Analog Communication - Introduction

The word communication arises from the Latin word commūnicāre, which means “to share”.
Communication is the basic step for exchange of information.

For example, a baby in a cradle, communicates with a cry when she needs her mother. A cow
moos loudly when it is in danger. A person communicates with the help of a language.
Communication is the bridge to share.

Communication can be defined as the process of exchange of information through means

such as words, actions, signs, etc., between two or more individuals.

Parts of a Communication System

Any system, which provides communication consists of the three important and basic parts as
shown in the following figure.
 Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting station from where
the signal is transmitted.

Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to reach the
destination.
Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a receiving station where
the transmitted signal is being received.

Types of Signals
Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds, actions, etc., can be
termed as signaling. Hence, a signal can be a source of energy which transmits some
information. This signal helps to establish a communication between the sender and the
receiver.

An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a distance to convey a

message, can be termed as a signal in communication systems.

Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into two types: Analog and
Digital. Analog and Digital signals are further classified, as shown in the following figure.
Analog Signal
A continuous time varying signal, which represents a time varying quantity can be termed as
an Analog Signal. This signal keeps on varying with respect to time, according to the
instantaneous values of the quantity, which represents it.

Example
Let us consider a tap that fills a tank of 100 liters capacity in an hour (6 AM to 7 AM). The
portion of filling the tank is varied by the varying time. Which means, after 15 minutes (6:15
AM) the quarter portion of the tank gets filled, whereas at 6:45 AM, 3/4th of the tank is filled.

If we try to plot the varying portions of water in the tank according to the varying time, it would
look like the following figure.
As the result shown in this image varies (increases) according to time, this time varying
quantity can be understood as Analog quantity. The signal which represents this condition
with an inclined line in the figure, is an Analog Signal. The communication based on analog
signals and analog values is called as Analog Communication.

Digital Signal
A signal which is discrete in nature or which is non-continuous in form can be termed as a
Digital signal. This signal has individual values, denoted separately, which are not based on
the previous values, as if they are derived at that particular instant of time.

Example
Let us consider a classroom having 20 students. If their attendance in a week is plotted, it
would look like the following figure.
In this figure, the values are stated separately. For instance, the attendance of the class on
Wednesday is 20 whereas on Saturday is 15. These values can be considered individually
and separately or discretely, hence they are called as discrete values.

The binary digits which has only 1s and 0s are mostly termed as digital values. Hence, the
signals which represent 1s and 0s are also called as digital signals. The communication
based on digital signals and digital values is called as Digital Communication.

Periodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that repeats its pattern over a period of time, is called as a
Periodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued repeatedly and is easy to be assumed
or to be calculated.

Example
If we consider a machinery in an industry, the process that takes place one after the other is a
continuous procedure. For example, procuring and grading the raw material, processing the
material in batches, packing a load of products one after the other, etc., follows a certain
procedure repeatedly.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented as

follows.

Aperiodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that doesn’t repeat its pattern over a period of time is called as
Aperiodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued but the pattern is not repeated. It is
also not so easy to be assumed or to be calculated.

Example
The daily routine of a person, if considered, consists of various types of work which take
different time intervals for different tasks. The time interval or the work doesn’t continuously
repeat. For example, a person will not continuously brush his teeth from morning to night, that
too with the same time period.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented as

follows.
In general, the signals which are used in communication systems are analog in nature, which
are transmitted in analog or converted to digital and then transmitted, depending upon the
requirement.

 Print Page
 Analog Communication - Modulation

For a signal to be transmitted to a distance, without the effect of any external interferences or
noise addition and without getting faded away, it has to undergo a process called as
Modulation. It improves the strength of the signal without disturbing the parameters of the
original signal.

What is Modulation?
A message carrying a signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to establish a
reliable communication, it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which should not
affect the original characteristics of the message signal.

The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message contained in it also alters.
Hence, it is a must to take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal can travel up
to a longer distance, without getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of
such high frequency signal which is called as a carrier signal to transmit our message signal.
Such a process is simply called as Modulation.

Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with
the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Need for Modulation

Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel longer
distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier wave,
which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.

Advantages of Modulation
The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced.
The range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel a distance without getting
distorted.

Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication
systems.

Reduction of antenna size

No signal mixing
Increased communication range
Multiplexing of signals
Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
Improved reception quality

Signals in the Modulation Process

Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.

