Geography

Grade 11
Term 1:
Topic 2: The atmosphere
Importance of the Earth’s atmosphere
(page 92)
• The Earth’s atmosphere:
- Protects us form the harmful UV rays of the sun.
- Prevents the complete loss of heat at night when the
sun is not shining and is responsible for regulating
temperatures.
- Is heated unequally and therefore leads to places
around the world experiencing different temperatures.
- Has moisture in a gaseous state called water vapour.
- Has different types of clouds that form when the
process of condensation occurs.
 The Earth’s energy balance (page 93)
• Definition: the way in which heat is evened out
between the polar areas and the equatorial
areas.
• There are TWO key factors that impact on how
much heat energy reaches places on the Earth’s
surface:
- The latitudinal position of the place, i.e. how
close or far it is from the equator.
- The season, i.e. whether the place is experiencing
summer or winter.
 Latitudinal position
• The sun’s rays shine onto the Earth’s surface at an
angle, which causes unequal heating of the
Earth’s surface.
• In equatorial areas the air is heated more (sun’s
rays strike directly here throughout the year).
• These direct rays move between the Tropic of
Cancer (23,5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn
(23,5°S). These regions therefore receive a
greater amount of heat energy.
Tropical regions of the world
Tropical regions of the world
 Latitudinal position
• The polar regions receive little heat from the
sun. This is because they receive oblique rays
from the sun (strikes at an angle).
• The areas closer to the poles will be much
colder than places nearer the equator.
 Seasonal
• During the Earth’s revolution around the sun, the
different hemispheres experience different
seasons (spring, summer, autumn, winter).
• Summer months are experienced in the SH
(southern hemisphere) during December, January
and February. During this time the temperatures
are warmer due to the SH being tilted towards
the sun.
• Winter months are experienced in the SH during
June, July and August when the SH is tilted away
from the sun.
 Significance of the Earth’s axis and
revolution around the Sun (page95)
• The Earth’s axis is tilted 23,5° from the
vertical. This means that when the Earth
revolves around the sun during the course of
the year, different hemispheres will
experience different lengths of day and night.
• If the Earth’s axis was not tilted, then all
places on the Earth would experience equal
day and night.
 Significance of revolution around the
sun (page 96)
• The Earth revolves around the sun once every
365,25 days.
• Every 4 years we experience a leap year when
there are 366 days in the year.
• During summer more radiation is received.
• During winter less radiation is received.
• Thus, summers are warmer than winters.
• There are TWO dates in the year when the sun’s direct rays
shine on one of the tropics. These dates are known as the
summer and winter solstices.
• Summer solstice: 21 December
• Winter solstice: 22 June
• On either of these days the polar regions will receive 24
hours of day or night.
• When the sun’s rays are directly over the equator, places
experience equal length of day and night. These dates are
known as the spring and autumn equinox.
• Spring equinox: 22 September
• Autumn equinox: 21 March
Revolution of the Earth around the sun
(Northern Hemisphere dates)
Homework activity 1: The Earth’s Axis
(page 97)
• Complete questions 1 to 8
Transfer of energy and energy balance
(page 97)
• Due to the Earth’s axis and revolution around the sun, the
equatorial areas of the Earth receive direct insolation (sun’s
rays) all year round. At the same time the polar regions
receive very little insolation from the sun.
• Thus, places near the equator are always warmer and the
temperatures are higher than places found further to the
north or south.
• This unequal heating causes an imbalance in heat and
energy. When air moves it is able to transfer heat from one
area of the Earth to another.
• Winds moving away from the equator will be warmer
• Winds moving away from the polar regions will be colder
• Winds play an important role in creating an energy balance.
Global air circulation (winds)
 Role of the ocean currents (page 98)
• Ocean currents are large movements of water that
occur in all oceans of the world.
• Currents can be either warm or cold depending on
whether they originate from the polar or equatorial
regions, e.g. cold Benguela current and warm
Mozambique current.
• Warm currents transfer heat way from the warm
equatorial areas towards the colder polar regions.
• Cold currents move cold water towards the equatorial
regions.
• These currents assist with the evening out of the heat
imbalance.
Earth’s ocean currents
 Extra practice activity 1: interpreting
information from maps (page 98)
• Complete questions: 1 a, 1b, 2, 3, 4
 Global air circulation (page 99)
• Study Ferrel’s Law!
