CHAPTER 2.

TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer
converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.[1]
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control
systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to
another is known as transduction.
It is the first sensing element and is required only when measuring a non-electrical quantity, say,
temperature or pressure. Its function is to convert the non-electrical physical quantity into an
electrical signal. Of course, a transducer is not required if the quantity being measured is already
in the electrical form.

Transducers are used in electronic communications systems to convert signals of various

physical forms to electronic signals, and vice versa. In this example, the first transducer could be
a microphone, and the second transducer could be a speaker.

Types of Transducers
1. Active Transducers
2. Passive Transducers
3. Bidirectional Transducers

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 Active Transducers

Active transducers/ sensors generate an electric current in response to an external stimulus

which serves as the output signal without the need of an additional energy source. Such
examples are a photodiode, and a piezoelectric sensor, thermocouple

Passive Transducers

Passive sensors/transducers require an external power source to operate, which is called an

excitation signal. The signal is modulated by the sensor to produce an output signal. For
example, a thermistor does not generate any electrical signal, but by passing an electric
current through it, its resistance can be measured by detecting variations in the current
or voltage across the thermistor

Bidirectional Transducers

These convert physical phenomenal to electrical signals and also converts electrical signals
into physical phenomena. Examples of inherently bidirectional transducers are antennae,
which convert conducted electrical signal to or from propagating electromagnetic waves, and
voice coils, which convert electrical signals into sound (when used in a loudspeaker) or
sound into electrical signals (when used in a microphone).

APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS TRANSDUCERS

Electromagnetic:
o Antennae converts propagating electromagnetic waves to and from conducted
electrical signals
o magnetic cartridges converts relative physical motion to and from electrical signals
o Tape head, disk read-and-write heads converts magnetic fields on a magnetic
medium to and from electrical signals
o Hall effect sensors converts a magnetic field level into an electrical signal
Electrochemical:
o pH probes
o Electro-galvanic oxygen sensors
o Hydrogen sensors
Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices are generically called actuators):
o Accelerometers
o Air flow sensors
o Electroactive polymers
o Rotary motors, linear motors
o Galvanometers
o Linear variable differential transformers or rotary variably differential transformers

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 o Load cells converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain gauges
o Microelectromechanical systems
o Potentiometers (when used for measuring position)
o Pressure sensors
o String potentiometers
o Tactile sensors
o Vibration powered generators
o Vibrating structure gyroscopes
Electroacoustic:
o Loudspeakers, earphones converts electrical signals into sound (amplified signal
magnetic field motion
o Microphones motion of
[2]
magnetic field
o Pickup (music technology) converts motion of metal strings into an electrical signal
(magnetism
o Tactile transducers converts electrical signal into vibration ( e
vibration)
o Piezoelectric crystals converts deformations of solid-state crystals (vibrations) to and
from electrical signals
o Geophones
magnetic field
o Gramophone pickups motion magnetic field
o Hydrophones converts changes in water pressure into an electrical signal
o Sonar transponders motion magnetic field
electrical signal)
o Ultrasonic transceivers, transmitting ultrasound (transduced from electricity) as well as
receiving it after sound reflection from target objects, availing for imaging of those
objects
Electro-optical (Photoelectric):
o Fluorescent lamps converts electrical power into incoherent light
o Incandescent lamps converts electrical power into incoherent light
o Light-emitting diodes converts electrical power into incoherent light
o Laser diodes converts electrical power into coherent light
o Photodiodes, photoresistors, phototransistors, photomultipliers converts changing light
levels into electrical signals
o Photodetector or photoresistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) converts changes in
light levels into changes in electrical resistance
o Cathode-ray tubes (CRT) converts electrical signals into visual signals
Electrostatic:
o Electrometers
Thermoelectric:
o Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) converts temperature into an electrical
resistance signal

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 o Thermocouples converts relative temperatures of metallic junctions to electrical
voltage
o Thermistors (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)
Radioacoustic:
o Geiger-Müller tubes converts incident ionizing radiation to an electrical impulse signal
o Radio receivers converts electromagnetic transmissions to electrical signals.
o Radio transmitters converts electrical signals to electromagnetic transmissions.
A microphone, a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal.
Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, hearing aids, public
address systems for concert halls and public events, motion picture production, live and
recorded audio engineering, sound recording, two-way
radios, megaphones, radio and television broadcasting, and in computers for recording
voice, speech recognition, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic sensors
or knock sensors.
Several types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the
air pressure variations of a sound wave to an electrical signal. The most common are
the dynamic microphone, which uses a coil of wire suspended in a magnetic field;
the condenser microphone, which uses the vibrating diaphragm as a capacitor plate; and
the piezoelectric microphone, which uses a crystal of piezoelectric material. Microphones
typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or
reproduced.

MICROPHONES
As stated earlier, Microphone is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal.

There are various types of microphones which include the following:

Carbon microphone
Dynamic microphone
Ribbon microphone
Crystal microphone
Fiber optic microphone
Laser microphone
Etc.

