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Journal of Agricultural Economics, Environment and Social Science 9(1):100-114: April, 2023

Copy Right © 2015. Printed in Nigeria. All rights of reproduction in any form is reserved.
Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria
Available on line: http://www.jaeess.com.ng
ISSN: 2476 – 8423

Socio-Economic Determinants of Yam Production in Ohaukwu Local


Government Area, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
ESHEYA, S. E.
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension,
National Open University of Nigeria, Kaduna Campus.
ABSTRACT
The study examined the socio-economic determinants of yam production in Ohaukwu Local
Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. This study employed multistage sampling technique in
selection of respondents for the study. Primary data were collected from 160 respondents in the
study area using a structured questionnaire that was administered as interview schedule.
Analytical techniques such as descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the specific
objectives. Majority (70%) of the yam farmers were males, with mean age of 46 years. Majority
(62%) of the yam farmers were married; and had an average household size of 8 persons. Most
(39.4%) of the farmers engaged in civil service in addition to farming occupation and operated on
an average farm size of 1.45 hectares. The results of multiple regression analysis showed that the
coefficient of multiple determination (R2) of the regression model was 0.945. The co-efficient of
sex (7873.994) had a positive sign and was statistically significant at 1% level of significance.
Marital status (4426.857) of the respondents bore positive relationship with quantity of yam
produced and statistically significant at 1% level of probability. The coefficient of household size
(6012.118) of the farmers had a positive relationship with the output of yam in the area. The
coefficient of farm size (36532.842) was found to be positive and statistically significant at 1%
level of probability. The result had shown that the annual income of the respondents bore positive
relationship with the output of yam in the area and statistically significant at 1% level of
probability. The F-ratio of 255.209 which was significant at 1% probability level showed that the
coefficient of the explanatory variables included in the model were statistically different from zero,
thus the goodness-of-fit of the model and its explanatory power. Constraint to the yam production
were of infrastructural, institutional and economic factors as bad roads, lack of Storage facilities,
lack of improved varieties, lack of government assistance and lack of extension agents’ visit among
others. The null hypothesis (Ho) which stated that the socio-economic characteristics of the yam
producers have no significant influence on the quantity of yam produced in the area was tested
using F-test at 5% level of significance, rejected and the alternative accepted. This study concludes
that yam production is profitable although the farmers were hindered by infrastructural,
institutional and economic factors. Agricultural extension agents who are saddled with the
responsibility of disseminating timely, complete actionable information should be repositioned
and strengthened to ensure farmers access to information, through appropriate channels. This will
shift the balance between success and failure of the farmers.
KEY WORDS: Socio-Economic, Determinants, Yam, Production
Email: [email protected]
Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

INTRODUCTION
Yam serves as staple food in many tropical and even sub-tropical countries of the world.
World yam production amounts to 30 million tonnes annually and 90% are grown in the yam
production regions of West Africa (FAO, 2012). According to International Institute for Tropical
Agriculture, (IITA 2013) yam is grown on 5 million hectares in about 47 countries of the world
with Nigeria as the leading producer del. In 2005, 48.7 million tonnes of yams were produced in
the world and 97% of these were in Sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria accounted for 70% of world
production grown on 2.83 million hectares of land (Michael, 2011). Nigeria’s yam production was
34 million tonnes in 2005 and by 2006 this increased by 8% to 35.017 million tonnes. According
to 2018 figure, yam production in Nigeria has nearly doubled since 2015 with Nigeria producing
36.7 million metric tonnes with value equivalent of $5.654 million annually (CBN, 2012).
Yams are grown mainly in the tropics and sub-tropics. Nigeria is ecologically diverse with
various agro-ecological zones: mangrove swamps; rain forests along the coast; open woodlands
and savannahs on the low plateau in the central part of the country; semi-arid plains to the north;
and highlands to the east. Because of the high socio-cultural value attached to yam, all farmers
grow yam, though in much lower quantity in the North, since the arid and semi-arid climate is not
well-suited for yam production. While yam is grown in all parts of the country, yam production is
concentrated in the forest, derived and southern Guinea savannah agro-ecological zones in the
central and southern part of the country (Esheya, 2021).
The States with the highest production (Taraba, Benue and Niger) are not those with the
highest yields (Nassarawa, Osun, Ekiti, Ondo and Imo) (Adamu, Esheya, & Tanko, 2021). High
production States have larger areas under cultivation, suggesting that yam production may be more
intensive in the high yield States. The high yield States – Osun, Ekiti, and Ondo – fall in the rain
forest zone which has higher levels of humidity and rainfall that are more conducive to yam
growth. In most years between 2015 and 2016, the rain forest zone produced the highest yields.
The highest producing States – Taraba, Benue, and Niger States – are found in the open woodland
and savannah zones (Dumet & Ogunsola, 2008).
Nigeria is the largest producer of yams in the world, followed by Ghana, Cote D’Ivoire,
Benin, Togo, and Cameroon (FAO, 2013). In the same vein, yams are mostly marketed as fresh
tubers and prepared for consumption. Transportation and marketing are carried out both by farmers
and traders (Ike and Inoni, 2006).Yam production in Nigeria has more than tripled over the past