- Air will be deflected to the left of its intended
path in the SH and to the right of its intended
path in the NH.
• The Earth’s wind systems are referred to as the
global air circulation.
• To understand how these wind systems function,
you need to know more about HP and LP
systems.
• NB: this is extremely important for Grade 12!
 High pressure (HP) and low pressure
(LP)
• Air always moves from a HP to a LP (to even out the
pressure differences).
• The difference in air pressure between two places is called
a pressure gradient.
• The greater the difference in air pressure, the stronger the
wind will be.
• On a synoptic weather chart, pressure is shown by an
isobar (line on a map joining all places with the same
atmospheric pressure).
• When isobars are close to each other, the pressure gradient
is steep.
• When isobars are further apart, the pressure gradient is
gentle (indicating a gentle wind).
 HP and LP (continued)
• In the SH, air moves out of a HP area in an anti
clockwise movement and into a LP area in a
clockwise movement.
• In the NH these movements are the opposite.
• This deflection of air is described by Ferrel’s
Law.
HP and LP systems (page100)
 HP system characteristics (page 100)
• Air is sinking and warming
• Clear, stable conditions
• Air moves anti-clockwise out of the system in
the SH
• No clouds present
• Anticyclone
• Air diverges
 LP system characteristics (page 100)
• Air is rising and cooling
• Cloudy unstable conditions
• Air moves clockwise into the system in the SH
• Clouds are present
• Cyclone or depression
• Air converges
Draw the two figures on page 100
 Classroom activity 2: Air pressure
systems (page 100)
• Complete questions: 1a, 1b, 1c, 2a, 2b
- Draw Figure 2.5
 World pressure belts (page 101)
• Zones of HP and LP areas are found at various
latitudinal positions on the Earth.
• These areas are known as the world pressure
belts. There are FOUR belts, namely:
- The equatorial LP belt (at the equator)
- The subtropical HP belt (30°N or S of the equator)
- The subpolar LP belt (60°N or S of the equator)
- The polar HP belt (at the poles)
World pressure belts (page 101)
 Tri-cellular circulation (page 102)
• If the Earth did not rotate global air circulation
would be very simple:
• Hot air would rise at the equator and sink at the
poles.
• A simple wind system would occur at the surface
where air would move from the polar HP belt to
the equatorial LP belt in each of the hemispheres.
• However, global air circulation is more complex.
 Tri-cellular circulation (continued)
• Due to the rotation of the Earth and the temperature
differences between the equatorial and polar regions,
global air circulation is complex.
• These two factors cause a pattern of air movement
known as the tri-cellular circulation.
• Each hemisphere has THREE cells of air movement,
they are:
- The Hadley cell
- The Ferrel cell
- The polar cell
The tri-cellular model of air circulation
(page 102)
 The Hadley cell (page 102)
• This cell occurs between 0° and 30° N and S of
the equator.
• Intense heating from the sun at the equator
causes air to rise up.
• An area of LP is therefore found in the equatorial
regions.
• This rising air spreads out towards the poles,
cools and sinks back down to the surface of the
Earth at 30°N and S of the equator.
• The sinking air in these zones causes a HP area.
• Read the characteristics of the Hadley cell on
page 102
 The Ferrel cell (page 103)
• This cell occurs between 30-60° N and S of the
equator.
• Some of the air subsiding at 30° will move
back towards the equator, while the rest will
continue to move towards the poles.
• At approximately 60° N and S, this air meets
cold air moving in from the polar regions.
• Read the characteristics of the Ferrel cell on
page 103
 The Polar cell (page 103)
• The air circulation between 60-90°N and S of the
equator is known as the polar cell.
• The rising air at the polar front subsides (sinks) at
90° at the poles and is mainly due to cold
temperatures forming the polar high pressure
cell.
• Air moves from this high pressure at the poles
back towards the polar front.
• This movement completes the cell of air
circulation in this area.
• Read the characteristics of the polar cell on
page 103
 The relationship between air
temperature, air pressure and wind
(page 104)
• One of the main trigger actions causing air to
rise in the pressure cells is heat.
• Areas with higher temperatures will cause
lighter less dense air which will rise.