Message or Modulating Signal

The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as a message signal. It is a
baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence,
it is also called as the modulating signal.

Carrier Signal
The high frequency signal, which has a certain amplitude, frequency and phase but contains
no information is called as a carrier signal. It is an empty signal and is used to carry the
signal to the receiver after modulation.
Modulated Signal
The resultant signal after the process of modulation is called as a modulated signal. This
signal is a combination of modulating signal and carrier signal.

Types of Modulation
There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques used, they
are classified as shown in the following figure.

The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and pulse
modulation.

Continuous-wave Modulation
In continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave. This is
further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as
Amplitude Modulation.

If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of
the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Angle Modulation. Angle
modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.

If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Frequency
Modulation.
If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as
Phase Modulation.

Pulse Modulation
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier wave.
This is further divided into analog and digital modulation.

In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude or duration or position of a pulse is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width Modulation
(PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).

In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) where
the analog signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse
train, this is called as PCM. This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM). These digital
modulation techniques are discussed in our Digital Communications tutorial
 Print Page
 Amplitude Modulation

A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband

message signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.

According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the
carrier signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing
information, at each instant. This can be well explained by the following figures.
The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the
carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the last one
is the resultant modulated wave.

It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are
interconnected with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the
modulating signal. This imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the
same as that of the message signal.

Mathematical Expressions
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.

Time-domain Representation of the Waves

Let the modulating signal be,

m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t)

and the carrier signal be,

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

Where,

Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal
respectively.

fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be

s(t) = [Ac + Am cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t) (Equation 1)

Modulation Index
A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an
attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation
that a carrier wave undergoes.

Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.

Am
s(t) = Ac [1 + ( ) cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)
Ac

⇒ s (t) = Ac [1 + μ cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t) (Equation 2)

Where, μ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac .

Mathematically, we can write it as

Am
μ =
Ac
(Equation 3)

Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when the
amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known.

Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1. We can
use this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum
amplitudes of the modulated wave are known.

Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfm t) is 1.

⇒ Amax = Ac + Am (Equation 4)

We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfm t) is -1.

⇒ Amin = Ac − Am (Equation 5)

Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.

Amax + Amin = Ac + Am + Ac − Am = 2Ac

Amax +Amin
⇒ Ac =
2
(Equation 6)

Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.

Amax − Amin = Ac + Am − (Ac − Am ) = 2Am

Amax −Amin
⇒ Am =
2
(Equation 7)

The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.

 Am (Amax − Amin ) /2
=
Ac (Amax + Amin ) /2

Amax −Amin
⇒ μ = (Equation 8)
Amax +Amin

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The
modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of
Modulation. We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation
index value with 100.

For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the
percentage of modulation should be 100%.

For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated
output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is
called as an under-modulated wave.
If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be an
over-modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180o phase
reversal, which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an
over-modulated wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of AM Wave
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as

BW = fmax − fmin

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s (t) = Ac [1 + μ cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)

⇒ s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac μ cos(2πfc t) cos(2πfm t)

Ac μ Ac μ
⇒ s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2 2

Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency
fc , upper sideband frequency fc + fm and lower sideband frequency fc − fm

Here,

fmax = fc + fm and fmin = fc − fm

Substitute, fmax and fmin values in bandwidth formula.

BW = fc + fm − (fc − fm )

⇒ BW = 2fm

Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of AM Wave

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

Ac μ Ac μ
s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2 2

Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower
sideband frequency components.

Pt = Pc + PU SB + PLSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

 – 2
2
vrms (vm /√2 )
P = =
R 2

Where,

vrms is the rms value of cos signal.

vm is the peak value of cos signal.

First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.

Carrier power

– 2 2
(Ac /√2 ) Ac
Pc = =
R 2R

Upper sideband power

– 2 2 2
(Ac μ/2√2 ) Ac μ
PU SB = =
R 8R

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.
 2 2
Ac μ
PLSB =
8R

Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.

2 2 2 2 2
Ac Ac μ Ac μ
Pt = + +
2R 8R 8R

2 2 2
Ac μ μ
⇒ Pt = ( ) (1 + + )
2R 4 4

2
μ
⇒ Pt = Pc (1 + )
2

We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power
and the modulation index are known.