Parameters used to describe the quality of a microphones:

The first is the output level, which can be described either as an absolute output level in
watts, when a reference level of sound pressure signal at 1000Hz is applied to the
microphone; or in decibel referred to a standard power output level under similar input

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 conditions. The power output level so measured gives a measure of the sensitivity of ther
microphone.
The flat frequency response over the entire audio range from 20HZ to 20kHz with no
response at all outside this range is the second parameter
The third is the directional response in their pickup characteristics. This directionality is
considered in much the same manner as the directionality of the antennas

In this section, we shall look into the carbon and crystal microphones

CARBON MICROPHONE:

The basic concept behind the carbon microphone is the fact that when carbon granules are
compressed their resistance decreases. This occurs because the granules come into better contact
with each other when they are pushed together by the higher pressure.

The carbon microphone comprises carbon granules that are contained within a small contained
that is covered with a thin metal diaphragm. A battery is also required to cause a current to flow
through the microphone.

Figure 2.1: Carbon Microphone

When sound waves strike the carbon microphone diaphragm it vibrates, exerting a varying
pressure onto the carbon. These varying pressure levels are translated into varying levels of
resistance, which in turn vary the current passing through the microphone

Figure 2.2: Schematic Diagram

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As radio started to be used, the carbon microphone was initially used there as well for
broadcasting as well as communications purposes. However their use in broadcast applications
soon came to end because of the drawbacks of noise and poor frequency response. Other types of
microphone started to become available and their use was preferred because of the better fidelity
that was available. The use of the carbon microphone persisted for many years for
communications purposes as they gave a high output and they were robust. The poor frequency
response was not an issue.

The carbon microphone was used for telephones up until the 1970s and 1980s, but even there it
became possible to use other types of microphone more conveniently. Also the crackle and noise
of the carbon microphone had always been an issue and when other types of microphone became
available at a low cost they started t be used, despite the requirement for additional electronics
needed.

Carbon microphones are now only used in a very few applications typically only specialist
applications. They are able to withstand high voltage spikes and this property lends itself to use
in a small number of applications

Carbon microphone advantages

High output
Simple principle & construction
Cheap and simple to manufacture
Carbon microphone disadvantages

Very noisy - high background noise and on occasions it would crackle

Poor frequency response
Requires battery or other supply for operation

CRYSTAL MICROPHONE

A crystal microphone or piezo microphone[27] uses the phenomenon of piezoelectricity the

ability of some materials to produce a voltage when subjected to pressure to convert vibrations
into an electrical signal. An example of this is potassium sodium tartrate, which is a piezoelectric
crystal that works as a transducer, both as a microphone and as a slimline loudspeaker
component. Crystal microphones were once commonly supplied with vacuum tube (valve)
equipment, such as domestic tape recorders. Their high output impedance matched the high input
impedance (typically about 10 megohms) of the vacuum tube input stage well. They were
difficult to match to early transistor equipment and were quickly supplanted by dynamic
microphones for a time, and later small electret condenser devices. The high impedance of the
crystal microphone made it very susceptible to handling noise, both from the microphone itself
and from the connecting cable.

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 Figure 2.3 : Piezoelectric Rubber

Piezoelectric transducers are often used as contact microphones to amplify sound from acoustic
musical instruments, to sense drum hits, for triggering electronic samples, and to record sound in
challenging environments, such as underwater under high pressure. Saddle-mounted
pickups on acoustic guitars are generally piezoelectric devices that contact the strings passing
over the saddle. This type of microphone is different from magnetic coil pickups commonly
visible on typical electric guitars, which use magnetic induction, rather than mechanical
coupling, to pick up vibration.
Advantages:
There are some advantages of piezoelectric transducer which are given below,

o The piezoelectric transducer is available in desired shape.

o It has rugged construction.
o It is small in size.
o It has good frequency response.
o It has negligible phase shift

Disadvantages:
There are some disadvantages of piezoelectric transducer which are given below,
o The piezoelectric transducer is used for dynamic measurement only.
o It has high temperature sensitivity.
o Some crystals are water soluble and get dissolve in high humid environment.

Applications:
There are some important applications of piezoelectric transducer which are given below,

o The piezoelectric transducer is used in spark ignition engines.

o It can be used in electronic watches.
o It is used in accelerometer.
o It is used in record player.

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LOUDSPEAKERS
A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer; a device which converts an electrical audio
signal into a corresponding sound. The most widely used type of speaker in the 2010s is
the dynamic speaker, invented in 1924 by Edward W. Kellogg and Chester W. Rice.

DYNAMIC SPEAKER
The dynamic speaker operates on the same basic principle as a dynamic microphone, but in the
off reverse, to produce sound from an electrical signal. When an alternating current
electrical audio signal is applied to its voice coil, a coil of wire suspended in a circular gap
between the poles of a permanent magnet, the coil is forced to move rapidly back and forth due
to Faraday's law of induction, which causes a diaphragm (usually conically shaped) attached to
the coil to move back and forth, pushing on the air to create sound waves. Besides this most
common method, there are several alternative technologies that can be used to convert an
electrical signal into sound. The sound source (e.g., a sound recording or a microphone) must be
amplified or strengthened with an audio power amplifier before the signal is sent to the speaker.