• When air rises, a LP (Low Pressure) exists as
less air is pushing down on the Earth’s surface.
The heat equator
• Areas of HP (High Pressure) will occur where air is
sinking or subsiding.
• Cold air is denser than warm air and will
therefore subside.
• This is why there is a HP belt at the polar regions.
• Air always moves from a HP to a LP region. The
movement of air between the pressure belts is
determined by the presence of these pressure
belts.
• Air will always move away from the polar HP belt
and the sub-tropical HP belt towards the LP belts.
 Shifting pressure belts and the heat
equator (page 105)
• What happens when the sun is directly shining over the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn?
• The southern hemipshere is hottest when the sun is
directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn (21 December).
During this time the ITCZ and all other pressure systems
move southwards.
• The northern hemisphere is hottest when the sun is directly
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (21 June). During this time
the ITCZ and all other pressure systems move northwards.
• As the position of the hottest areas change in the different
seasons, we refer to these areas as the heat equator.
• Study the Figures on page(s) 106-107.
 The results of these shifting pressure
belts (page 108)
• The shifting of the pressure belts further north
and south result in areas of HP and LP
occurring in different parts of the world during
the summer and winter seasons.
• If there is HP over an area that normally has
LP this means that it will be drier because air
is subsiding in a HP and rain will not occur.
 Position of the polar front systems in
the south-western Cape in January and
July
• Study the Figures on page 108
 Classroom activity 3: Analysing
information from maps (page 109)
• Complete questions 1 – 7.
 Pressure gradient, Coriolis force and
geostrophic flow (page 109)
• Pressure gradient force: The force that causes
air to move from a high to a low pressure
area.
• Pressure gradients determine the speed of
winds.
• The pressure gradient force will always act at
right angles to the isobars.
Pressure gradient force
 Coriolis force (page 110)
• Another force operates on air movement (winds),
this is called the Coriolis force.
• The Coriolis force is caused due to the rotation of
the Earth.
• The Coriolis force causes air to be deflected from
its original path. Air in the Southern Hemisphere
is deflected to the left of its intended path.
• The Coriolis force is responsible for the clockwise
and anti-clockwise movement of air around the
high pressure and low pressure cells in the
different hemispheres.
How the Coriolis force works
 Facts about the Coriolis force (page
110)
• The force was identified by Gustave-Gaspard de
Coriolis in 1835.
• Causes a change in direction in all winds on the
Earth’s surface.
• The more rapid the air movement, the greater
the deflection will be.
• Coriolis force doesn’t occur at the equator and it
is most pronounced at the poles.
• Coriolis force is always perpendicular to the
direction of air movement.
 Geostrophic flow (page 111)
• When air moves it is subjected to TWO forces:
- Pressure gradient force
- The Coriolis force
• What happens to the direction of wind when
these two forces operate together?
• These two forces will be balanced by each other
and lead to the wind blowing parallel to the
isobars.
• Such a wind is called a geostrophic flow or
geostrophic wind.
Geostrophic wind (NH)
 Important notes on geostrophic flow
• It is a wind which blows parallel to the isobars.
• This occurs when a balance is reached between the
Coriolis force and pressure gradient force.
• Air can’t move against the pressure gradient so a
balance is achieved once the air flows parallel to the
isobars.
• A geostrophic flow forms in the upper atmosphere
where there is no friction with the surface of the Earth.
• Near the Earth’s surface, friction weakens the Coriolis
force causing air to flow across the isobars towards the
low pressure area.
 The 3 wind systems (global air
circulation)
• 1) Tropical easterlies:
- Blow from the subtropical HP belt to the
equatorial regions.
- Known as the trade winds
- In the Southern Hemisphere they are called
the SE trades.
- They are very constant in strength and
direction.
• 2) Westerlies:
- Blow from the subtropical HP belt towards the
subpolar LP belt.
- In the Southern Hemisphere they are called
the North westerlies.
- Are variable in both direction and strength.
• 3) Polar easterlies:
- Blow from the polar HP belt to the subpolar LP
belt.
- Blow from the east in both hemispheres as
the deflective Coriolis force is very strong
closer to the poles.
- Are more regular in the Southern Hemisphere
than the Northern Hemisphere.