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

45 years from 6.7 million tonnes 1961 to 39.3 million in 2006 (FAO, 2007). There has, however,
been a general decline in yam production in Nigeria in recent years due to farmers/herdsmen crises
and general insecurity. International Institute of Tropical Agricultural [IITA] (2013) reported that
both area under yam cultivation and total yam output were declining. In the same vein, world data
showed that Nigeria accounts for 65% of the total world production; about 38 million metric ton
which is cultivated on 2.9 million-ha cultivated area of land in 2012 and valued at $7.75 billion
(Odigbo, Ogbidi & Ewa, 2015). This increase in output is attributed more to the large area planted
with yam than increase in productivity (Musa, Onu, Vosanka & Anonguk, 2012).
The decline in average yield per hectare has been more drastic, as it dropped from 14.9%
in 1996-1999 to 2.5% in 2016-2010 (CBN, 2012 and FAO, 2007). Yams are the fifth most
harvested crops in Nigeria, following after cassava, maize, guinea corn, and beans/cowpeas. More
so, after cassava, yams are the most commonly harvested tuber crops in the country (Ubokudom,
Esheya & Udioko, 2021).). Yams do not only serve as the main source of earnings and food
consumption, but also as a major employer of labour in Nigeria. Yam is important for food, income
generation, socio-cultural activities and use for medicinal purposes in many countries in West
Africa (FAO, 2010).
In spite of the several studies on yam production, there seems to be no concrete study on
socio-economic determinants of yam production in Ohaukwu Local Government Area of Ebonyi
State, Nigeria to the best of knowledge of the researcher and thus, the study. To solve this problem,
the study sought to address the following specific objectives: (i) To describe the socio-economic
characteristics of the yam producers in the study area; (ii) To determine the influence of socio-
economic characteristics of farmers on the quantity of yam produced in the area; and (iii) To
ascertain the constraints to yam production in the study area. Based on the specific objective (ii),
the following hypothesis of the study was tested: Ho: The socio-economic characteristics of the
yam producers have no significant influence on the quantity of yam produced in the area.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
This research was conducted in Ohaukwu Local Government Area of Ebonyi State.
Location of Ohaukwu, Ebonyi, Nigeria (N 6° 31' 56.4708", E 8° 1' 29.8776") on the map of Nigeria
with its headquarters at Ezzamgbo along Enugu-Abakaliki expressway. It is bounded in the North
by Benue State, in the South by Ezza-North Local Government Area, in the east by Ebonyi Local