If the modulation index μ = 1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier

power. So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a
perfect modulation.
 Print Page
 Numerical Problems 1

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the parameters used in Amplitude Modulation.
Each parameter has its own formula. By using those formulas, we can find the respective
parameter values. In this chapter, let us solve a few problems based on the concept of
amplitude modulation.

Problem 1
A modulating signal is amplitude modulated with a carrier
3
m (t) = 10 cos(2π × 10 t)

signal 5
c (t) = 50 cos(2π × 10 t) . Find the modulation index, the carrier power, and the

power required for transmitting AM wave.

Solution
Given, the equation of modulating signal as

3
m (t) = 10 cos(2π × 10 t)

We know the standard equation of modulating signal as

 m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t)

By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of modulating signal as Am = 10volts

and Frequency of modulating signal as

3
fm = 10 H z = 1K H z

Given, the equation of carrier signal is

5
c (t) = 50 cos(2π × 10 t)

The standard equation of carrier signal is

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

By comparing these two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as Ac = 50volts

and Frequency of carrier signal as 5
fc = 10 H z = 100K H z

We know the formula for modulation index as

Am
μ =
Ac

Substitute, Am and Ac values in the above formula.

10
μ = = 0.2
50

Therefore, the value of modulation index is 0.2 and percentage of modulation is 20%.

The formula for Carrier power, Pc = is

2
Ac
Pc =
2R

Assume R = 1Ω and substitute Ac value in the above formula.

 2
(50)
Pc = = 1250W
2 (1)

Therefore, the Carrier power, Pc is 1250 watts.

We know the formula for power required for transmitting AM wave is

2
μ
⇒ Pt = Pc (1 + )
2

Substitute Pc and μ values in the above formula.

2
(0.2)
Pt = 1250 (1 + ) = 1275W
2

Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 1275 watts.

Problem 2
The equation of amplitude wave is given by
3
s (t) = 20 [1 + 0.8 cos(2π × 10 t)] cos(4π × 10 t)
5
. Find the carrier power, the total

sideband power, and the band width of AM wave.

Solution
Given, the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is

3 5
s (t) = 20 [1 + 0.8 cos(2π × 10 t)] cos(4π × 10 t)

Re-write the above equation as

3 5
s (t) = 20 [1 + 0.8 cos(2π × 10 t)] cos(2π × 2 × 10 t)

We know the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is

s (t) = Ac [1 + μ cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)

By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as Ac = 20volts

Modulation index as μ = 0.8

Frequency of modulating signal as 3

fm = 10 H z = 1K H z

Frequency of carrier signal as

5
fc = 2 × 10 H z = 200K H z
The formula for Carrier power, Pc is

2
Ae
Pc =
2R

Assume R = 1Ω and substitute Ac value in the above formula.

2
(20)
Pc = = 200W
2 (1)

Therefore, the Carrier power, Pc is 200watts.

We know the formula for total side band power is

2
Pc μ
PSB =
2

Substitute Pc and μ values in the above formula.

2
200 × (0.8)
PSB = = 64W
2
Therefore, the total side band power is 64 watts.

We know the formula for bandwidth of AM wave is

BW = 2fm

Substitute fm value in the above formula.

BW = 2 (1K ) = 2K H z

Therefore, the bandwidth of AM wave is 2 KHz.

 Print Page
 Analog Communication - AM Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate amplitude modulated
wave. The following two modulators generate AM wave.

Square law modulator

Switching modulator

Square Law Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m (t) and A cos(2πfc t)

respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This
summer block produces an output, which is the addition of the modulating and the carrier
signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
 V1 t = m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)

This signal V1 t is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The characteristics
of the diode are closely related to square law.

V2 t = k1 V1 (t) + k2 V
2
1
(t) (Equation 1)

Where, k1 and k2 are constants.

Substitute V1 (t) in Equation 1

2
V2 (t) = k1 [m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)] + k2 [m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)]

2
⇒ V2 (t) = k1 m (t) + k1 Ac cos(2πfc t) + k2 m (t) +

2 2
k2 Ac cos (2πfc t) + 2k2 m (t) Ac cos(2πfc t)

2 2 2
⇒ V2 (t) = k1 m (t) + k2 m (t) + k2 Ac cos (2πfc t)+

2k2
k1 Ac [1 + ( ) m (t)] cos(2πfc t)
k1

The last term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the first three terms
of the above equation are unwanted. So, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only
AM wave and eliminate the first three terms.

