaces, the unit
of measurement; the prefix is ​associated with a symbol which is placed before the unit symbol.
Table of multiples and submultiples

Multiple Prefix Symbol Submultiple Symbol

 1012 that T 10-1 so d

109 high G 10-2 cm c

106 mega M 10-3 national m

103 kilo k 10-6 micro m

102 yet h 10-9 nano n

10 deca and 10-12 pico p

Es. 1 – 2

3
2. using the scientific notation
Through scientific notation you can concisely write a very large or very small number, using
powers of 10; numbers are indicated as the product of a number, called coefficient (a), equal to or
greater than 1, but less than 10, multiplied by a power of 10. The exponent (n) of the power of 10
is positive if we are dealing with numbers greater than 1, negative if we are dealing with numbers
smaller than of 1.
K = a · 10n
1 ≤ a < 10

App. 3 / Es. 3 - 4 - 5

Often, when the measurement of a quantity is expressed by very large or very small numbers, it is
not necessary to know the exact value, but one can simply evaluate the order of magnitude:
l’order of magnitude of a number is the power of
10 that comes closest to the given number.

App. 4 / Es. 6

6 – Significant figures
When expressing the value of an experimental measurement it is always necessary to take into account
the sensitivity of the instrument used.
The sensitivity of a measuring instrument is the
smallest value of the quantity that the instrument can
distinguish.

The expressed value must contain as many digits as the instrument is capable of appreciating. These digits
are called significant figures as they give meaning to the measurement. If, for example, when measuring
the mass of an object with a laboratory scale capable of appreciating the hundredth of a gram, we read the
value 47.18 g, we will say that our value is expressed by 4 significant figures. Instead, using a kitchen
scale with a sensitivity of 25 g, we will read the value 50 g, which has only 2 significant figures. The
measurement, in this last case, will be much more approximate than in the previous one and we can
therefore state that
one measure is all the more it needs the greater the number of significant figures
that express it, which depends on the sensitivity of the instrument used.

Zeroes matter
If, by measuring the mass of an object with the laboratory balance of sensitivity 0.01 g, we obtain an
exact value to the gram, for example 27 g, we must express the result in the form m = 27.00 g. In this way
it is highlighted that the instrument used has the sensitivity of one hundredth of a gram, but that one is
certain that the mass measures 0 tenths and 0 hundredths of a gram. Therefore, even the 0 after the
decimal point must be considered a significant digit like the others. In particular:
1. all figures other than 0 are significant figures;
2. zeros that follow a digit other than 0 after the decimal point are significant figures;

3. zeros to the left of the first digit other than 0 are not significant figures;
4. The terminal zeros present in a non-decimal number may or may not be significant.
ue Significant

0,00789 3

0,0789 3

0,789 3

7,89 3

7,890 4

78,9 3

789,0 4

7890,0 5

7890 3 or 4

In the last case, to establish the number of decimal places, it is necessary to resort to scientific notation:
ue Significant

7,890 · 103 4

7,89 · 103 3
 It is. 7

Approximation
Approximation (or rounding) is often necessary in calculations, in order to maintain a correct number of
significant figures. Can be:
• approximation by excess - to the result of the calculation, truncated according to the correct
number of significant figures, a unit is added in the last retained figure, if the first eliminated
figure is ≥ 5. For example, if the number 25.697 is to be written to have 4 significant digits, it
becomes 25.70.
• default approximation - we simply truncate the result according to the correct number of
significant figures, if the first eliminated figure is < 5. For example, if the number 25.691 is to be
written to have 4 significant digits, it becomes 25.69.
It is. 8

Significant figures in calculations

Knowing how to write significant figures correctly is very important, especially when dealing with
indirect measurements: they are the result of mathematical operations, therefore it is necessary to learn to
determine the appropriate number of significant figures that must appear in the calculations.

– Addition and subtraction

The result of an addition or subtraction must contain the same number of
decimal places as the data with fewer decimal places.

5
Examples:
372 g (0 decimal places) AND
345 g (0 decimal places) + 27.3 g (1 decimal place) =
372, 3 g (1 decimal place) NO

372.3 g (1 decimal place) AND

345.00 g (2 decimal places) + 27.3 g (1 decimal place) =
372, 30 g (2 decimal places) NO

372.9 g (1 decimal place) AND

345.59 g (2 decimal places) + 27.3 g (1 decimal place) =
372.89 g (2 decimal places) NO

In the latter case, note that the correct result has been rounded up.

– Multiplication and division

 The result of a division or multiplication must contain the same number of
significant digits as the data with fewer.

Examples:
2,08 m/s (3 cifre sign.) AND
66,885 m (5 cifre sign.) : 32,1 s (3 cifre sign.) =
2,083644859813084 m/s (16 cifre sign.) NO

2,15 · 103 m2 (3 significant digits) AND

66,885 m (5 cifre sign.) x 32,1 m (3 cifre sign.) =
2147,0085 m2 (8 digits sign.) NO

In the latter case, note that the correct result has been expressed in scientific notation. It is. 9

6
7 – Some quantities of the International System
The sizes can be intensive, if they do not depend on the amount of matter of which the sample is made
(density, temperature), or, otherwise, extensive (length, mass). Intensive quantities do not enjoy the
property of the additivity of values, unlike the extensive ones: by combining 2 g of water at 20°C with
another 2 g of water always at 20°C you obtain 4 g of water (the mass is an extensive property, therefore
additive) but the temperature will it will be 20°C (the temperature is an intensive property, therefore not
additive)
Let's analyze the SI quantities that we will encounter most frequently during our course.

Length
Length is a fundamental SI quantity, defined as the distance between two points. Its unit of
measurement is the metre.
One meter is the distance traveled by light in a vacuum, in a time
interval equal to 1/299792458 seconds.

In chemistry, submultiples of the meter are often used, as it is necessary to measure very small distances,
such as interatomic ones. In addition to the submultiples contemplated by the SI, theangstrom (Å),
named after the Swedish physicist A. J. Ångstrӧm, which corresponds to 10-10m, or the micron 10-6m,
corresponding to the micrometer.
Time
Time is a fundamental SI quantity that is measured in seconds.
The second has long been defined as the 86400th part of the day (24h x 60min/h x 60s/min = 86400
s/day) but, as we will see when studying the Earth's motions, the solar day has variable duration and
therefore we must refer to average solar day, making approximations accordingly. Since 1967 the
definition of second has changed:
One second is the time interval necessary for the radiation emitted by
a particular isotope of Cesium to make 9192631770 vibrations.

This measurement, although complex, is extremely precise: atomic clocks make an error of one second
every approximately 33,000 years.

Volume
Volume is a derived quantity (m · m · m) and represents space
occupied by a body.
The unit of measurement is meter cube (m3), even if they come to the
laboratory
used submultiples such as the cubic decimeter (dm3), equivalent to
capacity of a liter (l), or the cubic centimeter (cm3) equivalent to
one milliliter (ml).
One liter represents the volume occupied by 1 kg of
water at a temperature of 4 °C.

Most instruments used in the laboratory are graduated in ml, such as cylinders or burettes; other
instruments, such as flasks or pipettes, can be calibrated, that is, contain a certain volume if filled to the
mark on the neck.

7
The volume of gases is very sensitive to variations in temperature and pressure. Solids and liquids, being
incompressible, undergo small variations in their volume as the two parameters vary. Es. 10 - 11 - 12

Mass and weight

Mass is a fundamental SI quantity, defined as the quantity of matter possessed by a body. Its unit of
measurement is kilogram and can be measured via the balance to two plates (for comparison with
objects of known mass).

Weight, on the other hand, is a force (derived quantity) which is obtained by multiplying the mass by the
acceleration of gravity (g = 9.8 m/s2).

As with all forces, the unit of measurement is the newton (N) and the instrument to measure it is the
 dynamometer.
When we weigh a body we do not measure its mass but the force with which it is attracted by the Earth.
Therefore, while a body at any point in the Universe has the same mass, the same cannot be said for
weight. On the Moon, the acceleration of gravity is less than on Earth, therefore the weight is also less.
For example, if an astronaut on Earth weighs 600 N, on the Moon he will weigh about 100 N, since on the
Moon the gravitational acceleration is about 1/6 compared to that of the Earth, but his mass, about 60 Kg,
is not changed.
App. 5 – 6 / Es. 13 / 17

Density
Density is a derived quantity, defined as the ratio between mass and volume of a body.

While mass and volume are extensive properties, density is

an intensive property that depends on the substance of which
it is
constituted the body. It varies with changes in temperature
and
pressure (especially for gases), so when referring to
density values ​it is always necessary to consider the
temperature and pressure at which they were determined.
The SI unit of measurement is kg/m3, but in chemistry it is
used
often its submultiple, the g/cm3.
Typically an increase in temperature leads to an increase
of volume and, consequently, a decrease in density.
Water behaves differently (see graph): ha
maximum density at 4°C, so both at lower temperatures and
the higher the density decreases due to an increase in volume.
App. 7 - 8 / Es. 18 / 22

Pressure
Pressure is a derived quantity, defined as the ratio between a force perpendicular to a
surface and the area of ​the surface itself.
Its SI unit of measurement is the pascal (1Pa = 1N/1m2) but 8 are often used

different units of measurement, atmospheres, bars or millimeters of mercury (Torr), linked by the

following relationships: 1 atm = 1.013 bar = 760 mm Hg = 101.325 Pa

It is measured with gauge or with the barometer, specific for atmospheric pressure. App. 9 / 11 / Es. 23 -
24

Heat and temperature

Heat is a form of energy that transfers from a hotter body, i.e. at a higher temperature, to a colder one, i.e.
at a lower temperature. Its unit of measurement, as for all forms of energy, is joule (J).
Temperature, on the other hand, is the measurement of the thermal state of the body and indicates the
ability of a body to exchange heat with another body or with the environment; depends on the kinetic
energy of the particles that constitute it. The instrument to measure it is the thermometer and its SI unit
is the Kelvin (K). However, we are used to measuring temperature in degrees Celsius: la Celsius scale is
obtained by setting the melting temperature of ice (0°C) and as reference
points
that of boiling water (100°C) at 1 atm and dividing the interval
in one hundred equal parts. In the scala Kelvin, instead, the melting
temperature
of ice corresponds to 273.15 K and that of boiling water to
373.15 K, so the size of an interval corresponds to that of the scale
Celsius, but there are no negative values, because the temperature of 0 K,
defined as absolute zero, it is the lowest value that, theoretically, is possible
achieve in any macroscopic system. For this reason the
Kelvin scale is defined absolute scale of temperatures.

T (K) = t (°C) + 273,15

t (°C) = T (K) - 273,15

By providing an equal amount of heat to the same mass of different substances, they reach different
temperatures.
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
kg of substance by 1 K is defined specific heat.

Water has a very high specific heat or, compared to other substances, a much greater amount of
heat is needed to increase its temperature by one degree.

