Immunology and Cancer2
Immunology and Cancer2
8 Cancer Biology
Cancer is a disease that involves heritable defects in cellular
control mechanisms that result in the o
of invasive trumors capable of releasing cells that can spread
the disease to ormation
distant sites in the bodton
body. Cancer
has four important characteristics:
7. Nagging hoarseness or
cough
Types of Cancers
Based on the origin, cancer can be of following types:
1. Carcinoma: If it originates from epithelial cells, it is called
cinomas. For example, squamous cell carcinoma carcinoma. 85% of total cancers are car-
(cancer of the epithelial sheets covering the
channel) or adeno-carcinomas (cancer of an cavity or
2. Sarcoma: It is the epithelium that
originates in glandular tissue).
malignant tumors of connective tissue. They constitute about 2% of the total
cancers. For
example, fibrosarcoma (hbroblasts), liposarcoma
(osteoblasts). (adipocytes) and osteosarcoma
3. Leukaemia: It is the
malignant tumor of stem cells of haemopoietic tissues. They are also called
tumors as they affect the blood cells. They constirute about 4% of liquud
4. Lymphoma: It is thetotal cancers.
malignant tumor of
a
Forexample, Burkitt lymphoma. 4% of secondary lymphoid organs such as spleen and lymph nodcs.
the reported cancers are
5. Myeolma: It is rype of cancerous tumor. It is also known
a lymphomas.
as multiple
Cancerous growth of plasma cells, myeloma or Hodgkin's diseasc
antibodies. type of white blood cell
a
made in the bone marrow that
produce
n heredity, they can be familial (hereditary) and others are
sporadic (non-hereditary.
Causes of Cancer
h e
arious agents that cause cancer include
v a r i o u s .
chemicals, radiations and a
variety of DNA- and RNA con-
aining viruses. These agents act by altering the genome. These are discussed below in detail.
Chemicals: Carcinogenic chemicals, such as those present in soot or cigarette smoke, are
mutagenic or are converted to mutagenic compounds by cellular enzymes and are main either directly
causes of lung
cancer.
Radiation: Both ionizing X-rays and non-ionizing ultraviolet (UV) radiation (leading cause ofskin
cancer, cause DNA damage.
2Oncogenic viruses: They are cancer causing viruses and are broadly divided into two large groups
depending on the type of nucleic acid found within the mature virus particle:
(a) DNA viruses: DNA viruses have DNA in the mature virus
tumor
particle. Some
polyoma virus, simian virus 40 (SV40), adenovirus and herpes-like viruses. examples are
(b) RNA viruses or retroviruses: RNA viruses have RNA in the
tumor
virus
similar in structure to HIV.
mature particle. They are
4. Genes: The genes present in the normal cells may get triggered under some conditions and cause
cancer. This is because the products of these genes are involved in control of the cell cycle, intercellular
adhesion and DNA repair. They are divided into two broad categories:
(a) Tumor-suppressor genes: They encode proteins that restrain cell growth and prevent cells from
becoming malignant. In human cancer, the product of tumor suppressor gene may be able to sup-
press cancer formation by several different mechanisms.
(b) Oncogenes: They encode proreins that promote the loss of growth control and the conversion of a
cell to a malignant state. Cancer is caused by mutant copies (alleles) of these genes, whose products
may not be regulated.
Adaptive Immunity
Acquired adaptive immunity provides specific, non-hereditary defense and protection after exposure to
specific pathogen. It is gained after birth and is due to virtue of lymphocytes. It can be of two types
1. In active immunity, an individual's own immune system makes antibodies.
2. In passive immunity, ready-made antibodies are introduced into the body through vaccination.
OGY AND IMMUNITY
1/A1UN
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Tissues ofthe Immune System
C e l l sa n d T i s s
em cell,
oictic stem cell can give rise to two ditterent
Ahematopor progenitor cells (Figure 9):
eloid progenitor cell: It can
enitor cell:, differentiate into most of the
nd neutrophils), macrophages, or dendritic cells. various blood cells (c.g,, red blood cells,
ophi ogenitor cell: It can difterentiate into of the any
2. Lymphoic
various types of
or B
cels). lymphocytes (NK cells,
Tcells,
Stem Cell
Lymphoid Myeloid
Stem Cell
Progenitor
Macrophages
Their
Leucocytes are defensive cells that are important to both innate and acquired immune responses.
functions have been discussed in Table 1.
Table 1 Functions of Leucocytes
Functions
Cell Types
Bcell specialized to recognize a specific foreign antigen.