Winds in global circulation system
 Homework Activity 3 (page 113)
• Complete questions 1 – 9.
 Classroom Activity 5
• Complete questions 1 - 5
Winds related to regional and local air
movements (page 116)
• Wind systems can be:
- Regional: winds that occur over large areas or
regions of the world, e.g. the monsoon winds
in Asia.
- Local: winds that develop on a small-scale as a
result of specific conditions in an area, e.g.
Fohn winds (Berg winds).
 Monsoons (page 116)
• The word ‘Monsoon’ is an Arabic word that
means ‘season’.
• It refers to winds whose directions is completely
reversed from one season to the next.
• Monsoon winds occur in China, Japan and India
(SE Asia).
• As a result of the movement of pressure belts,
wind systems of the world will move in response
to where the high and low pressure areas lie.
• This causes the wind systems in Asia to reverse
direction.
Monsoon
 January: The NE Monsoon over India
• The sub-tropical HP belt is situated over
central Asia.
• The ITCZ is found south of the equator.
• A NE wind blows from the Punjab HP to the
ITCZ.
• This wind is known as the NE Monsoon.
• The NE Monsoon is a dry wind as it originates
over a continental land mass.
 July: The SW Monsoon over India
• In July the ITCZ is further north of the equator.
• Air moves from the HP area in the SH as the SE trades
moves across the equator towards this low pressure.
• As it crosses the equator it is deflected to the right as it
is now in the NH.
• The wind therefore arrives in India as a SW wind.
• This wind is called the SW Monsoon.
• The SW Monsoon brings intense rainfall to areas of
India as it originates over a warm tropical ocean.
 Case Study (page 117)
• Read the case study on Monsoons in India.
 Homework Activity 4 (page 119)
• Complete questions 1 – 8.
 Fohn/Berg winds (page 120)
• This is a dry warm wind that descends from mountains.
• They occur in many parts of the world where they are
given names specific to that region. As the name
originated in the Alpine regions of Germany the name
Fohn refers specifically to the winds occuring in the
mountainous areas of Europe.
• In South Africa we refer to these winds as a Berg wind.
• These winds are also referred to as:
- Chinook (Rocky Mountains in the USA)
- Zonda (Andes Mountains in Argentina)
- Santa Ana (Southern California, USA)
Fohn winds of the world
 How Berg winds form
• Air is forced to rise up a mountain on the windward
side. As the air travels up (rises), the atmosphere
becomes less dense and the air will expand and cool.
• Any moisture that the air holds will precipitate out on
the windward side of the mountain.
• As the air travels down, the air is compressed causing it
to heat up. This process is referred to as adiabatic
heating.
• As the air is dry, little rain occurs on the leeward side
causing a rain shadow area. This downslope wind is
therefore dry and warm.
Formation of a Berg wind
Fohn wind video clip
 Effects of a Berg wind (page 120)
• A sudden rise in temperature in a short space of time. An example was
when the Chinook wind from the Rockies caused temperatures in the
town of Granville to rise from -36°C in the morning to 10°C in the
afternoon (a rise of 46°C).
• The melting of snow may lead to avalanches and flooding. The Chinook
wind is nicknamed the ‘snow-eater’ because of this effect.
• The rapid spread of veld fires due to the warm, dry conditions this wind
brings.
• Problems for mountaineers, particularly in the Alps. It is difficult to climb
these peaks when this wind is blowing.
• Problems for farmers if these winds blow after spring planting as the hot,
dry conditions cause seeds to die as the soil becomes parched.
• An increase in some illnesses such as migraines. Studies have shown that
suicide and accidents increase by 10% during Fohn winds in Central
Europe. The Santa Ana wind in California is often called the ‘murder wind’.
 Case Study: Berg winds
• Read the case study on Berg winds (page 121)
 Homework Activity 5 (page 123)
• Complete questions 1 – 6d.
Extra Practice Activity 2 (page 124)
• Complete questions 1a – i, 2a – c, and 3 a,b.
 Africa’s weather and climate (page
125)
• Africa’s climate is influenced by the position of
anti-cyclones (HP), cyclones (LP) and air masses
that form part of global air circulation.
- Anti-cyclones: are areas of HP that are stable air
masses. Air sinks or subsides in an anti-cyclone
and therefore rain does not occur when these
systems are present.
