10

Electric Vehicles

Nallusamy Nallusamy, Paramasivam Sakthivel,

Abhijeet Chausalkar, and Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas

CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 296
10.2 Principle of Electric Vehicles .................................................................. 296
10.3 Construction of Electric Vehicles........................................................... 297
10.3.1 Motor ........................................................................................... 297
10.3.1.1 DC Series Motor ........................................................300
10.3.1.2 DC Shunt Motor ........................................................ 301
10.3.1.3 DC Compound Motors............................................. 301
10.3.1.4 Separately Excited DC Motor .................................. 303
10.3.1.5 AC Motor Drives ....................................................... 303
10.3.2 Battery Storage Systems ............................................................304
10.3.2.1 Requirement of Electric Vehicle Batteries .............304
10.3.2.2 Electric Vehicle Batteries ..........................................305
10.3.2.3 Lead–Acid Batteries .................................................. 307
10.3.2.4 Nickel-Based Batteries..............................................308
10.3.2.5 Lithium-Based Batteries........................................... 310
10.3.3 Motor Controllers....................................................................... 310
10.4 Charging of Electric Vehicle Batteries .................................................. 313
10.4.1 Charging Techniques ................................................................ 314
10.5 Vehicle Tests.............................................................................................. 315
10.6 Solar Electric Vehicles ............................................................................. 316
10.6.1 Design of Solar Vehicles............................................................ 317
10.6.2 Photo Voltaic Cells ..................................................................... 317
10.6.3 Solar Arrays ................................................................................ 318
10.7 Applications of Electric Vehicles ........................................................... 319
10.8 Benefits of Electric Vehicles .................................................................... 319
10.9 Challenges of Electric Vehicles .............................................................. 320
References............................................................................................................. 320

295
296 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

10.1 Introduction
In recent years, there has been increasing concern about global environ­
mental issues and the problem in the balance of supply and demand for
fossil fuels. Electricity is one of the clean energies at user point. Before elec­
tricity generation began over 125 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene
lamps, food was cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-
burning or coal-burning stoves. Currently electricity is one of the prime
energy sources in our day-to-day activities; that is, cooking, heating, light,
computers, and other industrial and residential purposes. Electricity is an
important tool for the industrial growth of the world. Various forms of
other energy sources; that is, coal, petroleum, nuclear, and biomass can be
converted into electric energy in its clean energy form. Electricity is pro­
duced in thermal power plants or nuclear power plants in large amounts.
Stored electricity can be used for many applications including space appli­
cations, residential purposes, and automobiles. The storage of electricity
is one of the prime movers for development of electric vehicles (EVs). The
EVs charge the battery by grid power supply hence there is no pollution on
the road.
Currently EVs have been gaining acceptability in the transportation sec­
tor at a global level. Also, the need to introduce EVs into the transportation
sector as replacements for fossil fuel driven vehicles has been the subject of
world-wide debate during the last few years. Originally, interest in EVs arose
mainly from the concern over atmospheric pollution attributable to exhaust
emissions from petroleum-powered cars. Compared with oil-run vehicles,
battery-powered work vehicles offer low maintenance costs as well as low-
running costs due to the lower cost of electricity and the use of off-peak
power for recharging. The heart of an EV is its battery and the key to the
success of the EV industry is a better battery with less weight, more compact­
ness, ability to store more energy, longer durability, recharged more rapidly,
and costs less than existing ones. The performance of the vehicle depends
mainly on the performance, efficiency, and reliable operation of the battery.
However, the economic feasibility of EVs has yet to be proved. The perfor­
mance of present EVs is limited mainly by the low energy and limited power
densities of the lead–acid battery. The weight penalty thus imposed, limits
the range of a four-seat passenger car to about 150 km and the cruising speed
to about 55 km/h.

10.2 Principle of Electric Vehicles

The EVs consist of battery, motor, and controllers in addition to the normal
components of the automobile. The electricity power stored in the battery drive
Electric Vehicles 297

the motor that runs the vehicle. An EV is operated by an electric motor, which
draws electricity from a battery bank. Different types of batteries for EVs and
other applications are being developed for better performance. Electric vehi­
cles should match with comparable petrol or diesel driven vehicles in terms of
performance, reliability, durability, and cost.
In order to properly assess the use of the electrochemical energy conver­
sion and storage systems (storage batteries, super capacitors, and fuel cells) to
power EVs, it is mandatory to quantitatively estimate the power and energy
required for propelling a modern car (Shukla et al. 2001).

Ptraction = Pgrade + Paccel + Ptires + Paero + Pinertial,

where, Pgrade is the power required for the gradient;

Paccel is the power required for acceleration;
Ptires is the rolling resistance power consumed by the tires;
Paero is the power consumed by the aerodynamic drag; and
Pinertial include inertial losses of rotating components.

Loss in electrical devices occurs when energy is consumed by the battery

management system and the cooling device that controls the battery’s tem­
perature. The battery management system monitors the state of the batteries,
delivers the proper charging current, and maintains safety.
During battery pack charging, part of the energy is converted to heat
and lost due to the battery’s internal resistance when a lead–acid battery
is charged over the rated capacity by a certain percentage to ensure a full
charge. While driving, part of the energy is converted to heat and lost due to
the battery’s internal resistance (Ogura 1997).