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

Government Area whereas it has common boundary with Ishielu Local Government Area in the
West. Ohaukwu L.G.A has a projected population of about 667,546 (NPC, 2006). Ohaukwu has
an estimated area of 51,700 hectares 517.00 km² (199.61 sq mi) (EBSG, Ministry of Information,
2022). The area has 3 major clans (town) namely; the Ngbo, Izhia (Ezzangbo), and Effium. The 3
clans constitute the 14 communities which include; Ukwuagba, Ekwashi, Okposi-eshi, Okposi-
eheku, Umuogudu-oshia, Umuogudu-akpu, Umuezeaka, Amoffia, Umuebe, Amike, Amaechi,
Umuegara, Effium and Ntsulakpa.
Rainfall in the area ranges between 1,500mm - 2000mm per annum while the temperature
range is between 22.9°c to 32.5°c. Furthermore, it has a lowland forest with tall trees which are
predominantly palm trees (Elaiasguineensis). The soil type is composed of well - drained sandy-
loam soil and some scattered swampy fields. The predominant climatic seasons in this area are;
rainy and dry season which run from June - October and November - March respectively. The soil
of the area is clay-loam which supports to a large extent the production of cassava. This made
cassava the most predominant crop in the area. Another important crop that is predominant in this
area is rice due to the swampy nature of some parts in the area. Other crops in the area include;
yam, melon, maize, cocoyam, okra and pumpkin, etc. Economic activities such as civil service,
petty trading, hunting, livestock farming, fishing, wine tapping, artisanship and craftsmanship
were also carried out by residents in the study area.
Sampling Techniques and Data Collection
This study employed multistage sampling technique in selection of respondents
for the study. The selection was done in three (3) stages. Stage 1: This involved
purposive selection of 8 communities based on intensity of yam production out of 14
communities in the area. Stage 2: This involved a randomized selection of two (2)
villages from each of the selected communities giving a total of sixteen (16) villages for
the study. Stage 3: This involved a randomized selection of ten (10) yam farmers from
each of the selected villages to make a total of one hundred and sixty (160) yam farmers
who formed the respondents for the study. These sampled respondents were drawn from
the ADP list of yam farmers in Ohaukwu LGA of Ebonyi State.
Primary data were collected from 160 respondents in the study area using a structured
questionnaire that was administered as interview schedule. This was supported by
information from relevant secondary sources.

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

Analytical Techniques
Analytical techniques such as descriptive and inferential statistics were used for this study.
Descriptive statistics such as averages, percentages and frequency count were used to achieve
objective (i). Inferential statistics such as OLS regression was used to actualize (ii) while factor
analysis was used to actualize objective (iii).
Model Specification
i. OLS Multiple Regression Analysis
Model Specification
The multiple regression model that was used is expressed explicitly as:
Y = ao + a1X1 + a2X2 +a3X3 + a4X4 + a5X5 + a6X6 +… anXn + et ……. (2)
Where;
ao = Constant intercept
a1 – a9 = Coefficients of the variables X
Y = Yam output (kg)
X1 = age (years)
X2 = sex (male =1; female = 0)
X2 = marital status (married = 2; single = 1; widowed = 3; divorced = 4)
X3 = level of education (years)
X4 = farm size (hectares)
X5 = household size (number of individual)
X6 = annual farm income (₦)
X7 = farming experience (years)
X8 = membership of cooperative society (member = 1; 0 otherwise)
X9 = contact with extension agents (number of times)
et= error term
ii. Factor Analysis
This was used to identify the constraints to yam production in the study area. Factor
Analysis is a statistical model employed in describing variability among observed, correlated
variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. In order
to obtain the factor loading of each of the variables necessary for achieving aspects of objective
(iii). The factor model presented below was used;

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

Xij = i1Fi1 + i2Fi2 + i3Fi3+ ...jmFiK + eij ................................................ (3)