App. 12 / Es. 25 / 28

1. Build a diagram from which the relationships between the various phases of the scientific method
can be deduced. 2. Using the diagram in the app. 2, research, within the following article (Focus – 6
July 2020), the various stages of the scientific method.
 Bees in decline, flowers are pollinated with soap bubbles
If we don't protect pollinators (bees, bumblebees &c.) we could find ourselves
spreading pollen with soap bubbles released by drones: the method seems to work.
Nobody knows how to do with flowers like bees, bumblebees, moths and other
industrious pollinators, but the decline of these insects forces us to think of alternative
solutions: Eijiro Miyako, researcher at the Japan Advanced Institute of Science and
Technology, has managed to make some pear plants reproduce thanks to the pollen
carried by soap bubbles, which landed softly on the plants and exploded right above
their stigma (the female part of the flower that receives the pollen). In the laboratory,
Miyako's idea proved particularly effective, but nature is another thing.
HOME DELIVERY. The scientist has long been involved in researching a means that
can deliver pollen to flowers without risking spoiling them. In 2017 he tried with a 4 cm
drone, which however small, continued to damage the plants. The intuition about the
bubbles came while Miyako was playing blowing them with her son, and a soap ball
landed gently on the child's forehead, bursting without hurting him. In the lab, Miyako
mixed pollen grains with a soap solution enriched with nutrients and low toxicity to
plants, and then used a bubble gun to shoot the load onto a pear plant. Each flower
was filled with 10 pollen containers, each containing approximately 2,000 grains. After
16 days, as many fruits were born as hand pollination would have produced.
STRAIGHT TO THE GOAL. In Japan, partly by tradition and partly due to a lack of
bees, the pollination of pear and apple trees is carried out by hand by farmers using a
kind of brush, an effective but uneconomical method because it delivers about 1800
milligrams of pollen to each flower, versus 0.6 milligrams for bubbles. In both cases, the
percentage of correctly pollinated plants is 95%. However, the new method would allow
many more plants to be fertilized with the same quantity of pollen.
JUST A DISTRACTION? However, the bubbles are subject to the whims of wind and
rain, and released into nature would risk expelling large quantities of pollen in the
wrong place. According to Miyako, part of these problems could be solved with
technology, for example by using robots for deliveries capable of locating flowers
precisely, mapping the most efficient routes and with great control over movements.
The scientist carried out some tests with a drone equipped with a bubble gun. Flying
over a row of lilies, the autonomous vehicle successfully pollinated 90% of the flowers.
Part of the bubbles still ends up wasted, and while Miyako explores other methods,
which involve for example the use of rovers designed for space missions, many people
think that studies of this type distract from the real challenge, namely the protection of
pollinators. Among other things, the surfactants used for bubbles risk worsening soil
pollution and chemically interfering with the reproduction of
plant.

3. What happens if n = 0?
4. Search online for an image for each of the organisms mentioned in Ex. 6.

10
5. The acceleration of gravity on Earth is not actually the same everywhere. Do some research
to find out why g varies and what the maximum and minimum values ​are. What
consequences can this phenomenon have?
6. A student, having a watch glass and a laboratory balance, must weigh exactly 4.00 g of a
certain substance. How should he proceed?
7. What is the important consequence, in nature, of the fact that the density of ice is lower than that of
water?
8. Many people mistakenly think that oil is denser than water. Find and compare the values ​of the two
 densities. How can you prove, very simply, that oil is less dense than water? The property we are
referring to is actually viscosity. Find a definition of viscosity. He then devises an experiment to
demonstrate that oil is more viscous than water. What could be an even more viscous liquid?
9. It was Evangelista Torricelli who measured atmospheric pressure for the first time,
inventing the mercury barometer. Carry out a search and describe, in 10 lines, Torricelli's
experience. 10. What are snowshoes and what are they for? Why is it easier to insert a pointed
nail into a wall, rather than a flat one at the end?
11. Go to the link and answer the following questions regarding blood pressure: a)
What is arterial (blood) pressure?
b) What is meant by "maximum" and "minimum"?
c) What are the normal blood pressure values ​in humans?
d) What are the factors that can induce hypertension and what can be the consequences of this
pathology?
e) What is the name of the instrument for measuring blood pressure?
12. What is the important consequence, in nature, of the fact that the specific heat of water is very
high?

11

1. Carry out the following equivalences

 a) 1245 cm = hm f) 7500000 ps = ms
b) 7200 mmol = mol g) 120 Gm = km
c) 0,00076 dam= dm h) 5000000 μA = A
d) 0,8 kg = g i) 57600000 of = dg
e) 0.000000052 Tg = Mg j) 0,00000000255 hm= μm

2. Carry out the following equivalences

a) 0,0047 cm2 = mm2 f) 4 h = s
b) 2500000 cm3 = m3 g) 4320 min = d
c) 81000000 pm3 = nm3 h) 1250 ml = dm3 i) 0,0067
d) 0,0000523 Mm2 = km2 cm3 = μl
e) 10800 s = h j) 82 m3 = l

3. Transform the following numbers into scientific notation

a) 25000 = f) 0,0045 102 =
b) 0,000065 = g) 23000 10-3=
c) 1250 = h) 0,5 106=
d) 0,0028 = i) 800 10-2 =
e) 0.0000000008 = j) 31000000000 10-4 =

4. Transform the following scientific notations into numbers

a) 1,2 10-4 =
b) 8,75 103 =
c) 9 105 =
d) 3,128 10-2 =
e) 6.7 10-1 =

5. Perform the following equivalences in scientific notation

a) 4,5 10-3 dm = mm f) 9 102 d = min
b) 9,2 10-8 Tg = hg g) 2,52 104 s = h
c) 2,25 104 μl = cl h) 1,76 1010 pm = dm
d) 6,84 106 cm2 = m2 i) 2 10-8 Gmol = Mmol j) 8,5
e) 3.2 10-2 dm3 = ml 10-6 Mm = m

6. Determine the order of magnitude of:

a) Earth-Sun distance: 152,100,000 km
b) Earth-Moon distance: 384,400 km
c) average terrestrial radius: 6371 km
d) Coronavirus: 0,000000160 m
e) largest known bacterium (Thiomargarita namibiensis): 0,0007 m
f) smallest known bacterium (Mycoplasma genitalium): 0,0000003 m
g) human red blood cell diameter: 0.0000075 m
h) length of the blue whale (Balenoptera musculus), the largest known animal: 30 m
 i) length of the pygmy marmoset (Callithrix pygmaea), the smallest monkey in the world: 0.35

m 12

j) weight of the smallest mammal in the world, the bumblebee bat (Craseonycteris
thonglongyai): 0,002 kg

7. For each value, indicate the number of significant figures:

a) 5,6789
b) 56,789
c) 56,7890
d) 145,673
e) 100.70
f) 0,0065
g) 12500
h) 1,25 104
i) 1,2500 104
j) 0,01250 104

8. Correctly approximate the following numbers, so that they have the number of significant
figures indicated in brackets:
a) 1.008 (3 significant figures)
b) 1.008 (2 significant figures)
c) 0.0025 (1 significant figure)
d) 6,84 106 (2 significant figures)
e) 6.84 106 (1 significant figure)
f) 435.99 (4 significant figures)
g) 435.99 (3 significant figures)
h) 435.99 (2 significant figures)
i) 0,67 102 (1 significant figure)
j) 1,51 102 (1 significant figure)

9. Perform the following calculations, expressing the result with the correct number of
significant figures: a) 7.85 - 0.0075 [7.84]
b) 15,008 + 8,5475 [23,556]
c) 0,37 + 15,1 + 7,459 [22,9]
d) 16,3 - 1,4 + 3,567 [18,5]
e) 0.15 x 3.49 [0.52]
f) 2,77 x 0,055 [0,15]
g) 4,56 x 7,4132 [33,8]
h) 1,6 x 9,3584 [15]
i) 2,3 x 92,28 [2,1 102]
j) 6,75 : 1,4 [4,8]
k) 8,55 : 10,34 [0,827]
l) 3,00 : 2,000 [1,50]
m) 0,45 x 7,459 1,25 : [2,7]
n) 6,31 x 3,49 : 2,473 [8,90]

10. A piece of copper is immersed in a 100 ml graduated cylinder, containing 40 ml of water. The
water level rises to 57 ml. What is the volume of copper in cm3?
11. A beaker contains 15 ml of oil. If you add 24 cm3 of water, what will be the final volume? NB: water
 and oil do not mix.
12. A graduated cylinder contains 10 ml of water and the content must be brought to 2.5 10-2 the. How
much water should I add?
13. The mass of a beaker containing oil is 45.18 g. If 13.25 g of water are added to it, what will the
final mass be? NB: water and oil do not mix.

13
14. The mass of a beaker containing ethyl alcohol is 45.18 g. If 13.25 g of water are added to it, what
will the final mass be? NB: water and alcohol mix.
15. The mass of a beaker containing water is 39.25 g. A certain quantity of a salt is added to it and the
mass becomes 42.33 g. How much salt was added?
16. Calculate the weight of a body having a mass of 3,500 kg.
17. Calculate the mass in grams of a body weighing 2.15 N.
18. Some table salt is dissolved in a graduated cylinder containing 0.500 liters of water. The total mass
of the bottle, containing the water and salt, is 0.950 kg. Calculate:
to. the mass of water contained in the bottle, assuming its density 1 g/cm3; b. the
mass of the added salt, if the empty bottle has a mass of 235 g.
19. Calculate the density of steel, knowing that 154.45 g of the metal occupies a volume of 19.65 cm3.
20. Knowing that the density of vinegar is 1.01 g/cm3, calculate the mass of 0.75 L of substance. 21.
Nitrogen has a density of 1.16 g/L. Calculate the volume occupied by 1 kg of gas.
22. A glass bottle, with a capacity of 1L, is filled with olive oil (d = 0.92 g/cm3). If the empty bottle
has a mass of 650 g, calculate the mass of the full bottle.
23. Determine whether a 70 kg man sinks into snow, which can withstand a pressure of 50 kPa, if:
a) do not use special tools - in this case the surface of the boots is 70 cm2; b) you use
snowshoes - in this case the support surface is 600 cm2.
24. I read on the barometer that today the atmospheric pressure is 1009 mbar. What is the force
exerted by the air on 1 cm2 of surface?
25. Copper melts at 1085°C. How many kelvins does this temperature correspond to?
26. Ethanol melts at –114.1°C and boils at 78.37°C. Express these temperatures in
kelvins. 27. The average surface temperature on Jupiter is 152 K. Transform this value
into °C. 28. The average surface temperature on Venus is 737 K. Transform this value
into °C.