10.3 Construction of Electric Vehicles

The EV consists of all the parts similar to conventional automobiles, however
the internal combustion engine power train is replaced by motor and battery.
Modern EVs are built with the original body and frame to meet the struc­
tural requirements and to provide the wide flexibility of electric propulsion.
Figure 10.1 shows the major parts of a basic EV power train. A typical con­
figuration of modern EVs include energy source, electric motor propulsion,
and control system (Ehsani et al. 2005).

10.3.1 Motor
The electrical energy available in the battery is in the form of direct cur­
rent. Direct current (DC) motors are used to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy at the driving wheels. It is based on the principle that
298 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

Electric energy Mechanical

source Electric motor transmission

Figure 10.1
Block diagram of a basic electric vehicle drivetrain.

+
–

Figure 10.2
Schematic of working principle of DC motor. (From http://www.ncert.nic.in/html/learning_
basket/electricity/animations/dc-motor.html.)

when a coil carrying current is held in a magnetic field, it experiences a

torque that rotates the coil. Figure 10.2 shows the schematic of DC motor
working principle.
The motor works on the principle of Flemming’s left-hand rule. One side of
the coil experiences a force directed inward and perpendicular to the plane
of the coil and the other side experiences it in the outward direction and
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. These two forces being equal, unlike
and parallel form a couple, which rotates the armature coil in a counter­
clockwise direction. After the coil rotates through 180° the direction of the
current is reversed in both sides of coil and so the forces are experienced by
Electric Vehicles 299

each. Thus the armature coil continuously rotates in the same direction; that
is, counterclockwise.
Motor efficiency is the ratio of back e.m.f (electromagnetic force) to applied
e.m.f. The back e.m.f is due to changes in magnetic flux linked with the coil
and it opposes the battery current in the circuit.

back e.m.f.
Motor efficiency = .
applied e.m.f.

The constructional detail of a DC motor is illustrated in Figure 10.3

• The rotor is surrounded by stator magnets. The rotor has a num­

ber of coils wound on it perpendicular to the axis of the rotor. The
rotor coils are free to rotate in between magnets. The rotor consists
of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically
connected to the commutator.
• The stator is the stationary part of the motor that includes the motor
casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The
movement or rotation of the rotor is caused by the electromagnetic
interaction between the rotor and the magnets.
• Rotor coils are connected to the fixed commutator on the rotor shaft.
These are two halves of the same ring. The ends of the armature coil
are connected to these halves, which also rotate with the armature.

Stator magnets

Windings

Armature Brushes

Commutator

Terminals

Figure 10.3
Constructional details of DC motor. (From http://www.cvel.clemson.edu/auto/actuators/
motors-dc.html.)
300 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

• Brushes are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods, which are fixed
that they constantly touch the revolving rings. The fixed brushes
are connected alternatively to opposite ends of the rotor for every
180º of shaft rotation. The direction of current flow in the rotor is
reversed twice for every turn of the rotor to maintain the rotation of
the rotor.
• The battery is connected to the brushes, which convey current to the
rings where it is carried to the armature.

The advantage of using an electric motor as a propeller are: quieter and a

more efficient propulsor, easier to install the regenerative braking system,
more efficient transmission through the possibility of direct connection to
the wheels, fewer moving parts, and lower operating/maintenance costs.
In general, DC motors are classified into four types based on the windings
configuration:

1. DC series motor
2. DC shunt motor
3. DC compound motor
4. Separately excited DC motor

10.3.1.1 DC Series Motor

In this type of motor, the field coil is in series with the rotor/armature coil
(Figure 10.4). The amount of current flow is controlled by the resister. The
DC motor has a high torque at zero or nearer to zero speeds and the torque
falls as the speed increases. The speed of the motor is controlled by adding

Series
field

Input
voltage

Armature

Figure 10.4
DC series motor.
Electric Vehicles 301

additional resistance in series or parallel with the field. The series motor is
suitable for EVs and it gives excellent acceleration.

10.3.1.2 DC Shunt Motor

In the shunt motor, the field coil is in parallel with the rotor coils (Figure 10.5).
The current flows through the motor and is controlled by field resistance and
armature resistance. At higher speeds, the DC shunt motor takes the full
load. With increasing speed, the load decreases at small percentages.

10.3.1.3 DC Compound Motors

By combining series and shunt coils, it is possible to get the wide range of
speed–load conditions to its best operating condition (Figure 10.6). In this
condition, the majority of its field is provided by the shunt coil and the series
coil provides any supplementary requirements. The arrangement can be
tailor-made according to the requirement of the vehicle applications.
Figure 10.7 illustrates the speed and torque characteristics of various types
of DC motors. The series wound motor has one distinct advantage of produc­
ing high torque even at very low speeds, which is a primary requirement
of a motor to be used in EVs. Starting torque is of 300% to as high as 800%
of full load torque. Moreover, the torque would be infinite at zero speeds if
there was no limitation on the current available and the magnetic circuit had
zero reluctance. In actual case, the current is limited by the series resistor
and armature coil resistance to the maximum that the field windings, rotor
windings, and brushes can withstand without overheating. The series motor
characteristic is particularly suitable for an EV as it gives an excellent accel­
eration from the rest combined with a controlled slowing down on hills and
a constant high speed on the flat.