- Cyclones: are areas of LP that are unstable air
masses where air is rising. Rising air allows for
rainy conditions to develop.
Africa’s climate regions video clip
Africa’s climatic regions
 The characteristics of Africa’s climatic
regions (page 127)
• Tropical rain forest
- High constant temperatures with heavy rain
on a daily basis (2 000mm per annum in some
areas).
- High humidity with a low temperature range.
- These areas are covered with forests
containing a variety of trees and other types
of vegetation.
Tropical rainforest in the DRC
• Savanna
- High average temperatures with low to moderate
precipitation.
- Grasslands are found where the amount of
rainfall is favourable for the growth of grass and
some trees and shrubs.
- These areas have large herds of grazing and
browsing animals such as wildebeest, zebra,
giraffe and antelope (the Serengeti Plains in
Central Africa).
Serengeti Plains of Tanzania
• Desert
- Very little rainfall throughout the year (less than
250mm per annum).
- Very high temperatures during the day and very
cold temperatures at night.
- Deserts have little or sparse vegetation. They are
found mainly between the tropics and sub-tropics
on either side of the equator.
- Sahara Desert in North Africa and the Kalahari
Desert in the southern hemisphere.
Kalahari Desert in Botswana
• Steppe or semi-desert
- Semi-arid conditions with high temperatures.
- Annual rainfall of between 250mm – 500mm.
- The steppe area in Africa is characterized by
shrub type vegetation and short grass.
- The Sahel region is the transition zone
between the savanna and the severe desert of
the Sahara.
Sahel region in Niger, Chad, Sudan
• Mediterranean
- Subtropical temperatures with moderate
temperature range. Hot and dry summers with
mild rainy winters.
- Rain in the winter season due to on-shore
westerly winds from cyclonic rainfall (average
500mm per annum).
- The fynbos biome in the SW Cape is recognised
as part of one of only six floral kingdoms in the
world. It contains 8 700 plant species.
Fynbos in the SW Cape
• Mountain climate
- Extremely cold temperatures at high altitudes
with permanent snow or ice cover.
- Mt. Kilimanjaro is snow-capped the whole
year round because of its altitude.
Mt. Kilimajaro in Tanzania
 Case Study: Fynbos
• Read the case study on fynbos (page 128-129)
 Homework Activity 6 (page 130)
• Complete questions 1 - 5
Subsidence and convergence and their
link to rainfall (page 131)
• The rainfall patterns of Africa are affected by the position of
the high pressure (HP) and low pressure (LP) areas.
• HP over Africa:
- These are found over 30°N and 30°S of the equator
(subtropical HP belt).
- Conditions are generally dry as air sinks and so little rainfall
occurs.
• LP over Africa:
- These are found in the equatorial regions as part of the
ITCZ.
- Air is forced to rise in these areas and large thunderstorms
and heavy rain are characteristic for much of the year.
 Subsidence (page 132)
• Air subsides (sinks) at areas of HP, this causes
dry conditions.
• The Sahara Desert is found in a high pressure
area.
• Study Figures 2.35(a) and (b) on page 132.
 Convergence (page 132)
• The ITCZ is where two air masses converge
(meet) near the equator.
• The equatorial region receives direct sunlight
all year round causing warm air to rise, cool
and condensation takes place.
• Study the isohyet map in Figure 2.35(a) that
shows the high amount of rainfall that occurs
as a result of this converging, rising air.
 Classroom activity 7 (page 132)
• Complete questions 1 - 8
The role of oceans in climate control in
Africa (page 133)
• How do the oceans influence climatic processes?
- They are a source of moisture for the atmosphere
(evaporation, condensation and precipitation).
- They are a source of oxygen to the atmosphere
(phytoplankton).
- Ocean currents circulate heat between the
equator and the polar areas.
- Ocean currents affect the temperature and
rainfall patterns of coastal towns.
Africa’s ocean currents
 Ocean currents and temperatures
(page 133)
• Towns close to a large ocean experience a
maritime climate (smaller temperature range).
• This is due to the moderating influence of the
ocean because water heats up and cools down
at a slower rate than land masses do.
• Inland areas experience a continental climate
(larger temperature range), because there is
no mass of water to modify their daily
temperatures.