EXERCISES WITH SELF-CORRECTION

PRINT THE FOLLOWING PAGES AND FOLD THEM ALONG THE VERTICAL LINE.
CARRY OUT THE EXERCISES AND THEN COMPARE YOUR ANSWER WITH
THE RESULT, SHOWN TO THE RIGHT OF THE LINE.
 14
1. Perform the following equivalences

0, 0000000008321 dam = nm 8,321 nm

0,000765 Mg =

cg 76500 cg

951670000 ps = ds 0,0095167 ds 832,65008 km = m 832650,08

m
5000000 dg = 149600000 km =

Tg 0,0000005 Tg Gm 149,6 Gm

7 hm = mm 700000 mm
1013 mbar =

bar 1,013 bar

3600 s = h 1 h
2d= min 2880 min l 562 l m 3450 m
3 3

0,000562 dam3 = 345000000 cl =

800 μmol = mmol 0,8 mmol

0,2 mA =
3. Transform into scientific notation
2. Transform into scientific notation A 0,0002 A
0,000000064 =
5830000 =
0,00007 =
8412000000000 = 6,4 10-8
7532,231 = 5,83 106
149600000 = 7 10-5
8,412 1012
300000 =
7,532231 103
0,0000007851 = 1,496 108
3 105
7,851 10-7
 745,81 103 = 7,4581 105 0,00067 10-2 = 6,7 10-6 0,0081 105 = 8,1
102
652000 10 =
-5 6,52
549870000 10 = 5,4987 10 782,53 104 = 7,8253 106
-4 4

0,0000043 106 = 4,3

98723000 102 = 9,8723 109

15
4. Perform the following equivalences
in scientific notation
0,00005 g = mg 5 10-2 mg 4 103 km
40000 hm = Km
4500000 day = 8,5 102 cm
Mg 4,5 10 Mg 0,0000000851 Tg =
0.0085 km = cm kg 8.51 10 kg
75000000000 nm = 7,5 104 mm
mm
9650000000 m = km 9,65 10 km 0,000000000025 mm3 = μm3 2,5
2 2 3 2

10 μm3
-2

10 years = s 102 m=
3,1536 108 s hm 1 hm
10 mm = 10-6 m m
-3

5 106 mm = Km 5 km
1,82 10-9 Tg = 1,82 10-3 Mg Mg
1,5 1012 pm = 455,6 103 mg = m 1,5 m hg 4,556 hg
20000 10 dam = Gm 2 10 Gm 0,00000000052 103 s = ns 5,2 102 s
6 2

0,000009 10-3 Mg = μg 9 103 μg

5. Reduce to normal shape

15h 82min 63s 16h 23min 3s 86° 3I 69II 86° 4I 9II
14h 97min 20s 15h 37min 20s 5° 12I 134II 5° 14I 14II
29h 15min 100s 1d 5h 16min 40s 73° 215I 85II 76° 36I 25II

6. Perform the following steps

7° 51I 38II + 15° 30I 53II = 23° 22I 31II 29° 13I 20II - 12° 2I 40II = 17° 10I 40II 16°
25I 38II x 2 = 32° 51I 16II 90° - 23° 27I = 66° 33I 45° 52II + 12° 18II = 57° 1I 10II
45° - 8° 4I 27II = 36°55I 33II
 16

1 – The states of matter

The task of chemistry is to study matter and its transformations.
Matter it is everything that manifests itself to our senses and,
taking on different forms, occupies space and has mass.

In the conditions we experience, matter can present itself in three different ways states of aggregation:
solid, liquid ed aeriforme. To these, in very particular conditions of temperature and pressure, such as
those present in stars, is added the state of plasma. In fact, the state of aggregation of a substance does
not only depend on its composition, but also on temperature and pressure so, depending on the values ​of
these two quantities, all substances can transform from one state to another: table salt (sodium chloride) at
1465°C it becomes gaseous, while below -223°C oxygen is solid.
It is more correct to speak of a gaseous state, rather than a gaseous state: gases, in fact, can be gases or
vapours. To understand the difference, it is necessary, first of all, to define the concept of critical
temperature.
The critical temperature it is that temperature value above which it is
not possible to transform a gas into a liquid by compression alone.

The critical temperature is characteristic of each substance.

And gas it is a gas above its critical temperature. If, however, the gas is
below its critical temperature, then it is said steam.

At room temperature, for example, oxygen is a gas and

therefore it cannot be transformed into liquid on its own
compression. To get liquid oxygen, you have to
turn it into a vapor, or cool it below the
its critical temperature, -119°C, and then compress it inside
a cylinder, like those used in hospitals. This process,
as we will see in paragraph 5, it is called liquefaction. Yes
it can also make oxygen liquid by condensing it, but
Cooling below is required for this process
-183°C.
However, it is possible to transform the steam through compression
aqueous in liquid water even at temperatures above 100°C,
as long as they are lower than 374°C, the critical temperature of water.
Water, therefore, only becomes gas above 374°C.

17
From a macroscopic point of view, the three states of aggregation are easily distinguished by:
SOLID LIQUID AERIFORME

SHAPE own not really not really

Own VOL own not exactly

The fact that a solid has its own shape and volume, that a liquid has its own volume but takes the shape of
the container in which it is contained and that a gaseous form takes both the shape and the volume of the
container that contains it, depends on the force with which the particles of which the substance is made
attract each other.
In solids the cohesive force it is such that it prevents the particles from moving: they can only vibrate
around a fixed position. The magnitude of the vibration depends on the temperature of the solid: the
higher the temperature, the wider the vibration. Therefore thethermal energy supplied to a substance, it
transforms intokinetic energy of its particles.

In the liquid it is much greater, so the particles are no longer in fixed positions, but move relative to each
other, although they cannot move apart, because the cohesion force is still quite substantial.
In gaseous matter, the cohesion force becomes practically zero and the kinetic energy is maximum: the
particles can move away from each other and the substance tends to occupy all the volume made available
to it. For this reason the gases are compressible, unlike solids and liquids, which are incompressible.
App. 1 – 2 / Es. 1

2 – Pure substances and mixtures

To study matter it is necessary to divide it into limited parts, called systems, and consider them one at a
time.
And system it is a delimited portion of matter that is the
object of study.
Within a system, one or more phases can be identified:
a phase it is a delimited portion of matter with uniform
intensive properties.

18
Tap water generally has uniform properties: we can say that it consists of a single phase and that the
system is homogeneous.
And homogeneous system It consists of a single
phase.

Sparkling water, on the other hand, has variable properties depending on whether you consider the water
or the gas bubbles contained in it: it is therefore made up of two phases and the system is heterogeneous.
And heterogeneous system It consists of
several phases.

Tap water, however, is not a pure substance because gases and mineral salts are dissolved in it. In
common language "pure" means uncontaminated, while in chemistry it means made up of a single
substance:
and pure system (the pure substance) consists of a single
chemical species, characterized by specific chemical and
physical properties.

Tap water, made up of different substances, is a mixture:

and mixture it is a system made up of two or more pure
substances.

In reality, not even the substances used in laboratories are 100% pure but, often, the presence of
impurities it is the cause of extraordinary properties: the silicon used in electronic circuits, among the
purest substances known, contains 0.0001% impurities but it is precisely thanks to these that silicon
becomes an exceptional conductor.
App. 3 - 4 / Es. 2

3 – Mixtures
Cross-referencing the definitions of the previous paragraph, mixtures can be divided into homogeneous
and heterogeneous:
and homogeneous mixture it is a system made up of
two or more pure substances and consisting of a single
phase.
 and heterogeneous mixture it is a system made up of
two or more pure substances and made up of several
phases.

A homogeneous mixture is also called solution. It is generally defined solvent the component present in
greatest quantity, solute the one in smaller quantity. If the two substances are 50%, the one that is in the
aggregation state of the solution is defined as a solvent. If they also have the same state of aggregation it
is indifferent to know which is the solute and which is the solvent. Water is an excellent solvent, in the
sense that it is capable of dissolving many substances.
By mixing any two substances, a homogeneous mixture is not always obtained: for example, water and
oil do not mix (they are immiscible) and oil tends to float on water due to its lower density. Instead, ethyl
alcohol dissolves in water in all proportions (they are miscible). Solutions can be produced by combining
substances in any state of aggregation. For example, theair it is a solution of various gases (78.09%
nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.03% anhydride

19
carbon, neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, ...) while the leagues they are homogeneous mixtures of
metallic solids (steel is made up of iron and carbon, bronze is made up of copper and tin). Regarding
liquid/gas solutions, all gases in the air have the ability to dissolve in water: fish absorb dissolved oxygen
through their gills, certainly not gas bubbles.
SOLVENT SOLUTE EXAMPLE

Liquid Liquid Water and alcohol

Liquid Solid Water and salt

Liquid Aeriforme Water and oxygen

Solid Solid Steel, bronze

Solid Aeriforme Palladium and

hydrogen

Aeriforme Aeriforme Air

Among the heterogeneous mixtures, however, there are some that are given particular names:
MAIN DISPERSE HETEROGENEOUS EXAMPLE
COMPONEN COMPONEN MIXTURE
T T

Solid Aeriforme Foam foam rubber

Liquid Aeriforme Foam whipped

cream
 Liquid Solid Suspension water and talc
Gel: the solid forms a network pudding
that prevents the liquid from
flowing freely

Liquid Liquid Emulsion mayonnaise

Aeriforme Solid Smoke cigarette smoke

Aeriforme Liquid Aerosol fog, clouds

App. 5 - 6 / Es. 3 / - 6

4 – State transitions
By varying pressure and/or temperature, substances pass from one state to another. A solid, when heated,
melts and becomes a liquid; when heated further, it boils and becomes gaseous. Some solids, however,
pass directly into the gaseous state, without becoming liquid: this phenomenon is called sublimation. By
removing heat from the gas it condenses into a liquid; the further cooled liquid solidifies. The direct
transition from gaseous to solid is defined as frost.

20
Often, referring to a solid that becomes a liquid, it is said to melt: in chemistry this term is reserved for
the phenomenon in which a solute and a solvent form a solution.
Nor should boiling be confused with evaporation. While theboilingand occurs at a very specific
temperature (which depends on the nature of the liquid), theevaporation it occurs at all temperatures at
which the liquid can exist: water evaporates even at room temperature, while it boils only at 100°C (at a
pressure of 1 atm - see paragraph 7). Furthermore, while boiling occurs throughout the mass of the liquid,
evaporation occurs only from its free surface.
The term liquefaction it is instead reserved for the phenomenon in which a gaseous substance becomes
liquid due to an increase in pressure. App. 7 - 8 - 9 / Es. 7 - 8

5 – Heating and cooling curves If a pure substance is subjected to heating and the variation in
temperature as a function of time is plotted on a graph, the heating curve of that substance is obtained. For
example, benzene at -20°C is solid. By providing it with constant heat, it begins to melt when it reaches a
temperature of 5.5°C. This temperature, at which the solid and the liquid coexist, is defined melting
temperature (or point)..
Observing the heating curve, we note that, although heat is supplied, the temperature of the substance
does not increase until all the benzene has melted: only at that point does the temperature start to increase
again. The period of time in which the substance, although heated, remains at a constant temperature is
defined thermal stop and it is longer the greater the quantity of substance treated. The heat supplied
during this period does not serve to increase the temperature of the substance (kinetic energy of the
particles), but to break the bonds between the particles that constitute it, so that they can begin to move
relative to each other and the substance it becomes liquid. This heat is defined latent heat of fusion (from
Latin later = remain hidden). A similar phenomenon will occur when benzene reaches 80.5°C, its boiling
temperature (or point)., in which the liquid and the gaseous coexist: there will be a thermal pause until
all the liquid has become vapour. The heat supplied during this period of time will be called latent boiling
heat and will serve to further loosen the cohesive forces between the particles, so much so that they will
be able to move away from each other, a typical condition of gaseous substances.
Melting and boiling temperatures are intensive properties of matter and are characteristic for each
substance, so they can be used for their recognition, if referred to a specific pressure value, generally 1
atm.