Input Shunt
voltage field

Armature

Figure 10.5
DC shunt motor.
302 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

Series
Input field Input
voltage voltage
Series
field
Shunt
field
long

Shunt
field
short

Armature Armature

Figure 10.6
DC compound motor.

120

100
Percentage of rated speed

Shun
t

80

60 Co
Se m
rie po
s un
d
40

20

0
0 100 200 300 400
Percentage of rated torque

Figure 10.7
Typical speed and torque characteristics of DC motors.
Electric Vehicles 303

In case of a shunt wound DC motor, the torque almost remains constant as

the speed increases until the maximum point is reached. In general, starting
torque is of 125–200% full load torque. Efficient thyristor or transistor con­
trols capable of controlling both field and armature current by turning it
on or off at high speed makes the efficient use of shunt motors for EVs. The
distinct advantage of shunt motors is the ability to reverse the motor by only
reversing the relative low-current field connections, instead of reversing the
full armature current like the series wound motor. As increased use of elec­
tronic controls improves the efficiency and controllability of shunt wound
motors, their use has spread although series motors still have a place in some
low-cost vehicles.
Combining the series and shunt field coils in a motor having a compound
wound field provides a possibility to obtain a wide range of characteristics
between the extremes of the series and shunt wound motors. Two arrange­
ments can be made; keeping the shunt long or short, with the series field
supplementing the shunt field. This cumulative compounding can make
a way to use compound wound motors to act as a series like motor or a
shunt like motor, getting both advantages. The characteristics can therefore
to some extent be tailored to the requirement of a particular vehicle design
(Wakefield 1998).

10.3.1.4 Separately Excited DC Motor

Use of power electronics with the capability of controlling higher current
and relatively higher voltages in recent years makes the DC motor’s arma­
ture current and field current to be controlled independently by separate
excitation. This makes the possibility of achieving any required variable
combination of series, shunt, and compound characteristics. But the major
drawback lies in sending the feedback of rotor speed to the electronic power
control system, which necessitates the use of commutator and brush to carry
the armature current. Hence the motor speed is limited and causes wear and
consequent unreliability.
DC motor drives have been widely used in applications requiring adjust­
able speed, good speed regulation, frequent starting, braking, and reversing.
Various DC motor drives have been widely applied to different electric traction
applications due to the simplicity, low cost of control systems, and the maturity
of the technology. This will remain in service at least in low cost EV markets.

10.3.1.5 AC Motor Drives

Commutatorless motor drives offer a number of advantages over conven­
tional DC commutator motor drives for the electric propulsion of hybrid
EVs. AC induction motor drives have additional advantages such as being
lightweight in nature, small volume, low cost, and high efficiency. Generally
304 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

the AC motors fall under three categories: induction motors, synchronous

motors, and switched or variable reluctance motors.

10.3.2 Battery Storage Systems

Batteries are energy storage systems that are used to store electrical energy.
Electrochemical batteries, more commonly known as batteries that convert
electrical energy into chemical energy during charging, and converts chemi­
cal energy into electrical energy during discharging. The battery is as impor­
tant as the combustion engine of a conventional vehicle and considered as
the essential power plant of EVs.
Batteries can be classified into two types: primary batteries and second­
ary batteries. Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy
into electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted,
energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means. The
primary batteries have higher energy densities than secondary batteries.
The primary batteries supply energy immediately; however these batteries
have to be discarded once the energy is completely used. Typical primary
batteries (disposable batteries) are alkaline batteries and zinc–carbon
batteries.
Secondary batteries are known as rechargeable batteries. The chemical
reactions can be reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell and it can
be restored to its initial position. Battery chargers are used to recharge the
battery by supplying electricity. Rechargeable batteries are used in EVs.

10.3.2.1 Requirement of Electric Vehicle Batteries

The important requirement of EV traction batteries is to have cycle-life as
high as possible. During usage, it undergoes charging and discharging
many times and the performance of the battery comes down after a par­
ticular period of life. Generally, the degenerative stages of batteries during
service are interactive and accumulative. So, when the performance starts to
decline, it soon accelerates and the battery becomes unusable. Despite these
problems, modern-day batteries with advanced technologies are able to ful­
fill requirements for more than 1000 cycles.
The batteries should have

1. A stable voltage output over a good depth of discharge

2. High energy capacity for the given battery weight and size
3. High peak power output per unit mass and volume
4. High energy efficiency
5. Able to function with wide ranges of operating temperatures
6. Good charge retention on open-circuit stand
Electric Vehicles 305

7. Ability to accept fast recharge

8. Ability to withstand overcharge and over discharge
9. Reliable in operation
10. Maintenance free
11. Rugged and resistant to abuse
12. Safe both in use and accident conditions
13. Made of readily available and inexpensive materials with environ­
mental friendliness
14. Efficient reclamation of materials at the end of service life