Precursor of plasma cell,
to the production of
antibodies directed against a spe-
Biochemical factory devoted
Plasma cell
ciic antigen. in the lym-
stimulation by the immune system and remains
Memory cel Remembers the original
phoid tissue. achieve
the immune system to
in
Helper T cell Assists the immune process by helping other cells
an efhicient immune response
cells.
kills infected body cells recruited by helper T
ytotoxic T cell Detects and
membrane receptors for IgG, so they show antibody depen-
Natural killer Natural killer cells have neutralize virus
Natural to attack and
(ADCC). They help
oell (NK) dent cell mediated cytotoxicity
infected and tumor cells.
and membranes against infection
and guard blood, skin
mucus
Light chain
Fab fragment
Oo
Carbohydrate
Disulphide bond
Complement
binding site
Constantregions
Site of bonding- Fc fragment
of lightand
h e a v yc h a i n s
to macrophages
Ability to croSs
placenta
are
vaccination
ditterent -
be achieved by
active or passive
processes Immunization can
antibodies.
process by which body produces
torm of
immunization.
vaccination is an active
Immunization
disecase.
Active Immunization as the one that occurs during a
induces the same response cells.
I. Active
immunization
defenses and memory
develop specific be made from live,
attenu-
to
immune system toxoids. Vaccines can
challenges the vaccines and inactivating
is conferred by Toxoids are made by
. Active immunization or a toxoid.
parts of organisms,
ated organisms, dead
organisms, the haz.
tOxins. diseases nearly always outweigh the
against life-threatening
inc.
is lower than
immunization
their incidence
.The benefts of active serious side ettects,
but
can cause
Reactions to vaccines
ards. themselves.
dences of the diseases
171
thcy
can
can ibe familial (hereditary) and orhers
cduv, are
spnradic (non hereditarv)
C o u i s e sO r C a n c cer
aGents act by altering the genome. These are variety of DNA and RNA con
a
g c n t s
7
ainng 1UsCS 7hese
7he
discused belorw in detail.
1. "arcinogenic chemicals, Such as those present in soot or
C h e m c a l s :C a r o
mutagcnIC or:
are
cigarette
converted to mutagenic compounds by cellular enzymes smoke, are
either directhy
and are main causes of lurng
Radiation: Bor
cancc
ionizing X-rays and
non-ionizing ultraviolet (UV) radiation
cam cause DN ONA damage. (leading cause of skin
ruses: They
Oncogenic viruses: They are cancer
causing viruses and are broadly divided into
the type of nucleic acid
depending on the found within the mature virus
two large groups
particl
viruses: DNA viruses have DNA in the mature virus particle. Some examples are
tumor
viruse;
DNA
(a) polyoma virus,simian virus 40 (SV40), adenovirus and
adhesion
They encode
TnO suppressor genes:human proteins that restrain cell growth and prevent cells from
cancer, the product of rumor suppressor gene may be able to sup
In h
becoming malignant.
Dress cancer
formation by several different mechanisms.
that the loss of growth control and the conversion of a
Oncogenes: They encodeCancer
proteins promote
is caused
malignant state.
mutant
by copies (alleles) of these genes, whose products
cell to a
not be regulated.
may
Treatment of Cancer
or combining
two or more ofthe
thefollo
following
Cancer is currently
treated either singly
removed by surgery. Prelimm:.. processes:
be completely
. Surgery: Benign
tumor can
Kemoval of the breae 802 ofthhe surgery
the tumor, or
the entire
organ. ncert
to r e m o v e either
mastectomy, and
that of prostate
tumor is called prostatectomy. Suro
Surgery tumo is caly'eds
is not
metastasis.
radiation therapy, it
involves the use of ionizine possiossbi le durduriinngg
2. Radiotherapy: Also called
external beam radiotherapy (EBRT)
or internally via brachytherapy to kill cancer radiadon
tion texternally vis
cells andly a
size of the tumors.
with drugs. However,
there may side
anticancer there
3. Chemotherapy: It involves
treatment
effect
4.
to hair loss, etc.
Immunotherapy: In this, the proteins encoded by oncogenes
are inhibited. I.
ted. It
induces the
leading
tumor. a-Interteron can be used to activare th
fight the
own immune system to
immune systepatm. iens
Antiangiogenic strategies are used to prevent a breast, calon
solid tumor (those in
and lune
from inducing the formation ofnew blood vessels that are requircd to supply the tumors e and lung, ctt
and other materials.