21
If we now proceed to subtract heat from the vapors previously obtained and record the temperature values
​as a function of time in a second graph, we obtain the cooling curve of the substance which mirrors the
heating curve. Two thermal stops will be observed: the first will coincide with the condensation of the
gas, the second with solidification. The condensation and solidification temperatures will coincide,
respectively, with those of boiling and fusion.
From a microscopic point of view we can think that, by cooling the substance, the kinetic energy of the
particles decreases and that, consequently, the cohesion force between them increases, to the point of
blocking them in the fixed positions of the solid.
If, instead of a pure substance, a solution is taken into consideration, for example of water and salt, one
notices that the thermal stops are missing. The melting temperature will be lower and the boiling
temperature higher, but their values ​will depend on the concentration of the solution.

App. 10

22
6 – Pressure and state transitions
When a liquid turns into vapor, it increases its volume hundreds of times. Therefore boiling is greatly
influenced by pressure: the higher the pressure, the higher the boiling temperature of the substance. In
fact, more energy is needed for the liquid to overcome the pressure above it and transform into gaseous
form: at 2 atm the boiling temperature of water is around 120°C. Conversely, if atmospheric pressure
drops to 0.5 atm, water boils at 80°C.

The melting temperature, however, is less sensitive to pressure variations, as the increase in volume in the
transition from solid to liquid is very small. An exception is water which, as we know, increases in
volume when it becomes solid: an increase in pressure lowers the melting temperature of the water.
App. 11 - 12 - 13

7 – Separation of mixtures
The components of a mixture can be separated from each other using
different techniques, which must be chosen based on the characteristics
of the mixture (homogeneous or heterogeneous) and those of the
substances to be separated.

a) Filtration
It allows the separation of the components of a heterogeneous mixture in
based on theirs granulometry, or the size of the particles. The
filter, therefore, must be chosen appropriately and can be a
simple sieve with meshes in the order of centimeters or
millimeters (to separate, for example, sand from gravel) or one
finer instrument, with pores on the order of micrometers (like the
filters that
they are used in microbiology laboratories to retain bacteria, fungi and
virus). Filter paper is often used in the chemistry laboratory.
App. 14 - 15
b) Stratification/decantation
It allows the separation of the components of a heterogeneous
mixture in
based on their density. If they are two liquids with different
densities, how
water and oil, simply put the mixture into an instrument
called separating funnel and wait for the denser liquid to form
in this
case the water, move towards the bottom of the container. At
this point it opens
the tap and let all the water drain out, while the oil remains
in the funnel. If, however, the mixture is composed of a liquid
and a
solid in suspension, the solid is allowed to settle (decant) on the bottom
of a beaker and then very delicately spills the liquid.
App. 16

23
c) Centrifugation
In the laboratory, to speed up stratification, one can be used
centrifuge, instrument provided with a revolving support in which they
come
insert the test tubes containing the mixture to be separated. The housing
of the test pieces are not perpendicular, but oblique to the direction
of the centrifugal force, so that, by extracting the test tubes, the components
do not mix again. We then proceed to separation, as in
previous case.
Es. 9 / App. 17
d) Extraction
It is used to separate one or more components from a mixture, exploiting their solubility in a specific
solvent. If, for example, you crush a leaf and then add alcohol, the solvent extracts the colored pigments
from it: chlorophylls (green), xanthophylls (yellow) and carotenoids (orange). It is. 10
e) Chromatography
It literally means "color writing" as the method was designed to separate the colored substances that make
up a homogeneous mixture, such as the juice extracted from leaves. A fixed phase is used, which can be a
thin layer of silica fixed on a glass plate or a sheet of filter paper, and a mobile phase, i.e. a substance
capable of dissolving the components to be separated. The mobile phase moves by capillarity through the
silica or paper and drags with it the substances to be separated. Since they are made up of molecules with
different characteristics, they adhere differently to the fixed phase: those that adhere less are dragged
higher by the solvent. After some time you will notice on the paper or on the plate as many colored
stripes, at different heights, as there were substances to be separated. The chromatography of the leaf
juice will lead to three colored bands: the lowest one will be green (chlorophylls a and b), the
intermediate one yellow (xanthophylls) and the highest one orange (carotenoids).
The same principle is used in gas chromatography, which uses a gas as the mobile phase, and in
high-resolution liquid chromatography (HPLC), which uses a liquid instead. These techniques allow the
detection of even very small traces of substances in biological fluids. They are widely used for petroleum
products, hormones and pesticides.
App. 18
f) Distillation
It is used to separate the liquid components of a homogeneous mixture, taking advantage of the different
boiling temperature. The mixture is placed
in a still, heated by a flame.
When the mixture reaches the temperature of
boiling of the liquid that boils at a higher
temperature
low, the vapors of the latter begin to release
consistently. They are collected in a
glass tube surrounded by cold water, in which,
due to the lowering of the temperature, they
condense.
The condensate will still contain more or less
quantities
consisting of the liquid that boils at a higher
temperature
high as it is true that at the temperature of
distillation it cannot boil, but still
evaporates. If you want to focus more on
distillate you need to repeat the process once
second or even a third time.
A similar process can be used for
separate the solvent from a solution of a salt
non-volatile.
App. 19 - 20

24

1.

Jupiter is made up almost exclusively of hydrogen: in which states of aggregation? 2.

Under what conditions is plasma formed? How widespread is it in the universe?

3. Write a precise and correct definition of homogeneous mixture.

4. In "The periodic system" in the chapter "Zinc" Primo Levi praises impurity. Read the passage and
comment on it, in the light of your experience and knowledge.

There was a detail written on the handouts that I had missed on first reading,
and that is that the so tender and delicate zinc, so yielding to acids,
who only take one bite of it, behaves in a very different way
when it is very pure: then it stubbornly resists the attack. If they could
draw two contrasting philosophical consequences: the praise of purity,
which protects from evil like a hauberk; the praise of impurity, which gives rise
to changes, that is to life. I discarded the first, disgustingly moralistic, and
lingered on considering the second, which was more congenial to me. Why the
wheel turns, for life to live, impurities are needed, and the impurities of
impurities: even in the soil, as is known, if it needs to be fertile. It takes the
dissent, the different, the grain of salt and mustard: fascism doesn't want them there
forbids, and for this reason you are not a fascist; he wants everyone to be the same and you are
not the same.
But not even immaculate virtue exists, or if it exists it is detestable. So take the
solution of copper sulphate that is in the reagent, add a drop to your sulfuric
acid, and see that the reaction starts: the zinc awakens,
covers itself with a white fur of hydrogen bubbles, here we are, the spell has
happened, you can abandon it to its fate and take a stroll towards the
laboratory to see what's new and what others are doing.

If you want to read the whole chapter or book, go to the link

5. Look at a packaged food or drink you have at home: is it a pure substance, a homogeneous mixture
or a heterogeneous mixture? Now read the label carefully: is your hypothesis verified?
Describe your observations in writing.
6. Consider the label from the previous exercise or another of your choice and classify the individual
items as pure substance, homogeneous mixture or heterogeneous mixture.
7. Find an example of a substance that tends to sublimate.
8. The terms condensation and frost, although referring to all substances, derive from phenomena in
which water is involved. Describe how condensation and frost form. What is dew instead?
What is galavern?
9. What does the acronym GPL mean? How is this product obtained and stored? 10. For what
purpose are roads sprinkled with salt during the winter? Explain the phenomenon in light of what has
been studied.
11. The pressure cooker is famously used to cook food faster. Describe how it works.
12. If you try to boil water when you're at sea level, you find it takes longer than when you're in Novi.
Vice versa if you go to the mountains. Why?

25
13. Do research to understand how ice skaters slip on ice and describe the phenomenon
in a short paragraph.

14. What is microfiltered milk? What are the characteristics of this product compared to
pasteurized milk?

15. Screening is a widely used method in agriculture and the food industry. Explain what
it consists of and what its purpose is.

16. What is the instrument called "decanter" and what is it used for?
17. Using the following image, explain what blood centrifugation consists of and what it is
used for.

18. What does the capillarity phenomenon consist of? Do all liquids, if contained in a
capillary, behave in the same way? This is a very important phenomenon in nature: describe a
specific case.

19. What is the difference between distilled and demineralized water?

20. What does petroleum distillation consist of and what is the purpose of it? 26

1. Explain why a liquid, despite having its own volume, takes the shape of the container that
contains it and why, instead, a gaseous form takes both the shape and volume of the
container.
2. Give an example of a pure homogeneous system and one of a pure heterogeneous system.
3. If I mix 100 g of water with 100 g of salt, which is the solute and which is the solvent?
Why? 4. A ring is made from an alloy of 80% gold and 20% silver. Which is the solute and
which is the solvent? Why?
5. If I mix 0.5 dm3 of hydrogen with 300 ml of oxygen, which is the solute and which is the
solvent? Why? 6. Classify the following systems as pure substances, homogeneous mixtures
or heterogeneous mixtures (if it is a particular case, specify the typology):
a) milk
b) wealth
c) granite
d) glitter per capelli
e) syrup
f) fruit juice
g) plastic
h) aceto
i) sugar
j) meringue
7. Iso-octane (present in petrol) melts at 166 K and boils at 372 K. Determine the temperature
ranges within which it is found in the different states of aggregation and express the values ​in
°C. 8. The critical temperature of ammonia is 406 K. At 20°C is it a gas or a vapor? What
procedure must be followed to obtain liquid ammonia?
9. Describe the functioning of the centrifuges that may be present in our homes, such as those
for the washing machine or for salad.
 10. Describe the process by which drinks such as tea or coffee are prepared. 27

1 – Reactions
The transformations of matter that we took into consideration in the previous chapter did not
involve the appearance of new substances: boiling water becomes water vapour, it changes its
state of aggregation, but it is still water. This type of change in matter is called physical
transformation. Instead,
if, during a process, new substances are formed, then it is a chemical
transformation or reaction.

Similarly, the characteristic properties of a substance can be divided into physical and chemical:
The physical properties refer to characteristics possessed by a
substance that can be observed and determined
without subjecting it to any transformation of its chemical composition.

Conversely, if a certain property can be observed only by subjecting a substance to a chemical

transformation, it will be a chemical property.
 The chemical properties of a substance describe its ability to
give rise to transformations that modify its composition.

For example, when an iron nail rusts, a new one is formed

substance, rust, due to the reaction (chemical transformation) between
iron and
the oxygen in the air. Iron has a high tendency to react with oxygen,
or to oxidize. Silver and, even more so, gold, on the other hand, have
a much lower tendency to oxidation. The tendency to oxidation is
therefore a chemical property, because it can only be determined while
the element reacts with oxygen to form a new substance.
In the chemical transformation from which rust is formed, iron and
oxygen
I'm the reagents, while iron oxide (rust) is the product.
L'chemical equation it is written by separating reactants and products

with an arrow: iron + oxygen → iron oxide

In this case the reaction includes two reactants and only one product: for this reason it is called a reaction
synthesis. If, however, a single reactant is transformed into two or more products, the reaction is called
decomposition.
hydrogen peroxide → water + oxygen

In the most general case, more reactants and more products appear in a reaction.
Es. 1 - 2 – 3 - 4

28
2 – Elements and compounds
It is not always easy to decompose a pure substance but, above all, it is not always possible. To cause
decomposition they can be used
• heat - by heating calcium carbonate, it splits into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide: calcium

carbonate AND calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

• electricity - by passing an electric current through water, it splits into hydrogen and oxygen:
water AND hydrogen + oxygen

• other substances - pepsin (stomach enzyme) breaks down proteins into many amino acid molecules:
protein pepsin amino acids

The E above the arrow indicates that energy is being supplied, in order to cause the chemical
transformation. Pepsin is also indicated above the arrow and not among the reagents: this means that it
influences the chemical transformation without actually participating in it (the molecule remains intact
and the atoms of which it is made will not be part of the products, as instead happens for reagents).
Molecules that behave in this way are defined catalysts and, in particular cases, enzymes (more on this
later).
The substances obtained in the first and third cases can be further decomposed, but those obtained in the
second reaction cannot be further decomposable with any of the known methods.
And composed it is a substance that can be
decomposable into simpler substances, a element it is a
non-decomposable substance.