Where,
Xij = Observation on variable Xj for the ith sample number.
FiK = Score on factor Fi for the Kth sample number (K= 1, 2, 3, ...,m)
F1 - Fm = Common factors
eij = The Value on the residual variable Ej for the ith sample number,
ij JM = Factor loading (regression weight).
The associated assumption was applied accordingly while the suitable number of factors
were subjectively selected based on Varimax rotated factor matrix obtained using SPSS analytical
software. The exploratory factor analysis techniques using the principal factor model with
interactions and Varimax rotation was adopted. The factor loading under each constraint (beta
weight) represented correlation of the variable (constraint area) to the identified constraint factors
and has the same interpretation as any correlation coefficient, Kaiser's criterion using factor
loading of 0.4 and above in naming and interpreting the factor was adopted. This method has been
adopted by several researchers (Nwibo, 2012).
i. Test of Hypothesis
The null hypothesis which stated that (Ho 1): The socio-economic characteristics of the yam
producers have no significant influence on the quantity of yam produced in the study area was
tested using F-test at 5% level of significance. The formula for calculating F-cal is presented in
equation 4.
F-cal = R2(N-K) ------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)
1-R2(K-1)
Where,
R2 = Coefficient of Multiple Determination
N = Sample size
K= Number of variables or parameters
Decision Rule: if the F-cal> F-tab, reject the null hypothesis otherwise accept.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio-Economic Characteristics of Yam Farmers in the Area
The socio-economic characteristics of the yam farmers considered were: sex, age, marital
status, household size, educational level, occupation, farm size, farming experience, annual farm

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

income, membership of cooperative society and access to extension agents. The result of the socio-
economic characteristics of the yam farmers was presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Socio-economic Characteristics of Yam Farmers
Socio-economic Category Frequency Percentage Mean (X)
variables (N=160) (%)
Sex Male 112 70.0
Female 48 30.0
Age ≤30 48 30.6
31-40 38 23.7
41-50 36 22.5 46
51-60 25 15.6
Above 60 12 7.5
Marital status Single 20 12.5
Married 100 62.0
Widow/Widower 40 25.0
Household size ≤5 32 20
6-10 96 60 8
Above 10 32 20
Education level (years) Primary Education (1-6) 108 67.5 8
Secondary Education (7—12) 16 10.0
Tertiary Education (13-18) 36 22.5
Other Activities Trading 58 36.2
Engaged in Civil Service 63 39.4
Artisans 39 24.4
Yam Production ≤5 60 37.6 14
Experience 6-10 20 5.7
11-15 12 7.6
15-20 25 15.6
21-30 34 21.2
Above 30 9 5.6
Farm size ≤1 80 50.0
1-2 64 40 1.45
Above 2 18 10.0
Annual Farm Income ≤ 90000 16 10.0
₦100000 - ₦120000 64 40 ₦136,818.50
₦120001 -₦160000 55 34.4
Above ₦160,000 25 15.6

Contact with Extension 48 30.0


Agents
Access to Extension 48 30.0
Agent
Source: Field Survey, 2022
The result of the findings presented in Table 1, shows that most (70%) of the yam farmers
were males. This also shows that yam production in the area is dominated by men since the head
of the household is the primary decision maker and men have more access to and control over vital

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

production resources than women due to socio-cultural values and norms (Verter & Bečvařova,
2014; Osunde & Orhevba, 2009).
Again, Adesiyan and Odihirin (2015), and AMCOST (2006), made similar observations.
The age of most of the farmers (41%) ranged between 41-50 years while the least 7.5% aged above
60years. The result in Table 1 showed that majority (62%) of the yam farmers were married. The
yam farmers’ educational level of attainment was examined and the result presented in Table 1
showed that 67.5% of the farmers had primary education; while 22.5% had tertiary education
where others, (10%) had secondary education. Results also revealed that farmers in the area had
average farm income of ₦136,812.50 per annum.
The result also showed that the farmers in the area had average farming experiences of 13
years. This showed that most of the farmers studied was actually experienced farmers. This also
showed that the number of years a farmer spent in farming operations according to Esheya (2019)
may give an indication of the practical knowledge he/she had acquired on how to overcome certain
inherent farm problems. The result also showed that majority of the farmers (62.0%) in the area
were married. This is true because early marriage is culturally encouraged in the study area. In the
same vein, family labour is easily sourced among married people as pointed out by Michael (2011)
who reported that a high percentage of married farmers favoured provision of cheap family labour
supply by members of the farm family. The average household size of the yam farmers in the study
area was 8 persons. This entails that the household size of the yam farmers is large as most of them
have realized the importance of labour force due to the economic situation of the country. Most
rural households in the area relied more on family labour supply than hired labour in order to save
money that would have been paid to hired labour. The result had shown that the income level of
the yam farmers was moderate and could be attributed to good management of their farms resulting
to increase in their outputs/yields in the area. The moderate income of the yam farmers could
translate to household welfare and great opportunity to inputs technology adoptions. Result also
showed that the farmers operated on an average farm size of 1.45 hectares. This implied that the
yam farmers were mainly smallholder farmers who cultivated on less than 5 hectares of land which
was the major characteristics of smallholder farmers. Result shows that minority (30%) of the yam
farmers had contact with extension service delivery agents; whereas few 70% had no contact. This
implies that there is low level of access to extension services among the yam farmers in the study
area (Esheya, 2021).