TWEETER

A tweeter is the smallest type of loudspeaker that is also known as the treble speaker. The
speaker is designed to reproduce the upper limit of the audible frequency range. It varies between
tweeters, but typically the sound frequency it delivers ranges from 2,000 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

MID-RANGE DRIVER

A mid-range speaker is a driver that is also known as a squawker. It is designed to deliver sound
from 250 to 2000 Hz frequency range.

LOW RANGE OR BASS

The low range frequency gets reproduced by woofers and sub-woofers. The word gets derived

The difference between woofers and sub-woofers is in the frequency range they are designed to
reproduce with former typically working within the 40 Hz to 500 Hz range and latter occupying
sub 100 Hz frequencies

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Most consumer-grade loudspeakers combine woofers and sub-woofers into a single speaker, yet
as you move up in the sound fidelity, those two get separated for purer, cleaner and more refined
low-frequency sound.

WOOFER
A woofer, also called a bass speaker is a term for loudspeaker or a driver tasked with
reproducing low frequency sounds.

Most of the time, it features a electrodynamic driver made of strong paper or various polymers.

human hearing capabilities working in 40 Hz and upwards range.

Figure 2.4: Piezoelectric speakers

A piezoelectric buzzer. The white ceramic piezoelectric material can be seen fixed to a metal
diaphragm.
Piezoelectric speakers are frequently used as beepers in watches and other electronic devices,
and are sometimes used as tweeters in less-expensive speaker systems, such as computer
speakers and portable radios. Piezoelectric speakers have several advantages over conventional
loudspeakers: they are resistant to overloads that would normally destroy most high frequency
drivers, and they can be used without a crossover due to their electrical properties. There are also
disadvantages: some amplifiers can oscillate when driving capacitive loads like most
piezoelectrics, which results in distortion or damage to the amplifier. Additionally, their
frequency response, in most cases, is inferior to that of other technologies. This is why they are
generally used in single frequency (beeper) or non-critical applications.
Piezoelectric speakers can have extended high frequency output, and this is useful in some
specialized circumstances; for instance, sonar applications in which piezoelectric variants are
used as both output devices (generating underwater sound) and as input devices (acting as the

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sensing components of underwater microphones). They have advantages in these applications,
not the least of which is simple and solid state construction that resists seawater better than a
ribbon or cone based device would.

Figure 2.5: Electrostatic loudspeaker

Schematic showing an electrostatic speaker's construction and its connections. The thickness of
the diaphragm and grids has been exaggerated for the purpose of illustration.
Electrostatic loudspeakers use a high voltage electric field (rather than a magnetic field) to
drive a thin statically charged membrane. Because they are driven over the entire membrane
surface rather than from a small voice coil, they ordinarily provide a more linear and lower-
distortion motion than dynamic drivers. They also have a relatively narrow dispersion pattern
that can make for precise sound-field positioning. However, their optimum listening area is small
and they are not very efficient speakers. They have the disadvantage that the diaphragm
excursion is severely limited because of practical construction limitations the further apart the
stators are positioned, the higher the voltage must be to achieve acceptable efficiency. This
increases the tendency for electrical arcs as well as increasing the speaker's attraction of dust
particles. Arcing remains a potential problem with current technologies, especially when the
panels are allowed to collect dust or dirt and are driven with high signal levels.

MOVING COIL LOUDSPEAKER

The moving coil loudspeaker is the most widely known and used form of loudspeaker. It can be
found in many electronic items from radios to Bluetooth speakers and in public address systems -
in fact anywhere that electrical waveforms need to be turned into audible sound.

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The moving coil loudspeaker performs well and is able to be manufactured relatively easily.
However, like all transducers converting electrical waveforms into sound, its operation can be
complex as the moving coil loudspeaker links electrical and mechanical domains.

Figure 2.6: Moving Coil Speakers

The moving coil loudspeaker uses the magnetic effect generated by a flowing current as the basis
of its operation.

When a current flows in a wire, a magnetic field appears around it. When the wire is wound into
a coil, the effect is increased.

Wireless speakers are very similar to traditional (wired) loudspeakers, but they receive audio
signals using radio frequency (RF) waves rather than over audio cables. There is normally an
amplifier integrated in the speaker's cabinet because the RF waves alone are not enough to drive
the speaker. This integration of amplifier and loudspeaker is known as an active loudspeaker.
Manufacturers of these loudspeakers design them to be as lightweight as possible while
producing the maximum amount of audio output efficiency.
Wireless speakers still need power, so require a nearby AC power outlet, or possibly batteries.
Only the wire to the amplifier is eliminated.

ASSIGNMENTS 2 & 3

1. What are the factors that determine the qualities of a microphone and loudspeakers
2. State five applications of transducers
3. Discus on wireless microphone and wireless speakers

QUIZES 2 & 3

1. Sketch the schematic diagram of one type of microphone and one type of speaker
and explain
2. Differentiate between active and passive transducers

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