The chemical and physical properties of compounds are totally different from those of the elements from
which they are made. Water, for example, at room temperature is a colorless liquid, while the hydrogen
and oxygen that compose it are, at the same temperature, two gaseous substances. There are 118 known
elements, while there are more than 16 million compounds. Many of these do not occur in nature, but
were produced by man and are defined artificial substances such as, for example, plastic materials. To
reduce the exploitation of natural resources, chemists are also able to produce substances in the laboratory
that are already present in nature: in this case, we are talking about synthetic substances. Vanillin, which
is used to flavor foods, drinks and pharmaceutical products, is a synthetic molecule absolutely identical to
the one that gives vanilla beans their characteristic aroma.

29
All compounds have a well-defined composition, i.e. it can be determined with a chemical analysis of
how many and which elements they consist of, and constant, i.e. the percentage of each element is always
the same. This is one of the characteristics that distinguishes them from mixtures, in which the different
components can be present in variable percentages.
Taking into account what was said in paragraph 2.2, the matter can therefore be classified as
 follows:

App. 1

3 – Atoms and molecules

An element is always made up of atoms that are all equal to each other (the number of neutrons can vary,
but we will talk about this later in par. 4/4). They, however, can be joined together in groups of two or
more, to form molecules homonuclear, that is, made up of equal atoms. Helium, for example, is made up
of single independent atoms, while oxygen is made up of homonuclear molecules diatomiche (made up
of two atoms). Other elements that behave like oxygen include hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, and iodine. Phosphorus is made up of tetratomic homonuclear molecules (made up of four
atoms) and sulfur is made up of octatomic homonuclear molecules (made up of eight atoms). The prefixes
used in chemistry to indicate numbers derive from Greek (not Latin) and are:
1 mono

2 Of

3 three

4 tetra

5 penta

6 that

7 epta

8 eight

9 for him

10 deca
 30
A compound, on the other hand, is always made up of molecules eteronucleari, that is, made up of
different atoms. The simplest case is that of the diatomic heteronuclear molecule, like that of hydrochloric
acid, made up of one hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom, but water is made up of triatomic
heteronuclear molecules, made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen . Heteronuclear molecules can
be made up of thousands of atoms and therefore be very large, enough to be defined macromolecules

.
It is. 5

4 – Names and symbols of the elements

Each element is identifiable with a name whose origin can be very ancient, as many elements were
already known and used in Greek or Roman times, or more recently: in this case the name is attributed by
the scientist who first isolates and identifies the element itself, even if it must then be approved. Element
names can originate from:
• astronomical - mercury comes from the first planet of the Solar System;
• celebratory - mendelevio is dedicated to the Russian chemist Mendeleev;
• descriptive - oxygen means "acid producer" and was attributed to gas by the French chemist
Lavoisier, convinced that it was part of the composition of all acids (even if it was later
demonstrated that this was not true);
• mythological - tantalum derives from Tantalus, the character of Greek mythology subjected to the
legendary torture; the discoverer chose this name to remember the enormous difficulties
encountered in isolating this metal from its minerals;
• geographical - Strontium comes from Stronthian, the Scottish village where it was first detected
within a mineral called stronzianite.
These are, therefore, imaginary names which are often very different depending on the language used: in
English, for example, silver is silver and gold is gold. To facilitate the exchange of information and
scientific content between different nations, the IUPAC (International Union for Pure and Applied
Chemistry) created a universal method for naming elements, based on the number of protons present in
the nucleus (atomic number) which, as we will see later, is the fundamental characteristic that identifies
each

31
element and on which all its behavior depends. The element with atomic number 111, for example, is
called unununium (roentgenium), the one with atomic number 115, ununpentium (muscovium). What
certainly remains unchanged in all languages ​is the symbol that is associated with each element; it is
made up of one or two letters: the first is always written in capital letters (B, C, N) and the second, if any,
in lower case (Br, Cl, Na).

it is the license plate of Alessandria it is the symbol of

aluminium it is the license plate of Naples it is the symbol for

sodium
Often the symbol does not coincide with the first letters of the name in Italian, but with the one in Latin
or Greek: gold has the symbol Au, deriving from the Latin aurum. The symbols are read by naming one
letter at a time: Al is read "a-elle", Na is read "enne-a",
In the following table you will find the name and symbol of the elements you need to know:
Aluminum Al Magnesium Mg

Silver At Manganese Mn

Argon With Mercury Hg

Nitrogen N Neon Yes

Barium Not Nickel In

Boro B Weather At

Bromo Br Oxygen THE

Soccer That Lead Pb

Carbon C Platinum Pt

Chlorine Cl Potassium K

Cobalt Co Radon Rn

Chrome Cr Copper With

Elio He Silicon And

Iron Fe Sodium Already

Fluoro F Pond Sn

Phosphorus P Strontium Sr

Hydrogen H Uranium IN

Iodine I Xenon Car

 Krypton NOK Zinc Zn

Lithium That Sulfur S

App. 2 / 9
5 – Classification of elements
Whenever we have a certain number of elements of a set available, we tend to divide them into categories
in order to organize and identify the characteristics of each of them, knowing which category it belongs
to.
Animals, for example, are divided into vertebrates and invertebrates: if we know that a certain animal 32

it is a vertebrate, we already know many of its characteristics, for example that it has an internal skeleton
with a load-bearing axis, the vertebral column, regardless of the fact that we know which animal it is.
Vertebrates, in turn, are divided into smaller groups: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. If we
know that an animal is a mammal, not only are we sure that it has the typical characteristics of this group
(for example the female suckles her young), but we also know that it will have all the common
characteristics of vertebrates, the superior category.
Likewise, when chemists came to know a considerable number of chemical elements, they felt the need to
catalog them. The simplest way of classifying the elements is to divide them into three categories, metals,
semimetals and non-metals, within which further subdivisions are made which we will study later.

In the table below, labeled "Periodic table of elements", metals are colored blue, nonmetals red, and
semimetals green.
Metal
They are the largest group of elements, characterized by considerable reactivity and therefore, generally,
they are not found in nature as elements, but in the form of compounds.
At room temperature they are all solids, with the exception of mercury. They are generally gray in color
(with the exception of gold, yellow, and copper, red). At room temperature they are excellent conductors
of heat

33
and electricity, but this capacity is reduced as the temperature increases, and are ductile (can be cut into
thin threads) e malleable (can be cut into thin sheets).

App. 10 - 11
Non-metals
Compared to metals, they are more commonly found in nature in the form of elements, although, apart
from the noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon), they are still capable of forming
numerous compounds. At room temperature they can be in all states of aggregation: carbon is solid,
bromine is liquid, oxygen is gaseous. Their colors are extremely variable: sulfur is yellow, chlorine green,
nitrogen colorless. With the exception of carbon (graphite), they are poor conductors of heat and
electricity (insulators) and the solid ones are neither ductile nor malleable but, subjected to an impact,
they shatter.
App. 12
Semimetalli
 They have intermediate properties between metals and non-metals. At room temperature, for example,
they are poor electrical and thermal conductors (even if they cannot be defined as insulators) but, as the
temperature increases, they conduct better and better. For this reason they are defined semiconductors.
App. 13
6 – Chemical formulas
There are different types of chemical formula, that is, different ways of indicating molecules, depending
on the characteristic you want to highlight. For now we will use the so-called molecular formula which
specifies the elements present in the molecule, through their symbol, but also the number of atoms of each
element present in it, through a number written at the bottom right (at the subscript) of each symbol. If the
molecule contains only one atom of a certain element, no number is indicated.
Molecular formula Name Model Constitution

THE2 Oxygen Diatomic homonuclear molecule, made

up of two oxygen atoms

HCl Acid Diatomic heteronuclear molecule, made

hydrochlo up of one hydrogen atom and one
ric chlorine atom

H2THE Water Triatomic heteronuclear molecule, made

up of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom

H2SO4 Acid Heptatomic heteronuclear molecule,

sulfuric made up of two hydrogen atoms, one
sulfur and four oxygen atoms

34
Later we will learn how to use the structural formula which, in addition to the information provided by
the molecular formula, also indicates the arrangement of the atoms in space, or how they are linked to
each other within the molecule.

THE
Structural formula of a component of, and
TO OH phosphoric acid, whose example of, DNA.
P OH molecular formula is
H3PO4. Phosphoric acid is

Some compounds, such as table salt, are not made up of molecules but of ions (see par. 4/4), which is why
they are defined as ionic compounds. The formula that represents them, dictates brute or crude formula,
simply indicates the numerical ratio between the ions that constitute them: in NaCl the ratio between
sodium and chlorine ions is 1:1; in CaCl2 the ratio between calcium and chlorine ions is 1:2.
It is. 6 / 12
 35

1. Find at least 3 examples of artificial substances and 3 of synthetic substances.

2. Read the chapter "????" taken from "The Periodic Kingdom" by Peter Atkins.(review
link) 3. Among the elements whose name has celebratory origins are nobelium, fermium,
einstenio, roentgenio, curio, meiterbio, bohrio, seaborgium, rutherfordio. Carry out a search
to find out the name of the scientist from whom they are derived and what studies that
scientist became famous for.
4. Among the elements whose name has geographical origins include polonium, francium,
scandium, hafnium, berkelium, californium, americium, europium, yttrium, ytterbium,
erbium. Do some research to find out where the name comes from.
5. The name gallium appears to be of geographical origin, but is probably of celebratory origin
 instead. Do a search to discover the history of this name.
6. Some descriptive names are derived from the color of the element or its compounds.
Discover the origin of the names of chlorine, chromium, rhodium, silver, iodine, bismuth,
iridium.
7. Identify the origin of the names of the following elements: nitrogen, phosphorus, hydrogen, uranium.
8. Some particular elements are defined as "noble gases" because they have a very low tendency to form
compounds. They are: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. Discover the origin of their
names.
9. The following element symbols do not match the letters of the name in Italian. Identify the name,
usually Latin or Greek, from which they derive: N, He, P, H, O, K, Cu, Na, S.
10. Do a search to discover at least 3 metals that occur in nature in the elementary state and 3 in the
compound state, indicating the name of the compound of which they are part.
11. Look around and find 3 examples of metals that you use in everyday life. Now do a search to find out
if the object in question is made up of pure metal, a compound or an alloy (homogeneous
mixture of several metals). What is the property of the metal for which it was chosen in order to
produce that object?
12. Consider 3 non-metals and find out what their function is in nature or their use in industry.
13. What are the best semiconductors and what are they used for?