10.3.2.2 Electric Vehicle Batteries

A battery is composed of several cells stacked together in a single container.
A cell is an independent and complete unit that possesses all the electro­
chemical properties. Depending on the requirement of battery voltage, the
number of cells will be decided and connected in series to get the desired
voltage.
Every cell consists of three important elements: positive electrode, negative
electrode, and electrolyte as shown in Figure 10.8. The number of positive
plates and negative plates to be connected with respective electrodes will
be decided based on the requirement of battery capacity. The positive plate
and negative plates will be separated by insulators. One half-cell includes

e–
Negative electrode
Positive electrode

Electrolyte

Figure 10.8
Typical electrochemical battery cell.
306 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

the electrolyte and the electrode to which negatively charged ions migrate;
that is, negative electrode or anode. The other half-cell includes the electro­
lyte and the electrode to which positively charged ions migrate; that is, the
positive electrode or cathode. In the battery, addition of electrons occurs at
the cathode, while removal of electrons occurs at the anode. The electrodes
are not physically touching each other but are electrically connected by the
electrolyte, which can be either solid or liquid.
Usually, the batteries are specified with their capacities in terms of Ampere-
Hours (Ah), which is defined as the number of Ah gained when discharging
the battery from a fully charged state until the terminal voltage drops to its
cut-off voltage as shown in Figure 10.9.
The various types of batteries for automotive applications are classified as
follows:

1. Lead–acid batteries
2. Nickel-based batteries
a. Nickel–iron battery
b. Nickel–zinc battery
c. Nickel–cadmium battery
d. Nickel-metal hydride battery
3. Lithium-based batteries
a. Lithium-solid polymer battery
b. Lithium-ion battery
4. Other types
a. Sodium–sulfur battery
b. Sodium–nickel chloride battery

Open circuit voltage

Cell voltage

Cut-off voltage

Discharging time

Figure 10.9
Characteristics of a typical battery.
Electric Vehicles 307

c. Aluminum–air battery
d. Zinc–air battery

10.3.2.3 Lead–Acid Batteries

The lead–acid battery has been a successful commercial product for over a
century and is still widely used as electrical energy storage devices in the
automotive field and other applications. During discharge, the cathode is pos­
itive and the anode negative, and the reverse is the case during charging.
Figure 10.10 shows the major components of a lead–acid battery. It consists
of positive and negative terminals connected with respective plates, electro­
lyte, cell connectors, cell dividers, vent caps, and a container.
In the charged state, each cell contains electrodes of elemental lead (Pb)
and lead dioxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte of approximately 33.5% v/v sulfuric
acid (H2SO4). In the discharged state, both electrodes turn into lead sulfate
(PbSO4) and the electrolyte loses its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes pri­
marily water. The reaction is shown in Figure 10.11. Due to the freezing-point
depression of water, as the battery discharges and the concentration of sul­
furic acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter
weather.
Positive terminal Negative terminal

Vent caps

Electrolyte solution
(dilute sulfuric acid)
Cell connectors

Protective casing
Positive electrode
(lead dioxide)

Cell divider
Negative electrode
(lead)

Figure 10.10
Schematic diagram of a lead–acid battery. (From www.reuk.co.uk/Lead-Acid-Batteries.htm.)

Anode Cathode
(–) (+) Discharge
Pb + 2H2SO4 + PbO2 PbSO4 + 2H2O + PbSO4
Charge (+) (–)
Anode Cathode

Figure 10.11
Chemical reactions in a lead–acid battery.
308 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

The electric passenger vehicles being tested today operate mostly on the
lead–acid system and will remain dominant in the near-term. The major
advantages of a lead–acid battery include low cost, mature technology, and
relative high power capability. The performance of present EVs is limited
mainly by the low-energy density of the lead–acid battery. The other draw­
backs are slow recharging time, the need for careful maintenance, and poor
performance under cold climates where the temperature gets less than 10°C.
Modern technologies enable the use of lead–acid batteries without these
major drawbacks, but of course, with an increase in cost.
Lead–acid batteries constructed with tubular positive electrodes, give a
significant improvement in life. A lifetime can be obtained as much as 5
years under well controlled charge and discharge conditions. Gassing dur­
ing charging produces hydrogen that requires venting to the atmosphere and
in most vehicle installations positive extraction is used to avoid the buildup
of a potentially explosive gas mixture.
Advanced lead–acid battery technologies offer improved retention of
positive plate material during high discharge operations. This includes an
increase in maximum energy density from 35 to 45 Wh/kg and a substantial
improvement in maximum power capacity from 150 to 250 W/kg.
In sealed bipolar technology, the electrical resistance of the lead grids and
the connectors between them is minimized by the use of a conducting plas­
tic in the cell wall that permits low loss transmission of current while main­
taining the seal between the cells.
The major breakthrough came with valve regulated lead acid (VRLA)
batteries that allow fast charging typically 50% in 5 minutes and 80% in 15
minutes. This is done using computers to control the charging rate while
monitoring the battery temperature and internal resistance. These batteries
have pressure relief valves, which will activate when the battery is recharged
with high voltage. The charging characteristics of a typical VRLA battery
charged to an interactive pulsed current/constant voltage algorithm are one
second bursts of high current with a ten millisecond pause between each
pulse to measure internal resistance.