Therefore, the output of square law modulator is

2k2
s (t) = k1 Ac [1 + ( ) m (t)] cos(2πfc t)
k1

The standard equation of AM wave is

s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

Where, Ka is the amplitude sensitivity

By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard equation of AM wave,
2k2
we will get the scaling factor as k1 and the amplitude sensitivity ka as k1
.

Switching Modulator
Following is the block diagram of switching modulator.
Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only difference is that in the
square law modulator, the diode is operated in a non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching
modulator, the diode has to operate as an ideal switch.

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m (t) and c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. Summer
block produces an output, which is the addition of modulating and carrier signals.
Mathematically, we can write it as

V1 (t) = m (t) + c (t) = m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)

This signal V1 (t) is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the magnitude of the modulating

signal is very small when compared to the amplitude of carrier signal Ac . So, the diode’s
ON and OFF action is controlled by carrier signal c (t) . This means, the diode will be

forward biased when c (t) > 0 and it will be reverse biased when c (t) < 0 .

Therefore, the output of the diode is

V1 (t) if c (t) > 0

V2 (t) = {
0 if c (t) < 0

We can approximate this as

V2 (t) = V1 (t) x (t) (Equation 2)

Where, x (t) is a periodic pulse train with time period T =

1

fc

The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train is

∞ n
1 2 (−1) − 1
x (t) = + ∑ cos(2π (2n − 1) fc t)
2 π 2n − 1
n=1
 1 2 2
⇒ x (t) = + cos(2πfc t) − cos(6πfc t)+. . . .
2 π 3π

Substitute, V1 (t) and x (t) values in Equation 2.

1 2 2
V2 (t) = [m (t) + Ac cos(2πfc t)] [ + cos(2πfc t) − cos(6πfc t)+. . . . . ]
2 π 3π

m(t) Ac 2m(t) 2Ac 2

V2 (t) = + cos(2πfc t) + cos(2πfc t) + cos (2πfc t)−
2 2 π π

2m(t) 2Ac
cos(6πfc t) − cos(2πfc t) cos(6πfc t)+. . . . .
3π 3π

Ac 4 m(t) 2Ac 2
V2 (t) = (1 + ( ) m (t)) cos(2πfc t) + + cos (2πfc t)−
2 πAc 2 π

2m(t) 2Ac
cos(6πfc t) − cos(2πfc t) cos(6πfc t)+. . . . .
3π 3π

The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the remaining terms
are unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and
eliminate the remaining terms.

Therefore, the output of switching modulator is

Ac 4
s (t) = (1 + ( ) m (t)) cos(2πfc t)
2 πAc
We know the standard equation of AM wave is

s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

Where, ka is the amplitude sensitivity.

By comparing the output of the switching modulator with the standard equation of AM wave,

we will get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude sensitivity as .

4
ka
πAc

 Print Page
 Analog Communication - AM Demodulators

The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated wave is known as
detection or demodulation. The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as
the demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating AM
wave.

Square Law Demodulator

Envelope Detector

Square Law Demodulator

Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following is the block
diagram of thesquare law demodulator.

it is used for detecting modulated

This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM wave V1 (t) is signal of small amplitude .
applied as an input to this demodulator.
the only difference is in modulator bpf is used and in
The standard form of AM wave is demodulator lpf is used .
here Vaa dc supply is used to fix operating point in the non
linear portion of diode v-i characteristics.
 V1 (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

We know that the mathematical relationship between the input and the output of square law
device is

V2 (t) = k1 V1 (t) + k2 V
2
1
(t) (Equation 1)

Where,

V1 (t) is the input of the square law device, which is nothing but the AM wave

V2 (t) is the output of the square law device

k1 and k2 are constants

Substitute V1 (t) in Equation 1

2
V2 (t) = k1 (Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)) + k2 (Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t))

⇒ V2 (t) = k1 Ac cos(2πfc t) + k1 Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t)+

2 2 1+cos(4πf c t)
2
k2 Ac [1 + Ka m (t) + 2ka m (t)] ( )
2
 2
K 2Ac
⇒ V2 (t) = k1 Ac cos(2πfc t) + k1 Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t) + +
2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
K 2Ac k2 Ac ka m (t) k2 Ac ka m (t)
cos(4πfc t) + + cos(4πfc t)+
2 2 2

2 2
k2 Ac ka m (t) + k2 Ac ka m (t) cos(4πfc t)

2
In the above equation, the term k2 Ac ka m (t) is the scaled version of the message

signal. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter and the DC
2
k2 Ac
component 2
can be eliminated with the help of a coupling capacitor.