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

Influence of the Socio-economic Characteristics of the Farmers on Yam Production


Ordinary Least Square (OLS) multiple regression analysis was employed to determine the
influence of the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers on yam production (quantity
produced) in the study area. The dependent variable was output of the yam in kilogram, while the
independent variables were age, gender, educational level, marital status, household size, annual
farm income, farming experience, farm size, membership of farmer association and contact with
extension agents. Therefore, the results obtained were presented in Table 2.

Table 2: OLS Multiple Regression Analysis on the Influence of the Socio-economic


Characteristics of the Farmers on Yam Production

Socioeconomic variables Coefficients Standard errors t-values


Sex 7873.994 2528.489 3.114***
Age -56.643 43.155 -1.313
Marital status 4426.857 1100.897 4.021***
Family size -6012.118 546.768 -10.996***
Educational level 232.710 178.277 1.305
Other activities engaged -4054.805 4141.594 -.952ns
Yam production experience -181.308 113.072 -1.603
Farm size 36532.842 3023.369 12.083***
Annual farm income 0.716 0.037 19.341***
Access to extension agent -1318.121 1795.996 -0.734
Constant 159398.562 13202.659 12.073
F-ratio 255.209***
R2 0.945
Adjusted R2 0.871
Source: Field Survey, 2022; *** significant at 1% level of probability

The results of multiple regression analysis in Table 2 showed that the coefficient of
multiple determination (R2) of the regression model was 0.945. This indicated that (95%) of the
variations in the dependent variable (output of yam) were accounted for by the independent
variables or explanatory variables (socio-economic characteristics of the farmers) included in the
model. The F-ratio of 255.209 which was significant at 1% probability level showed that the

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

coefficient of the explanatory variables included in the model were statistically different from zero,
thus the goodness-of-fit of the model and its explanatory power.
The co-efficient of sex (7873.994) had a positive sign and was statistically significant at
1% level of significance. This implies that yam productions among the rural farmers are gender
sensitive. This also entail that gender sensitivity is one the factors that surrounds agricultural
productions in the predominantly farming communities in the rural areas. However, this practically
implies that men play important role in provision of inputs technologies among the rural
households in the study area. This infers that, yams production is dominated by men in the area.
Coefficient of marital status (4426.857) of the respondents bore positive relationship with
quantity of yam produced and statistically significant at 1% level of significance. This implied that
married men were the key players in yam production. The dominance of married men in yam
production particularly in the study area probably explained why married households were
available source of family labour used in the production
The coefficient of household size (6012.118) of the farmers had a positive relationship with
the output of yam in the area. The positive coefficient indicated that a unit increase in household
size would translate to a 601211.8 % increase in the output of yams in the study area. This is
consistent with the work of Abah and Esheya, (2021) who reported that a large household size
working in the farm, reduces the farm’s external labour requirements and directly influences and
enhanced the use of labour agricultural productions in the area. Most rural households in the area
relied more on family labour supply than hired labour in order to save money that would have been
paid to hired labour. Many poorer households engage their members into hired labour in order to
generate income for improvement of their family welfare. This is in line with the report of Esheya,
(2012) who reported that larger household size is a cheaper means of providing farm labour and
reducing labour cost among the yam producers.
The coefficient of farm size (36532.842) was found to be positive and statistically
significant at 1% level of significance. This showed that a little increase in size of farmland would
result to increase in yam production in the study area. This indicated that increase in farm size
would imply moving towards commercialized farming, which entails more investment on yam
production. This in line with the work of Amusa, Anugwo and Esheya (2017) who reported that
increase in farm size would lead to increase in the adoption of production technologies as operators