10.3.2.4 Nickel-Based Batteries

Nickel is a lighter metal than lead and has very good electrochemical prop­
erties desirable for battery applications. The different types of nickel-based
battery technologies include nickel–iron, nickel–zinc, nickel–cadmium, and
nickel-metal hydride.

10.3.2.4.1 Nickel–Iron
This battery uses nickel as the positive electrode and iron as the negative.
Usually potassium hydroxide is used as an electrolyte. The self discharge of
these batteries are high and eventually this problem is reduced by adding
Electric Vehicles 309

sulfur to the electrode, or lithium sulfide ions to the electrolyte. With recent
advancements, the battery can perform satisfactorily down to –20°C. The
power density of these batteries is around 100 W/kg, which makes it ade­
quate for vehicle acceleration. The battery has a long lifetime with up to 2000
deep discharge cycles.

10.3.2.4.2 Nickel–Zinc
These batteries have an energy density of 70 Wh/kg and a power density of
150 W/kg. The fundamental problem lies with the dendrite growth, which is
common to all zinc-based batteries as it limits the maximum number of deep
discharge cycles to 300. Though a number of attempts have been made in the
past to increase the lifetime, the research and development on zinc-based
batteries slowed down significantly in recent years.

10.3.2.4.3 Nickel–Cadmium
A nickel–cadmium battery uses the same positive electrodes and electrolyte
as the nickel–iron battery, in combination with metallic cadmium negative
electrodes. This technology has seen enormous technical improvement, due
to high specific power over 220 W/kg, long cycle life in the order of 2000
cycles, and low-discharge rate. The disadvantages are the high initial cost,
relative low-cell voltage, and carcinogenicity of cadmium. There are two
types of nickel–cadmium batteries used currently, one is the vented type
and other is the sealed type. The vented sintered plate is a more recent devel­
opment, which has a high specific energy but is more expensive. Sealed type
incorporates a specific cell design feature to prevent a build-up of pressure
in the cell caused by gassing during overcharge. As a result, the battery
requires no maintenance.

10.3.2.4.4 Nickel-Metal hydride

These batteries have been in use since 1992. The characteristics are similar
to those of the nickel–cadmium batteries. The principle difference between
them is the use of hydrogen, absorbed in a metal hydride, for the active nega­
tive electrode material in place of cadmium. The overall reaction in Ni-MH
battery is given below

MH + NiOOH ←
→ M + Ni(OH)2

When the battery is discharged, the metal hydride in the negative electrode
is oxidized to form a metal alloy; and nickel oxyhydroxide in the positive
electrode is reduced to nickel hydroxide. During charging, the reverse reac­
tion occurs. The nickel-metal hydride batteries have distinct advantages over
nickel–cadmium batteries such as superior specific energy, environmental
friendliness, and quick recharging.
310 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

10.3.2.5 Lithium-Based Batteries

Lithium is the lightest of all metals and presents very interesting charac­
teristics from an electrochemical point of view. It allows very high ther­
modynamic voltage that results in high specific energy and specific power.
The two major types of lithium-based batteries are lithium-polymer and
lithium-ion.

10.3.2.5.1 Lithium-Polymer Battery

These batteries use lithium metal as the negative electrode and transition
metal intercalation oxide as the positive electrode. A thin solid polymer is
used as an electrolyte that offers improved safety and design flexibility. On
discharge, lithium ions formed as the negative electrode migrates through
the solid polymer electrolyte and are inserted into the crystal structure at the
positive electrode. On charging, the process is reversed. The major advan­
tage of these batteries is the very low self-discharge rate and the drawback
is the relatively weak low-temperature performance due to the temperature
dependence of ionic conductivity.

10.3.2.5.2 Lithium-Ion Battery

Lithium-ion batteries use a lithiated intercalation material for the negative
electrode instead of metallic lithium, a lithiated transition metal intercala­
tion oxide for the positive electrode, and a liquid organic solution or a solid
polymer as the electrolyte. On discharge lithium ions are released from the
negative electrode, migrate via the electrolyte and are taken up by the posi­
tive electrode. On charging the process is reversed. Lithium-ion batteries are
considered to be the most promising rechargeable batteries of the future.
Though this technology is at the developmental stage, it has gained wide
applications in EVs.

10.3.3 Motor Controllers

For the efficient operation of the EV it is necessary to control the vehicle
system components effectively so that energy is available all the time for
all the elements of the engine at the required level. In older vehicles, elec­
tric motor speed and torque were controlled by the variation of field and
rotor resistance of the DC motor. However, in recent days, to meet the tag of
zero emission vehicles, it is necessary to utilize the full advantages of EVs
by employing suitable control systems. To achieve that, every part of the
vehicle needs to be controlled by sophisticated electronics/computer control
systems.
Motor controller is a device or group of devices that serves in some prede­
termined manner the performance of an electric motor in an EV. It includes
manual or automatic means for starting and stopping the motor, selecting
forward or reverse rotation, selecting and regulating the speed, regulating
Electric Vehicles 311