36

1. For each of the following images, describe the phenomenon represented and then distinguish whether
it is a physical or chemical transformation:
2. Give at least 3 examples of physical transformation (excluding those in example 1).
3. Give at least 3 examples of reactions, indicating the reactants and products (excluding
those in example 1). 4. Identify whether synthesis or decomposition reactions are
mentioned in exercises 1 and 3. 5. Classify the following systems as element (E),
compound (C), mixture (M)
AND C M

latte

sugar

lead

cooking salt

salt water

diamante

clay

baking soda

bleach

sulfur
 37
6. Indicate how many atoms of each element (name) make up the following
molecules: a) FeO
b) B2THE3
c) NH3
d) C6H12THE6
e) NaHCO3
f) Ca(OH)2
g) Ba(ClO4)2
h) K4P2THE7
i) Fe(NO3)3
j) Al2(SO4)3
7. Write the molecular formula of the compound made up of three hydrogen atoms, one phosphorus and
four oxygen atoms.
8. Write the molecular formula of the compound made up of two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom.
9. The structural formulas of propane, benzene and butyric acid are drawn below. Obtain the
respective molecular formulas, indicating, in order, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen:

10. Write the formulas of compounds in which the combination ratio of hydrogen and oxygen is 2:1 and
2:2. What compounds are these?
11. Write the formula of the compound in which the combination ratio of mercury and fluorine
is 1:2. 12. Write the formulas of compounds in which the combination ratio of copper, iodine
and oxygen is a) 1:1:1
b) 1:1:2
c) 1:1:3
d) 1:1:4
 38

1 – Atomic theory
The term "atom" was coined by the Greek philosopher Democritus around 500 BC Wondering how
many times matter could be divided in half, he came to call this elementary particle that would form all
matter "atom", which in Greek means "indivisible".
Per Aristotle (300 BC), however, matter was indefinitely divisible into increasingly smaller parts and
permeated all space, so the void would not have existed or, as the philosopher said: "matter abhors the
void". His opinion prevailed and the idea of ​the atom was abandoned until 1700. However, the first
atomic model, that is, a theory according to which matter is made up of particles separated by empty
spaces, was developed by the English chemist John Dalton only in 1803. Dalton's atomic theory can be
summarized in five points:
1. matter is made up of very small and indivisible particles, called atoms; 2.
the atoms of the same element are all the same and have the same mass; 3.
atoms of an element cannot transform into atoms of other elements; 4. in
forming compounds, atoms combine with each other according to whole
numbers;
5. in chemical reactions, atoms transfer from one compound to another while
remaining intact.

He based his theory not only on his own experimental results, but also on those of two other French
scholars: Antoine Lavoisier and Joseph Proust. The names of the three chemists are linked to as many
laws, defined as "ponder them" (from Latin weight = weight) as they relate to the mass of the substances
involved in the chemical reactions.

2 – Lavoisier's law
Chemists, before Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794), thought that,
during a reaction, matter could be created or destroyed. They
he demonstrated, however, that mass is conserved, that is, it remains constant. Because of this
reason his law, formulated in 1789, is also called "law of conservation of
mass". It states:
In a chemical reaction the sum of the masses of the
reactants is equal to the sum of the masses of the
products.

If, for example, calcium carbonate (marble) and acid come into contact
hydrochloric, they react, producing a characteristic effervescence. The mass of the products
(calcium chloride and water) is apparently less than the sum of the masses of the two reactants.
This happens because during the reaction carbon dioxide is also formed, which is released into
the air, and therefore part of the products is lost. If, however, the reaction takes place in a
hermetically closed container, it is demonstrated that the mass is conserved, that is, that the mass
of the contents of the container remains the same, even after the reaction has occurred.
App. 1 - 2 / Es. 1 / 11

39
3 – Proust's law
In 1799 Joseph Louis Proust (1754-1826) enunciated the law of definite
proportions or of constant composition. It states:
in a compound, the ratio between the masses of the
elements that constitute it is defined and constant.

This means that the ratio of the masses of the elements in a given compound,
also called combination ratio, can be calculated experimentally and is always
the same, whatever the sample of that compound and in whatever condition it is
found.
For example, the combination ratio of calcium to oxygen in calcium oxide (CaO) is 2.51. This means that
2.51 g of calcium are combined with 1 g of oxygen:

m (Ca) : m (O) = 2.51 : 1 or m (Ca) / m(O) = 2.51

Another, completely equivalent, way to express the masses of the elements in a compound is the
percentage. Calcium oxide is made up of 71.51% calcium and 28.29% oxygen. App. 3 / Es. 12 / 24

4 – Dalton's law
In 1808, after having developed the atomic model and having verified the laws
of Lavoisier and Proust, John Dalton (1766-1844), realized that two elements
can combine with each other in different proportions, to give different
compounds. Oxygen and carbon, for example, can form carbon monoxide or
carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide). In the first case the combination ratio is 1.33,
while in the second it is 2.66.
The two compounds have very different characteristics, so Proust's law is
respected. Monoxide is extremely toxic, as it binds irreversibly to the
hemoglobin in the blood, which, at that point, can no longer transport oxygen.
Cells die from lack of oxygen and, if the intoxication is severe, the entire
organism dies. Carbon dioxide is not toxic: we produce it ourselves as waste
from respiration and the little that binds to hemoglobin is
it does so reversibly, so that it is available for binding with oxygen. Dalton, however, made a further
observation, comparing the two combination ratios: the second is exactly double the first. Indeed:

Thus was born the law of multiple aspect

Mass Mass of M
ratios:
of oxygen carbon

1,33 g 1,00 g 2.

2,66 g 1,00 g 3.66

1,33 : 2,66 = 1 : 2

40
the different masses of an element that
mass of another element to give differ
together according to small, w
Es. 25 - 29

5 – Verification of the atomic theory

The atomic theory derives from the three ponderal laws. In chemical reactions the mass remains constant
as each atom maintains its individuality and mass. Furthermore, new atoms cannot appear, just as they
cannot vanish into thin air.
Atoms of different elements have different masses and since they combine with each other according to
well-defined numerical proportions, the masses of the elements that react to form a compound must be in
well-defined proportions, as established by Proust's law.
Dalton's law is also easily explained in the light of atomic theory: if the atoms of an element all have the
same mass, equal masses of the same element contain the same number of atoms; consequently a double
mass will contain twice as many atoms. It is then easy to deduce that, while in carbon monoxide one
carbon atom is bonded to one oxygen atom, in carbon dioxide one carbon atom will be bonded to two
oxygen atoms.

6 – Validity of the atomic theory

In reality, some points of atomic theory have, over time, been overcome.

Nuclear reactions
The atom is indivisible only if it remains within the scope of chemical reactions, while it can be broken
into smaller particles through nuclear reactions. However, these are processes that do not occur at the
normal temperatures and pressures in which we find ourselves living and operating, so, in these
conditions, Dalton's theory is still valid. For nuclear reactions, even the third point of the theory is not
valid, because the atoms transform into each other, according to particular sequences.
But what are nuclear reactions? These are processes that affect the innermost part of the atom, its nucleus.
It can be broken apart and give rise to smaller atoms through the reaction of fission, in which microscopic
radioactive particles (nuclear waste) are also formed, which are very dangerous for living beings. Fission
is the process that is used in nuclear power plants to produce energy.
The second type of nuclear reaction, the fusion (attention: it has nothing to do with the transition from
solid to liquid), however it does not produce radioactive waste because it consists of the union of two
smaller atoms to create a larger one. It is the reaction that occurs in stars: two hydrogen atoms
fuse into one helium. For now it cannot yet be used by man to obtain energy, but it is under
construction in Caradache (France) on ITER reactor which will go into operation in 2025.
In both cases the mass conservation law is not respected: the final mass is slightly lower than the initial
one. The matter that is apparently lost is actually transformed into energy: it can be the thermal and light
energy that emanates from a star, or the electrical energy that man produces in reactors and distributes to
industries and homes.

41
The link between mass and energy was formalized by Einstein in 1905:
E = mc2

Where AND it's energy, m the mass e c the speed of light (300,000 km/s)

It can therefore be deduced that the very small amount of mass that is lost in a nuclear reaction is
transformed into a large amount of energy. Einstein then went so far as to state that mass is an extremely
concentrated form of energy.
If mass can be transformed into energy, we must admit that the opposite is also possible: this is the
process that occurred immediately after the Big Bang, the event that gave rise to the universe. The great
explosion released unimaginable quantities of energy, which condensed to form the first nuclei of the
smallest atom, hydrogen. From it then, through fusion, all the other larger atoms were formed.

Isotopes
As you will study better later, the nucleus of the atom contains even smaller particles, protons and
neutrons, while electrons are present in the periphery. Protons, electrons and neutrons are defined
subatomic particles.

Electrons have a negative charge, protons have a positive charge, and neutrons have no charge. While the
mass of neutrons is about the same as that of protons, the mass of electrons is much smaller: it takes
roughly 1836 electrons to equal the mass of one proton (or neutron). What characterizes the atoms of an
element, and is therefore constant for each of them, is the number of protons (equal to that of electrons
because the atom, by definition, is neutral) or its atomic number.
 It defines itself atomic number (Z) the number of
protons present in the nucleus of an atom.

If the number of neutrons is added to the number of protons, we obtain the mass number, i.e. the number
of all the particles that contribute to forming the mass of an atom (the mass of the electrons, as stated
above, is negligible).
It defines itself mass number (A) the sum of the
number of protons and gods neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom.

The atomic number is

indicated at the bottom left
compared to the element
symbol;
the mass number at the top left:

42
While, as mentioned above, the atoms of an element all have the same number of protons, the number of
neutrons can vary. As a result, they will not be identical and will have different masses.
Atoms of the same element with different mass
numbers are defined isotopes.

The case of hydrogen is so significant that the three isotopes of the element are indicated with specific
names: the great uncle it has one proton, one electron, and no neutrons; The deuterium it has a proton,
an electron and a neutron; The tritium It has one proton, one electron, and two neutrons.

App. 4 / Es. 30 / 35

Ions
Atoms do not always transfer from one compound to another while remaining intact but, sometimes, they
transfer in the form of ions, that is, with one or more electrons more or less. Ions can be cations or anions:
and cation it is an atom that has lost one or more
electrons and, consequently, has taken on a positive
charge;
and anion it is an atom that has acquired one or more
electrons and, consequently, has taken on a negative
charge.
 Molecules can also lose or gain electrons, and then we talk about polyatomic ions, as opposed to those
deriving from a single atom, called monatomic ions. To represent the ion, write the symbol of the
element or elements that make up the polyatomic ion and indicate the number and type of electric charges
at the top right: Ca2+ is the calcium ion (2 positive charges), F- is the fluoride ion (a negative charge), PO43-
it is the phosphate ion (3 negative charges). Es. 36 / 42

7 – Balancing reactions

and

stoichio

metric

calculat

ions

Es. 43 / 54

43
8 – The relative atomic mass according to Dalton
After formulating his law and atomic theory, Dalton began to deal with measuring the mass of atoms. He
soon realized that he could not determine the mass in an absolute sense, because the atoms were too small
in size, but he tried to compare the mass of various atoms with that of hydrogen, chosen as a reference
because it was the smallest of all atoms. . The measurement of the relative atomic (or molecular) mass
was derived:
The relative atomic/molecular mass corresponds to the number that expresses the ratio
between the mass of an atom/molecule and that of the hydrogen atom.