Ocean currents and rainfall (page 133)
• Warm air can hold a larger amount of water
vapour than cold air. Thus, places next to
warm ocean currents will experience more
rainfall than places near cold currents.
• Study Table 2.6 on page 133.
 El Nino and La Nina processes and
their effects on Africa’s climate (page
134)
• El Nino (‘little boy’ in Spanish) occurrences cause
changes in weather patterns and affect the
ecology of the oceans.
• El Nino develops when the sea-surface
temperatures are warmer than normal.
• La Nina (‘little girl’ in Spanish) occurs when the
sea-surface temperatures are colder than normal.
• The cycle between the warm (El Nino) and cold
(La Nina) phase is called the ENSO (El Nino
Southern Oscillation) cycle.
ENSO
El Nino
El Nino video clip
 El Nino’s effects on Africa’s climate
(page 136)
• El Nino events cause ecological changes and
have an economic impact on fishing and
farming industries (due to changing changes in
ocean temperatures and rainfall patterns).
• In Africa, an El Nino event usually brings with
an increased number of droughts. Southern
Africa will experience drier than normal
conditions.
• Study Figure 2.38 on page 136.
 La Nina’s effects on Africa’s climate
(page 137)
• This causes abnormally high rainfall in
Namibia, western South Africa and from
southern Tanzania down to South Africa.
• After a La Nina event there is evidence of
reduced rainfall in the equatorial regions and
above normal rainfall in south-eastern Africa.
 Classroom activity 8 (page 137)
• Complete questions 3,4 and 5
 Reading and interpreting synoptic
weather maps (page 138)
• For us to understand the weather systems of
the world, we need regularly updated
information about what is happening in the
atmosphere.
• A collection of weather data allows
meteorologists to produce daily weather maps
(synoptic charts).
 Synoptic charts (page 138)
• This is a summary map of the weather conditions for a
particular place or area.
• In SA, these charts are produced daily for the country
by the SAWS, which is based in Pretoria.
• These charts form the basis of weather forecasting and
prediction.
• Satellite images taken by satellites (Meteosat) are used
to collect data.
• Weather stations, radiosondes, ships at sea and
weather bureaus at Gough and Marion Islands are all
sources of weather data that are used for forecasting.
Weather station
Radiosondes (weather balloon)
Ships at sea
Weather bureau (Gough Island)
Weather bureau (Marion Island)
How to read and interpret information
on a synoptic chart (page 138)
• Date and time: are always given on the chart, e.g. 13 August 2009 at 6am in the
morning.
• Isobars: These form the basis of understanding the information on a synoptic
chart. They join all places with the same air pressure. They are usually drawn for
every 4hPa.
• HP and LP areas: These are indicated by the letters H and L at the centre of these
cells.
• Latitude and longitudinal lines: These are drawn to help describe positions and
places on the map.
• Frontal systems: Are drawn in using the symbols for cold and warm fronts.
• Summer or winter conditions: Can be identified by looking at the temperature of
places on the map and the position of the pressure systems (ITCZ, subtropical HP
belt, sub polar LP belt).
• Weather symbols: these represent weather conditions at a particular place. The
symbols out to sea represent information that a ship at that location recorded that
day. Those over land show the information from the land-based weather stations.
Synoptic chart
Cold versus warm fronts
 Homework activity 8 (page 139)
• Complete questions 1 - 8
Weather station model
 Droughts and desertification (page
143)
• Droughts occur when a region is low (deficient) in
its water supply. This usually takes place when
the region receives below average precipitation
(rainfall).
• As a result, it impacts negatively on the
ecosystem and agriculture in the region.
• Drought is a normal climatic feature that occurs
in many parts of the world. It has been
documented that droughts dating back to 9
500BC caused hunter and gatherers to migrate.
Drought
Drought
 Droughts and desertification
• Continuous and recurring droughts lead to
desertification. Desertification results when a
perfectly fertile piece of land becomes a desert.
• Areas severely affected by drought include the
Horn of Africa, Sudan and Chad. Parts of the
Amazon Basin experienced their worst drought in
a hundred years in 2005.
• Continuous drought together with deforestation
may lead to the Amazon rainforest turning into a
savanna or desert area.