or limiting the torque, and protecting against overloads and faults. Motor
controller can be DC or AC current operated therefore it is called DC or AC
controller based on the current it operates. Generally electric motors used in
EVs are DC operated as it is simple to use and control.
A method of controlling motor response in an electrically powered vehicle
having a motor and a manually operable accelerator, comprises these steps:
monitoring the temperature of the motor; determining the maximum avail­
able power output based upon the current motor temperature; and adjusting
the motor response to manipulation of the accelerator based upon determin­
ing the maximum power by increasing the gain of the motor control signal
as the determined heat increases, wherein the motor control signal corre­
sponds to the manipulation of the accelerator.
In an EV a simple DC controller is connected in between the batteries and
the DC motor (Figure 10.12). The EV controller is the electronics package
that operates between the batteries and the motor to control the EV’s speed
and acceleration much like a carburetor does in a gasoline-powered vehicle.
Unlike the carburetor, the controller will also reverse the motor rotation and
convert the motor to a generator so that the kinetic energy of motion can be
used to recharge the battery when the brake is applied. If the driver floors the
accelerator pedal, the controller delivers the full voltage from the batteries to

entiomet
ot
P

er

Accelerator
at 50%

Batteries DC DC
96V controller motor

96 volts 48 volts
average
0 volts to motor

Thousands of pulses per second

Figure 10.12
Working of motor controller. (From www.evsociety.ca.)
312 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

the motor. If the driver takes his/her foot off the accelerator, the controller
delivers zero volts to the motor. For any setting in between, the controller
“chops” the full volts thousands of times per second to create an average
voltage somewhere between 0 and full volts.
On pushing the accelerator, a cable from the accelerator connects to the
potentiometers. The potentiometer sends signals to the controller determin­
ing the amount of power to be delivered to the electric car’s motor. There
are two potentiometers in the vehicle and the motor controller reads both
potentiometers to confirm that the received signals are equal. The controller
will not operate if the received signals are unequal. A DC controller is a big
on/off switch wired to the accelerator. The operating mechanism of the DC
controller is simple and easy to understand. When the accelerator is pushed,
it would turn the switch on, and when the foot is taken off the accelerator, it
would turn it off. This mechanism of On/Off approach works well but the
task for the driver becomes difficult if he is supposed to manually control
the speed therefore the motor controller generates the pulse required to
carry on/off operation. This helps in regulating the power generated and
also the speed of the vehicle. The controller reads the setting of the accel­
erator from the potentiometers and regulates the power accordingly. For
example, if the accelerator is pushed halfway down the controller reads that
setting from the potentiometer and rapidly switches the power to the motor
on and off so that it is on half the time and off half the time. If the accelerator
pedal is 35% of the way down, the controller pulses the power so it is on 35%
of the time and off 65% of the time (www.howstuffworks.com).
Modern controllers adjust speed and acceleration by an electronic process
called pulse width modulation. Switching devices such as silicone-controlled
rectifiers, rapidly interrupt (turn on and turn off) the electricity flow to the
motor. High power (high speed and/or acceleration) is achieved when the
intervals (when the current is turned off) are short. Low power (low speed
and/or acceleration) occurs when the intervals are longer. The process is
shown in Figure 10.13.
The controllers on most vehicles also have a system for regenerative brak­
ing. Regenerative braking is a process by which the motor is used as a gen­
erator to recharge the batteries when the vehicle is slowing down. During
regenerative braking, some of the kinetic energy normally absorbed by the
brakes and turned into heat is converted to electricity by the motor/con­
troller and is used to recharge the batteries. Regenerative braking not only
increases the range of an EV by 5–10%, it also decreases brake wear and
reduces maintenance costs.
In an AC controller, the controller creates three pseudo-sine waves. It does
this by taking the DC voltage from the batteries and pulsing it on and off.
In an AC controller, there is the additional need to reverse the polarity of
the voltage 60 times a second. Therefore, six sets of transistors are required
in an AC controller, while only one set in a DC controller is required. In the
Electric Vehicles 313

Voltage Low power (low speed)

100
80 Period
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time, ms

Voltage High power (high speed)

100
80 Period
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time, ms
Pulse signal Average value (DC)

Figure 10.13
DC pulse width modulation. (From www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/avta/light_duty/
fsev/fsev_ev_power.html.)

AC controller, for each phase one set of transistors is required to pulse the
voltage and another set to reverse the polarity.

10.4 Charging of Electric Vehicle Batteries

The charging system is a critical part of the energy cycle in an EV. The system
should be able to charge or recharge the traction batteries as quick as pos­
sible so as to enable the batteries to supply the necessary power for traction.
Electric vehicle batteries have to be charged in a most convenient way either
at home using a domestic power supply or at a charging station depending
on the journey (Figure 10.14).
At the earliest stage of use of EVs battery charging systems were simple.
If an AC supply was available a transformer was used to supply the volt­
age according to the battery in use. Then being full wave rectified and the
resulting DC smoothened by a capacitor, fed to the battery through a rheo­
stat to adjust to a suitable current and a ballast resistor to limit the charging
current. Batteries were also charged by DC supply from a motor–generator
314 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

Figure 10.14
Electric cars being charged at a charging station. (From www.mlive.com/news/baycity/index.
ssf/2009/08/bay_city_downtown_development.html.)

setup. The lower battery voltage enables a high voltage DC supply to be used
for DC-to-DC step-up conversion.