He determined, for example, that in water the ratio between the masses of oxygen and hydrogen was 8:1
and, therefore, he assigned the relative atomic mass of 8 to oxygen. This value was considered correct
for a long time, but, in reality, was wrong: Dalton had assumed, in fact, that water was made up of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a 1:1 ratio. Furthermore, Dalton's experimental data failed to explain the
reactions between
gaseous elementary substances, contrasting with those of Gay-Lussac.

9 – Gay-Lussac law
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850), studying the relationships between the
volumes of gases participating in a reaction, observed that
when two substances in the gaseous state react with
each other, at constant pressure and temperature, the
volumes of the reactants are in relation to each other
according to ratios, called combination ratios, expressed
by small and whole numbers.

This law, formulated in 1808, is called "law of combination volumes". It allows, once the chemical
reaction is known, to obtain the ratio between the volumes, if the ratio between the stoichiometric
coefficients is known and vice versa. For example, from the balanced reaction:

NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl (s)

we can deduce that 1L of gaseous ammonia (NH3) reacts with 1L of gaseous hydrochloric acid (HCl). If,
however, we observe that 2L of hydrogen reacts with 1L of oxygen to give 2L of water vapor, we can
deduce that the reaction is as follows:

2 H (g) + O (g) 2 H2THE (g)

or, as Dalton believed,

2 H (g) + O (g) 2 TO (g)

In both cases the relationship is not balanced and is therefore wrong. The problem was solved by the
Piedmontese chemist-physicist Amedeo Avogadro.
Es. 55 / 65

44
10 – Avogadro's law
Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856) put forward the hypothesis that between the
volume of a gas and the
number of particles contained in it should there be a precise relationship. He
enunciated his famous principle, also known as Avogadro's law, in 1811. In
particular he argued that:
Equal volumes of different gases, under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, contain the same number of particles.

He understood, however, that these particles were not always single atoms, as in noble gases (He, Ne, Ar,
Kr, Xe and Rn), but some of them were made up of pairs of atoms joined together, that is, they were
diatomic molecules homonuclear (H2, The2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2). According to Avogadro, therefore, the
volume of a gas, at equal pressure and temperature, depends solely on the number of particles (atoms or
molecules) present. That is, in other words, under the same temperature and pressure conditions (for
example, in normal conditions, i.e. 0°C and 1 atm), one liter of H2, one liter of Cl2, one liter of He, contain
the same number of uniformly distributed particles and that is to say the volume occupied by the gas
absolutely does not depend on the type of particles or their size, but only on their number. It follows that
two liters of oxygen will contain double the number of particles compared to those contained in one liter,
three liters will contain triple the number and so on.
Avogadro thus came to explain Gay-Lussac's experimental data, correctly writing the reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen to give water:

2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 H2THE (g)

and deducing from it that the ratio between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the
water molecule was not 1:1, as hypothesized by Dalton, but 2:1. He corrected,
therefore, the relative atomic mass of oxygen which, therefore, became 16.
Scientists of the time, including Dmitry Mendeleev, did not immediately believe
Avogadro, but they became convinced after reading the work of another
eminent
chemist, from Palermo Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826-1910), who in his
"Summary of a course in chemical philosophy" reported extremely rigorous
data and
precise in support of the Italian colleague's theory. After reviewing the
work, Mendeleev said "... the blindfolds fell from my eyes..." and, inspired by
the
text, began the journey that led him to the discovery of periodic law, of which
we'll talk later.

App. 5 / 8 / Es. 66 - 68
 45
Exercises performed

Perform the following exercises and then check their correctness by listening to the video lesson.

EXERCISE A
At a temperature between 850°C and 900°C, the calcium carbonate is cooked and decomposed into
carbon dioxide and calcium oxide. At 900°C 1000 g of calcium carbonate develop 440 g of carbon
dioxide.
1) Calculate the mass of calcium oxide produced
2) How many grams of calcium oxide are formed by cooking 350 grams of calcium carbonate?

EXERCISE B
In sulfur trioxide the combination ratio between the masses of sulfur and oxygen is 1:1.5
1) How many grams of oxygen react with 100 g of sulphur?
2) How many grams of sulfur are present in 360 g of sulfur trioxide

EXERCISE C
28 g of nitrogen reacts with 6 g of hydrogen to form ammonia.
1) What is the combination ratio between nitrogen and hydrogen in ammonia?
2) With how many grams of nitrogen do 10 g of hydrogen combine to form ammonia?

EXERCISE D
The combination ratio of magnesium to oxygen in magnesium oxide is 1:0.66. 1)
What happens if 350 g of magnesium are reacted with 350 g of oxygen? 2) How are
magnesium and oxygen defined, respectively

EXERCISE E
In an experiment, which we indicate with A, from the analysis of a substance, the following composition
was obtained: 10 g of copper are combined with 1.26 g of oxygen. In another experiment, denoted B, the
composition is as follows: 55 g of copper are combined with 13.9 g of oxygen. 1) How many grams of
oxygen combine with 1 g of copper in the two compounds?
2) State the weight law verified here.
 46

1. When mercury, a silvery liquid, is heated in the presence of air, a red substance is formed whose mass
is greater than that of the starting mercury. How can the phenomenon be explained? 2. By burning
several kilograms of wood, you obtain a few grams of ash. How can the phenomenon be explained?
3. The combination ratio of calcium and oxygen in a certain compound is 0.84. Comparing this value
to that of calcium oxide, what can you deduce?
4. Using the information you can obtain at the link, symbolically represent the various isotopes
of barium. Are they all present in nature?
5. The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to give water can be represented with a model
in which it is assumed that a certain volume of gas, under certain conditions of temperature and
pressure, contains a particle:

2 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes of water

of hydrogen of oxygen
Similarly, the reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen to give ammonia can be

represented:
or that between hydrogen and chlorine to give hydrogen chloride (in this case a volume
contains 5 particles):
 Write the reaction equation for these last two processes.
6. If you want to read some passages of the "Summary of a course in chemical
philosophy" by S. Cannizzaro, go to the link
7. Avogadro's principle can be used to calculate the relative molecular mass of a gaseous substance. Let's
imagine weighing a liter of hydrogen and a liter of oxygen at an ambient temperature of 20°C and a
pressure of 1 atm: the hydrogen will weigh 0.083 g while the oxygen will weigh 1.328 g. Since
1.328/0.083 = 16 we can deduce that a liter of oxygen weighs sixteen times more than a liter of
hydrogen under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. However, according to Avogadro's
principle, a liter of O2 and a liter of H2 contain the same number of molecules. Therefore, even the
single molecule of O2 it will be sixteen times heavier than a molecule of H2 and, considering that both
molecules are diatomic, the same mass ratio will exist between an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom.
This result is surprising, because it allows us, in a macroscopic way, to determine, at least for gases,
the relative masses of their molecules.
8. Taking advantage of Avogadro's principle and what is said in the App. 7, calculate the relative atomic
mass of nitrogen and the relative molecular mass of ammonia, knowing that at 20 °C and 1 atm a liter
of nitrogen weighs 1.162 g.

47

1. How many grams of water are obtained for the complete reaction of 40 g of hydrogen with 320 g of
oxygen? 2. If 8.06 g of magnesium oxide are obtained from the combustion of 4.86 g of magnesium,
determine the mass of oxygen that reacted with the magnesium.
3. In an initially empty glass, 40 g of water are reacted with an effervescent tablet of mass 5.0 g. From the
reaction, 500 cm3 of carbon dioxide are obtained and 44 g of solution remain in the glass. Calculate
the density of the gas in g/L.
4. Heating 20.00 g of anhydrous copper sulphate (blue colour) gives 12.78 g of anhydrous copper
sulphate (white colour) and water vapour. Determine the percentage of water in hydrated copper
sulfate.
AT THE LINK YOU WILL FIND THE CORRECTION OF EXERCISES 1/4

5. 1.0 g of hydrogen reacts completely with 35.5 g of chlorine to form hydrogen chloride. How many
grams of hydrogen chloride are formed? What is the percentage of hydrogen and chlorine in
hydrogen chloride?
6. 1.0 g of methane reacts completely with 4.0 g of oxygen to form 2.7 g of carbon dioxide and water.
How much water is formed?
7. 5.00 g of sodium reacts with 7.70 g of chlorine to give sodium chloride. How much sodium
chloride do you get? What is the percentage of sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride?
8. By reacting 6 g of hydrogen with a certain quantity of oxygen, 54 g of water are obtained. Calculate
the percentage of hydrogen and oxygen in the water.
9. If you heat 10.0 g of calcium carbonate you get 5.6 g of calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
How much carbon dioxide is produced?
10. When mercuric oxide is heated, it decomposes into mercury and oxygen. If 14.2 g of mercuric
oxide is decomposed, 1.0 g of oxygen is produced. What is the mass of the mercury formed? What
is the percentage of mercury and oxygen in mercuric oxide?
11. The reaction of 56 g of quicklime with water gives 74 g of slaked lime. Calculate how much water
reacted. 12. Table salt contains 39% sodium and 61% chlorine. How many grams of sodium are present
in 50 g of salt?
13. In hydrogen peroxide there is 5.9% H and 94.1% O. How many grams of hydrogen are there in 250 g
of hydrogen peroxide?
14. If 15.00 g of sucrose (table sugar) assayed 6.33 g of C, 0.98 g of H, and 7.69 g of O, what is the
mass percentage of each element?
15. A sample of iron oxide contains 70% iron by mass. Calculate how many grams of iron oxide you get
from 15 g of iron.
16. A sample of a compound consisting of calcium and oxygen contains 71% calcium by mass.
How much campostos do you get from 3 g of calcium?
17. In lead dioxide the combination ratio of lead to oxygen is 1:0.154. Determine the mass in grams of
oxygen that combines with 40 g of lead.
18. The combination ratio of magnesium to chlorine in magnesium chloride is 24.3:70.9. Determine
the grams of magnesium contained in 1 kg of magnesium chloride.
19. The combination ratio of hydrogen to chlorine in magnesium chloride is 1:35.4. Determine the mass
of hydrogen chloride obtained by completely reacting 0.23 g of hydrogen.

AT THE LINK YOU WILL FIND THE CORRECTION OF EXERCISES 17/19

20. In ammonia 4.7 g of nitrogen combines with 1.0 g of hydrogen. How many grams of nitrogen
combine with 200 g of hydrogen?