The Horn of Africa
 Areas at risk: local (page 145)
• SA’s rainfall is unreliable which makes it a dry
(semi-arid) country.
• A large part of the country receives less than
500mm of rainfall in a year.
• Droughts are a common phenomenon in SA’s
climate. The western half of the country
receives very little rainfall compared to the
eastern half. Thus, the western half is very dry.
Climatic regions of SA
Areas affected by drought in the world
• Lake Chad (Chad)
• New South Wales (Australia)
• Sudan
• The Amazon Basin (Brazil)
• The Murray-Darling Basin (Australia)
• Perth (Australia)
• Sonoran Desert (Mexico)
Areas affected by drought
 Causes of droughts (page 147)
• There are TWO main causes of drought:
- naturally
- human activity
• Natural causes: Generally droughts are caused by
natural climatic changes. When the amount of water
vapour in the atmosphere is reduced or the air does
not rise, a drought occurs. This occurs as a result of HP
systems caused by winds that carry continental dry air
instead of oceanic moist air. ENSO cycles cause regular
droughts in parts of America and Australia.
• Human causes: Human activities such as over
farming, deforestation, excessive irrigation
and erosion are factors that negatively affect
the capacity of the land to hold water.
• Classroom Activity 11: Complete questions 1
and 2.
 Causes of desertification (page 148)
• Desertification is caused by many factors that
include the following:
- Population
- Socio-economic
- Political
• Policies that prefer sedentary farming to nomadic
farming contribute to desertification. Limiting the
movements of nomads and keeping them in one
place leads to desertification as they lose their
ability to adjust to conditions such as drought.
• Globalisation: This is also a factor that causes
desertification. Free trade and the increase of
livestock and agricultural production for
export can lead to desertification as farmers
will now concentrate on producing the
maximum from their land to the detriment of
the land.
 Land use practices
• Overgrazing: When animals are allowed to
graze on one piece of land continuously or
when too many animals are grazing on that
particular piece of land. This leads to the
removal of all vegetation and with time nop
vegetation will grow on the land at all. This
leads to the land becoming infertile resulting
in desertification.
• Farming of marginal land: This happens
throughout the world. Farmers are clearing
marginal land, that is, land that is not meant
for farming and will not be productive, and are
using this land.
• This practice removes the fertility of the soil.
The land is not given time to regain its
richness. As a result desertification occurs.
• Destroying of vegetation in dry areas: In many
rural areas, people cut down trees for fuel and
other purposes (cooking, heating etc.). When
all the trees are cut down there is nothing to
protect the soil from erosion. The soil is then
easily blown away by wind.
• Once fertile top soil is removed little
vegetation will be able to grow in the area and
this leads to desertification.
• Incorrect irrigation in arid areas: This is
commonly practised in poorer areas. Due to
the lack of rainfall and water, farmers use poor
techniques of irrigation such as canal
irrigation.
• This causes salt to build up in the soil which
has a negative effect on the growth of
vegetation. Lack of vegetation cover leads to
desertification.
Effects of droughts and desertification
on people and the environment (page
149)
• Effects of desertification: This can affect both the
environment and humans.
- Soil: The soil becomes less useable. The soil can be
blown away by wind or washed away by rain. The
nutrients in the soil are removed and salt
accumulates which makes it difficult for plants to
grow.
People: Desertification may lead to famine (a lack
of food). Places that are affected by war and
poverty are most likely to experience famine.
• Case Study: The Sahel Desert (page 150)
• Complete questions 2 - 6
 The effects of drought (page 151)
• Effect of drought on the environment:
- Formation of dust bowls
- Development of dust storms
- Damage to the habitat of both land and
aquatic life
- Wildfires are common
- Reduced biodiversity
• Effects of drought on humans:
- Crop growth and productions and the carrying capacity of livestock
are greatly reduced
- Famine
- Malnutrition and dehydration
- Mass migration of people
- Increased urbanisation
- Reduced electricity production by hydro-electric dams
- Decrease in industrial production
- Wars for water
- Social unrest for resources
- Loss of jobs, income and property may lead to increased
unemployment, poverty and debt in a country
• Read Articles 1 and 2 on page(s) 152 – 153
• Complete Homework Activity 9 (page 154)
questions 1 – 5 and 1 – 4