10.4.1 Charging Techniques

AC domestic and industrial supply systems are found universally for
vehicle battery charging. The current into the battery is controlled using
inductive reactance electronically by the continuous feedback of battery
critical parameters. In the initial phase of charging a lead–acid battery,
the voltage raises steadily from 2.1 to 2.35 V per cell, at which point the
battery is about 80% charged and hydrogen and oxygen evolution (gas­
sing) at the electrodes commences. After this voltage rises rapidly to a
maximum value of about 2.45 V and as a consequence the charging cur­
rent drops, its reduction is determined by the internal impedance of the
charger.
More sophisticated chargers are being used to charge modern lead acid
batteries like valve regulated batteries in which the hydrogen and oxygen
evolution within the battery cannot be vented to the atmosphere under nor­
mal conditions. In this case, both constant current phase and constant volt­
age phase are used depending on the temperature of the battery sensed by
the probe. In the initial phase, the maximum constant current that the bat­
tery will accept or that the charger can provide is maintained until gassing
starts, without raising the battery temperature above an acceptable level. In
the next phase, the battery will be charged at constant voltage, while the
charge current decreases.
Electric Vehicles 315

Aqueous batteries are developed and used in EV applications. For compet­

itive traction applications, high performance batteries are being developed.
An EV with an advanced Li-ion battery could in principle achieve a 400–480
km (250–300 miles) range, but these batteries would take up 450–600 liters of
space (equivalent to a 120–160 gallon gasoline tank).

10.5 Vehicle Tests

Testing of batteries for EVs has two distinct focuses. For batteries, testing con­
centrates on optimizing battery performance and cycle life. It normally uses
constant current or constant power and simple cycles. For EV systems, testing
focuses on the total vehicle including the battery. This testing is multifaceted
and usually involves a complex driving life cycle. These tests are demanding
and require much higher physical and electrical performance than a constant-
current cycling regime. Tests commonly used today are FUDS, SFUDS, and
GSFUDS life cycle profiles. These tests have shown to be a much better predic­
tor of battery life cycle performance than constant-current or constant-power
cycling. Driving life cycle tests are one facet of the six characteristics consid­
ered when evaluating EV batteries and EV systems.
In testing batteries for potential application in EV systems, one com­
monly starts with cells. These are put through the characterization steps of
Table 10.1. These cell tests are then repeated by varying the environment as
detailed in Table 10.2. The objectives of this testing are primarily to charac­
terize and optimize the cell.
The testing of EV systems represents the testing of a complete vehicle plat­
form that includes (Brandt, 1992)

• Complete platform
• Propulsion system

TABLe 10.1
Steps for Cell Characterization Tests
S. No. Cell Characterization Tests Unit
1 Ah capacity 3 b rate
2 Specific power W/kg
3 Specific energy Wh/kg
4 Cycle life 80% DOD
5 Utilization of active material %
Source: From Brandt, D. D., Journal of Power Sources,
40, 73–79, 1992. Reprinted with permission
from Elsevier Publications.
316 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

TABLe 10.2
Environments for Cell Characterization Tests
S. No. Cell Characterization Tests
1 Cell environment variables
2 Discharge (vary the rate and type)
3 Recharge (constant voltage or pulsed)
4 Cycling at various states-of-discharge
5 High and low-temperature performance
6 Variation in cell geometry and electrolyte
7 Variation of raw materials and separators
8 Operation with mechanical vibration
Source: From Brandt, D. D., Journal of Power Sources,
40, 73–79, 1992. Reprinted with permission
from Elsevier Publications.

• Regenerative braking
• Rolling resistance
• Battery system
• Range (km)
• Acceleration

The major consideration in testing an EV system is its range and accelera­

tion. The specific energy (Wh/kg) of the battery primarily determines an
EV’s range. This is determined by the battery’s specific power (W/kg; peak
power). Electrical tests have been developed to simulate real-life driving con­
ditions in the laboratory. These tests have become the standard of the EV
industry as a cost-effective means of comparing performance of cells and
battery systems. They provide hard data without going to the dynamometer
or the test track. The electrical tests that have been used to simulate real-life
driving conditions have evolved from simple constant current or constant-
wattage cycles to stepped constant-wattage cycles, to the sophisticated aver­
age power integer.

10.6 Solar Electric Vehicles

A solar vehicle is an EV powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels
on the surface of the vehicle. Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert the sun’s energy
directly into electrical energy. PVCs are the components in solar paneling
that convert the sun’s energy to electricity. A solar array is the combination
of various PV cells.
Electric Vehicles 317

10.6.1 Design of Solar Vehicles

Designing solar vehicles is a multistage process where many parts need to
be carefully designed and assembled. The various stages and steps involved
are:

1. Designing chassis and basic framework

2. Designing and selection of suspension, braking system, and steering
system
3. Designing and selecting motor and electric drive train
4. Selecting motor controller
5. Designing solar array with PV cells
6. Selecting proper batteries
7. Selecting electrical systems and instruments to display speed, load,
temperature, and so on.