48
21. The combination ratio of the masses of magnesium and oxygen in the formation of magnesium oxide
is 1.5. Calculate the amount of magnesium that combines with 2.0 g of oxygen. 22. The combination ratio
of the masses of sulfur and iron in the formation of iron sulfide is 1.57. Calculate:
a) how much sulfur combines with 4.00 g of iron;
b) how much iron combines with 3.45 102 g di zolfo.
23. A compound between nitrogen and oxygen consists of 46.66% nitrogen and 53.33% oxygen.
Calculate the combination ratio of the masses of nitrogen and oxygen in that compound. Also
calculate how much nitrogen combines with 32.57 g of oxygen.
24. Knowing that the combination ratio of sodium to chlorine in sodium chloride (table salt) is 0.65,
complete the table:
Mass of Mass of sodium Mass of chlorine
sodium chloride

8,55

15,82

20

25. Hydrogen and oxygen form two different compounds: water and hydrogen peroxide (hydrogen
peroxide). In water the percentage of hydrogen is equal to 11.1% while in hydrogen peroxide it is
5.9%. Prove that Dalton's law is verified.
26. Nitrogen and oxygen can react with each other to form different compounds. The combination ratios
between the masses of nitrogen and oxygen in the various compounds are as follows:
a) 7:8; b) 7:16; c) 14:8; d) 14:40.
 Prove that Dalton's law is verified.

AT THE LINK YOU WILL FIND THE CORRECTION OF

EXERCISES 25-26

27. Chlorine and oxygen form four different compounds. With 1.00 g of chlorine, 0.23 g, 0.69 g, 1.15 g
and 1.61 g of oxygen are combined, respectively. Check Dalton's law. 28. Iron and chlorine form two
different compounds. With 3.54 g of iron, 7.09 g and 10.60 g of chlorine are combined, respectively.
Check Dalton's law.
29. 28 g of nitrogen can be combined with 48 g or 80 g of oxygen. Knowing that the first molecule
contains two nitrogen atoms and three oxygen atoms, determine how many atoms of the two elements
the second molecule contains.
30. Correctly represent the oxygen atom with atomic number 8 and mass number 16. 31. A carbon atom
has Z = 6 and A = 12. Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons. 32. Determine the
number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the uranium atom with atomic number 92 and mass
number 235.
33. After having correctly named the following elements, determine the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons contained in an atom of each of them:

34. An isotope of carbon has two more neutrons than the one in the example. 31. Determine its Z and A
and represent it correctly.
35. What is the difference between the two lead atoms represented in the figure?

36. Represent the calcium ion, knowing that it has two positive charges.

49
37. Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the Na ion+, knowing that Z=11 and
A=23. 38. Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the S ion2-, knowing that Z=16 and
A=36. 39. Write the formula of the sulfite ion, knowing that it is made up of one sulfur atom and three
oxygen atoms and that it has two negative charges.
40. Write the formula of the perchlorate ion, knowing that it is made up of one chlorine and four
oxygen atoms and that it has a negative charge.
41. Write the formula of the vanadyl ion, knowing that it is made up of one vanadium atom and one
oxygen atom and that it has two positive charges.
42. Write the formula of the borate ion, knowing that it is made up of one boron atom and three oxygen
atoms and that it has three negative charges.
43. Balance the following reactions:
a) K2O + H2O → KOH
b) Cl2THE7 + Already2O → NaClO4
c) HCl + Fe → FeCl3 + H2
d) P2THE3 + H2O → HPO3
and) CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + WHAT2
f) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
g) CaH2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
h) Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 → Like3(PO4)2+ H2THE
i) H2 + N2 → NH3
 j) Fe3THE4 + CO → FeO + CO2
k) Fe + O2 → Fe2THE3
l) P + O2 → P2THE5
m) K+O2 →K2THE
n) As + O2 → As2THE3
the) As + O2 → CaO
p) CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
q) SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
r) Cl2O + H2O → HClO
s) NH4NO3 → N2O + H2THE
t) NaN3 → Na + N2
in) H2THE2 → H2O + O2
v) Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
In) By + H2O → NaOH + H2
x) Fe + H2O → Fe3THE4 + H2
and) Zn + Pb(NO3)2 → Zn(NO3)2 + Pb
With) Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2
aa) Al+Fe2THE3 → Al2THE3 + Fe
ab) Cl2 + NaBr → NaCl + Br2
and) Mg + Fe2(SO4)3 → MgSO4 + Fe
ad) Zn + AgNO3 → Zn(NO3)2 + At
but) Fe + Pb(NO3)2 → Fe(NOT3)2 + Pb
of) CaCl2 + Already3PO4 → Like3(PO4)2 + NaCl
at) AlCl3 + NaOH → Al(OH)3 + NaCl
ah) BaCl2 + Already2CO3 → BaCO3 + NaCl
eat) NaOH + H3PO4 →Na3PO4 + H2THE

50
also) Ca(OH)2 + HNO3 →Ca(NO3)2 + H2THE
and) K2S + HCl →KCl + H2S
al) NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl
am) BaCl2 + Already2CO3 → NaCl + BaCO3
an) With (NO3)2 + (NH4)2S → CuS + NH4NO3
44. Knowing that 24 g of carbon reacts completely with 64 g of oxygen to form carbon dioxide, CO2,
determine:
a) the combination ratio between these two elements in this compound;
b) how many grams of oxygen are needed to react completely with 200 g of carbon; c) what is
the excess reactant if 150 g of carbon are reacted with 380 g of oxygen. How many grams
remain, unchanged, at the end of the reaction?
45. In lead dioxide, the combination ratio of the mass of lead to that of oxygen is 1:0.154. If 15 g of lead
are reacted with 3.5 g of oxygen, determine: a) the quantity in grams of oxide obtained;
b) which of the two reagents is in excess;
c) the quantity in grams of the excess element.
46. ​Consider the reaction:
2 Zn + O2 → 2 ZnO
and suppose you have 0.8 g of zinc and 4 g of oxygen available. If 1 g of zinc oxide is obtained
from the reaction, calculate:
 a) the combination ratio of zinc and oxygen in the ZnO product;
b) the grams of excess reagent.
47. 3.2 g of sulfur is known to react completely with 4.8 g of oxygen to form sulfur trioxide, SO3.
a) Determine the combination ratio of sulfur and oxygen in SO3.
b) If 80 g of sulfur trioxide reacts completely with 18 g of water, a new product called sulfuric
acid, H2SO4, according to the reaction:
SO3 + H2THE → H2SO4
How many grams of this acid will be obtained from the reaction?
48. Knowing that sulfur dioxide, SO2, comes from the reaction:
S + O2 → SO2
and that 3.2 g of sulfur reacted with the same amount of oxygen:
a) determine the combination ratio between sulfur and oxygen in sulfur dioxide; b) calculate how
many grams of sulfur dioxide will be obtained by reacting 40 g of oxygen with 32 g of sulfur;
c) one of the two reagents is in excess: which one and in what quantity?
49. To obtain carbon dioxide, 1.2 g of carbon is reacted with 3.2 g of oxygen. a) Determine the
combination ratio of carbon and oxygen in carbon dioxide. b) 44 g of this substance reacts with
25 g of water according to the following reaction: CO2 + H2THE → H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
How many grams of H2CO3 will they be obtained from the reaction?
c) In reaction b) do carbon dioxide and water react completely or is there an excess of one of the
two? If so, how many grams?
50. To obtain lithium chloride, 1 g of lithium must be reacted with 5.11 g of chlorine. Calculate:
a) the mass of chlorine sufficient to react 10 g of lithium;
b) the mass of the compound obtained;
c) the mass of the element that remains in excess if we react 30 g of chlorine with 5 g of
lithium.

51
51. In water, hydrogen and oxygen combine in a 1:8 ratio. Determine: a) the mass of water formed
when 10 g of hydrogen is reacted with 100 g of oxygen;
b) what is the excess element and in what quantity.
52. In hydrogen peroxide, H2THE2, hydrogen and oxygen combine according to the ratio 1:16.
Determine:
a) the mass of hydrogen peroxide that is formed when 10 g of hydrogen is reacted with 60 g of
oxygen;
b) what is the excess element and in what quantity.
53. In the compound MgCl2 magnesium and chlorine combine at a ratio of 1:2.92. Determine which
element is in excess and in what quantity, if we react 20 g of magnesium with 70 g of chlorine. 54. The
combination ratio of nitrogen and oxygen reacting to give nitric oxide is 7:8. a) How many grams of
nitrogen are needed to completely react with 32 g of oxygen? b) If 30 g of nitrogen are reacted with 35 g
of oxygen, what is the excess reactant and how much remains at the end of the reaction?
55. Given the reaction (to be balanced)
HCl(g) + NH3(g)→ NH4Cl(s)
calculate the volume of NH3necessary to react with 25.0 cm3in HCl.
56. Given the reaction (to be balanced)
N2(g) + H2(g) → NH3(g)
calculate the volume of N2needed to react with 30.0 L of H2and the volume of
NH3obtained. 57. Given the reaction (to be balanced)
NH3(g) + O2(g)→ N2(g) + H2THE(l)
ccalculate the volume of NH3needed to react with 15.0 L of O2.
58. Given the reaction (to be balanced)
H2(g) + O2(g)→ H2THE(g)
 calculate the volume of excess reagent when reacting 2.35 L of O2with 3.72 L of H2. 59. Given
the combustion reaction of methane (to be balanced)
CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2THE(g)
calculate the volume of air required for the combustion of 20.0 L of methane assuming that the air
contains 20.0% O2.
60. It was found that 10.0 cm3of bromine in the vapor state are combined with 30.0 cm3of chlorine
gaseous to give a compound. Find the formula of the compound and the volume of product obtained.
61. 12.0 L of NH are reacted3and 12.0 L of Cl2measured under the same pressure conditions e
temperature according to the reaction (to be balanced):
NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) → N2(g) + 6HCl(g)
When the reaction is complete, calculate the volumes of all species. AT THE LINK YOU WILL

FIND THE CORRECTION OF EXERCISES 55-61

62. Referring to the App. 5, calculate how many liters of gaseous hydrogen chloride are formed by
reacting 2.8 L of hydrogen with 2.8 L of chlorine, both in the gas state.
63. Referring to the App. 5, calculate how many liters of gaseous hydrogen chloride are formed by
reacting 2.8 L of hydrogen with 3.2 L of chlorine, both in the gas state.
64. Referring to the App. 5, calculate how many liters of ammonia gas are formed by reacting 3.5 L of
hydrogen with 2.5 L of nitrogen, both in the gas state. Which is the limiting reactant and which is the
excess reactant?
65. Referring to the App. 5, calculate how many liters of oxygen and hydrogen, both in the gas state, are
needed to obtain 1.7 L of water vapour.

52
66. Considered the following reaction (to be balanced):
Cl2(g) + O2(g)→ Cl2THE5(g)
a) determine the volumes of oxygen that react with 4 volumes of chlorine and the volumes of
Cl2THE5 that are formed;
b) indicated with z the number of chlorine molecules that participate in the reaction,
determines the number of oxygen molecules that react and the number of molecules of
Cl2THE5 that are formed.
67. Considered the following reaction (to be balanced):
C2H6(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2THE(g)
a) determine the volumes of oxygen that react with 3 volumes of C2H6 (ethane) and the
volumes of carbon dioxide and water formed;
b) indicated with z the number of ethane molecules that participate in the reaction, determines the
number of oxygen molecules that react and the number of carbon dioxide and water molecules
that are formed.
68. A certain number of gaseous fluorine particles, indicated by z, occupies a volume of 30 L. Determine
the volume occupied, in the same temperature and pressure conditions, by a number of gaseous
ammonia particles equal to 5/6 z .
53