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

should have more flexibility in their decision making, greater access to discretionary resources,
more opportunity to use new practices on trial basis and more ability to deal with risk.
The result had shown that the annual income of the respondents bore positive relationship
with the output of yam in the area and statistically significant at 1% level of significance. This
implied a little unit increase in the income level of the farmers would result to a unit increase in
the output of yam in the area. This also implied that the income of the farmers were moderate and
could be attributed to good management of their farms resulting to increase in their outputs/yields
in the area. The moderate income of the respondents could translate to household welfare and great
opportunity to inputs technology adoptions. This was supported by Adamu, Esheya, and Tanko,
(2021) who reported that increase in income would enable poor households save more financial
resources and consequently gain required financial ability to invest in agricultural production.
Constraints to Yam Production in the Study Area

The Principal Component Method of factor analysis was used to identify constraints
militating against farmers in yam production in the study area and the results were presented in
Table 3.
Table 3: Varimax Rotated Principal Component on Constraints to Yam Production
Constraint Variables Infrastructural Institutional Economic
factors factors factors
Insect and Disease Attack -0.107 -0.029 0.436
Bad Roads 0.744 -0.016 -0.083
Lack of Storage facilities 0.737 0.310 0.355
Lack of improved varieties of seeds 0.022 0.801 0.000
Insufficient Capital 0.058 0.320 0.621
Lack of Extension Agents Visit 0.217 0.514 0.134
Lack of Government Assistance 0.025 -0.014 0.901
Insufficient Buyers 0.939 0.055 0.201
High Cost of Inputs -0.105 0.854 0.000
Age of the Farmer 0.226 -0.140 0.826
Small farm size 0.854 0.007 0.034
Inadequate farming Experience -0.036 0.911 0.095
Low Educational Status 0.045 -0.008 0.598
Land Tenure System 0.238 0.718 -0.183
Source: Field Survey, 2022

From the result of the varimax principal component factor analysis and the Kaiser’s rule of
thumb of 0.400 loading of variables, it was observed that the constraint to the yam production
were of institutional and economic factors. Specifically, the variables that loaded high for

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Esheya JAEESS 9(1) April, 2023

infrastructural factors include bad roads (0.744), lack of storage facilities (0.737), insufficient
buyers (0.939), and small farm size (0.854). On the other hand, institutional factors include lack
of improved varieties of seeds (0.801), lack of extension agents’ visit (0.514), and lack of
government assistance (0.901). Finally, the variables that loaded high for economic constraints
were: insufficient capital (0.621), insect and disease attack (0.436), and low educational status
(0.598).

Hypothesis Tested

H0: The socio-economic characteristics of the yam producers have no significant influence
on the quantity of yam produced was tested using F-test at 5% level of significance. From the rule
of thumb, reject null hypothesis if F-cal >F-tab, otherwise accept. Results showed that F-cal (255.209)
> F-tab(1.94) thus, the null hypothesis which stated that the socio-economic characteristics of the
yam producers have no significant influence on the quantity of yam produced was tested using F-
test at 5% level of significance in the area was rejected and the alternative accepted (Table 2).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The study was conducted to examine the socio-economic determinants of yam production
in Ohaukwu Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. The results of the study show that
there is significant relationship between the socio-economic characteristics of yam farmers and
their quantity of yam output. That quantity produced was influenced by their sex, marital status,
farm size and annual farm income. The farmers were hindered by constraints such as lack of
government assistance; insufficient buyers; high cost of inputs, bad roads, insect and disease
attack, bad roads, lack of storage facilities, lack of improved varieties of seeds. Thus, it was
recommended that infrastructural facilities such as good road network and feeder roads should be
constructed to ensure easy movement of agricultural inputs to the farmers’ field and output to the
market. Besides, it would be imperative for policy makers to ensure that a wider spectrum of
farmers are encouraged to form cooperatives in order to have access to credit so as to improve
their agricultural undertaken.

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