Solar vehicle design is done keeping in mind many factors. Reliability

and operational efficiency forms the most important criteria for a success­
ful design of the solar vehicle. Various factors to be considered during the
design are:

1. Efficient PV cells
2. Good aerodynamic structure
3. Use efficient long running durable batteries
4. High performance motor
5. Light weight (200–350 kg)
6. Reliable chassis

10.6.2 Photo Voltaic Cells

Solar car’s power storage capacity depends on the efficiency of PV cells
to convert sunlight into electricity. While the sun emits 1070 ± 3.4% watts
per square meter of energy, 51% of it actually enters the earth’s atmo­
sphere and therefore approximately 700 watts per square meter of clean
energy can be obtained. Silicon is the most common material used for PV
cells and has an efficiency of about 15–20%. The sunlight’s energy then
frees the electrons in the semiconductors, creating a flow of electrons.
That flow generates the electricity that powers the battery or the special­
ized car motor in solar cars. Schematics of a single solar cell is shown in
Figure 10.15. Some solar cars use gallium arsenide solar cells, with effi­
ciencies around 30%. Other solar cars use silicon solar cells, with efficien­
cies around 20%.
318 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

+ e – Electron flow

Motor

Solar cell
–

Figure 10.15
Schematic of solar cell.

10.6.3 Solar Arrays

To increase their utility, many numbers of individual PV cells are intercon­
nected together in a sealed weatherproof package called a module. When
two modules are wired together in series, their voltage is doubled while
the current stays constant. When two modules are wired in parallel, their
current is doubled while the voltage stays constant. To achieve the desired
voltage and current, modules are wired in series and parallel into what is
called a PV array. Solar arrays comprising these PV cells are mounted on
solar cars. Solar arrays on solar cars are usually mounted using industrial
grade double-sided adhesive tape right onto the car’s body. It should kept
in mind during the assembly process that the solar cells are fragile and can
easily get damaged therefore extreme caution should be taken in handling
these cells.
The larger arrays in use can produce over 2 kilowatts (2.6 hp). The power
produced by the solar array varies depending on the weather, the sun’s posi­
tion in the sky, and the solar array itself. On a bright, sunny day at noon,
a good solar car’s solar array will produce well over 1000 watts (1.3 hp) of
power. The power from the array is used either to power the electric motor
or stored in the battery pack for later use.
The cost of solar cells can range from $10 up to $400 each. PV cells do have
a defined lifespan. The lifetime of a solar module is approximately 30 years.
However, in automotive purposes they need to be sealed well if meant to
go for decades in all weather conditions. There is a problem of driving the
Electric Vehicles 319

vehicle in the night and rainy season when there is no sunlight. Some techni­
cal breakthroughs are required to overcome this problem. With a big solar
panel on the roof the space available for the user is less therefore designing
the car for commercial applications is a big design challenge. The solar panel
adds weight to the car weight thereby affecting the car performance in terms
of speed and load carrying capacity.

10.7 Applications of Electric Vehicles

Depending on the special requirements of a particular operation in specific
industries, the following are some of the varieties of materials handling
equipment (Sivaramaiah and Subramanian 1992):

• Electric truck for use in steel plant soaking pit

• Electric truck for frame and channel handling and mounting stud
planter and stud puller in aluminum industries
• Fork-lift truck for bale handling
• Electric truck for batch trolleys in textile industries
• Electric truck for die handling and for use as an order picker
• Electric truck for inter-bay movements
• Electric locomotive for mines
• Electric tow truck for handling passenger luggage at airports
• Electric vehicle for passenger movement at airports

10.8 Benefits of Electric Vehicles

1. Electric vehicles do not emit greenhouse emissions and toxic exhaust
gases. The EVs are zero emission vehicles if the energy required
to operate the vehicle (i.e., charging of battery) is produced from
renewable energy sources or onboard hydrogen fuel cells.
2. Electric motor is much more efficient than conventional internal
combustion engines.
3. Electric vehicles are noiseless.
4. Electric vehicles reduce the dependency of fossil fuels if they run on
alternative fuels.
320 Alternative Fuels for Transportation

10.9 Challenges of Electric Vehicles

1. The cost of EVs is high as compared to contemporary gasoline and
diesel cars. Recharging time of the batteries is high and research is
going on to reduce the recharge time. It takes hours to recharge the
batteries, which is more than the refueling time of gasoline and die­
sel vehicles.
2. Driving range of the EVs depending on the power of the batteries.
To date the driving range is limited and is around 100 miles in one
recharging.
3. Limited seating space availability as increase in the space will
increase load of the passengers affecting the driving range as
increased load puts stress on the battery performance and life.
4. Less customer acceptance and satisfaction. This is a marketing chal­
lenge as it will be a difficult task to change customer perception with
so many limitations of EVs and when other options that are far bet­
ter than EVs are available in the market.

References
Brandt, D. D. 1992. Battery cycle testing of electric vehicle batteries and systems.
Journal of Power Sources 40:73–79.
Ehsani, M., Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi. 2005. Modern electric, hybrid electric and fuel
cell vehicles., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Ogura, M. 1997. Development of electric vehicles. JSAE Review 18:51–56.
Shukla, A. K., A. S. Arico, and V. Antonucci. 2001. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 5:107–55.
Sivaramaiah, G., and V. R. Subramanian. 1992. An overview of the development of
lead/acid traction batteries for electric vehicles in India. Journal of Power Sources
38:165–70.
Wakefield, E. H. 1998. History of the electric automobile. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automobile Engineers.