Envelope Detector
Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave. Following is the block
diagram of the envelope detector.

This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here, the diode is the main
detecting element. Hence, the envelope detector is also called as the diode detector. The
low pass filter contains a parallel combination of the resistor and the capacitor.

The AM wave s (t) is applied as an input to this detector.

We know the standard form of AM wave is

 s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode conducts and the capacitor charges to the
peak value of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the diode will be
reverse biased. Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor R till the next positive half
cycle of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode
conducts and the process will be repeated.

We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor charges very quickly
and discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same as
that of the envelope of AM wave, which is almost similar to the modulating signal.

 Print Page
 Analog Communication - DSBSC Modulation

In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and
two sidebands. The modulated wave has the information only in the sidebands. Sideband is
nothing but a band of frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and higher
frequencies of the carrier frequency.

The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be termed
as Double Sideband Full Carrier system or simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in the
following figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the power is being wasted
in the carrier, which carries no information.
If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two sidebands, then
such a process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply
DSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals as we
have considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t)
Carrier signal

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of modulating
and carrier signals.

s (t) = m (t) c (t)

⇒ s (t) = Am Ac cos(2πfm t) cos(2πfc t)

Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave

We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is

BW = fmax − fmin

Consider the equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

s (t) = Am Ac cos(2πfm t) cos(2πfc t)

 Am Ac Am Ac
⇒ s (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2 2

The DSBSC modulated wave has only two frequencies. So, the maximum and minimum
frequencies are fc + fm and fc − fm respectively.

i.e.,

fmax = fc + fm and fmin = fc − fm

Substitute, fmax and fmin values in the bandwidth formula.

BW = fc + fm − (fc − fm )

⇒ BW = 2fm

Thus, the bandwidth of DSBSC wave is same as that of AM wave and it is equal to twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave.
 Am Ac Am Ac
s (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2 2

Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband and lower sideband
frequency components.

Pt = PU SB + PLSB

We know the standard formula for power of cos signal is

– 2
2
vrms (vm √2 )
P = =
R R

First, let us find the powers of upper sideband and lower sideband one by one.

Upper sideband power

– 2 2 2
(Am Ac /2√2 ) Am Ac
PU SB = =
R 8R

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of upper sideband power.
 2 2
Am Ac
PU SB =
8R

Now, let us add these two sideband powers in order to get the power of DSBSC wave.

2 2 2 2
Am Ac Am Ac
Pt = +
8R 8R

2 2
Am Ac
⇒ Pt =
4R

Therefore, the power required for transmitting DSBSC wave is equal to the power of both the
sidebands.

 Print Page
 Analog Communication - DSBSC Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate DSBSC wave. The
following two modulators generate DSBSC wave.

Balanced modulator
Ring modulator

Balanced Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the Balanced modulator.
Balanced modulator consists of two identical AM modulators. These two modulators are
arranged in a balanced configuration in order to suppress the carrier signal. Hence, it is called
as Balanced modulator.

The same carrier signal c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) is applied as one of the inputs to these

two AM modulators. The modulating signal m (t) is applied as another input to the upper

AM modulator. Whereas, the modulating signal m (t) with opposite polarity, i.e.,

−m (t) is applied as another input to the lower AM modulator.

Output of the upper AM modulator is

 s1 (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

Output of the lower AM modulator is

s2 (t) = Ac [1 − ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

We get the DSBSC wave s (t) by subtracting s2 (t) from s1 (t) . The summer block

is used to perform this operation. s1 (t) with positive sign and s2 (t) with negative sign

are applied as inputs to summer block. Thus, the summer block produces an output s (t)

which is the difference of s1 (t) and s2 (t) .

⇒ s (t) = Ac [1 + ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t) − Ac [1 − ka m (t)] cos(2πfc t)

⇒ s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t) − Ac cos(2πfc t)+

Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t)

⇒ s (t) = 2Ac ka m (t) cos(2πfc t)

We know the standard equation of DSBSC wave is

s (t) = Ac m (t) cos(2πfc t)

By comparing the output of summer block with the standard equation of DSBSC wave, we will
get the scaling factor as 2ka

Ring Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the Ring modulator.
In this diagram, the four diodes D1 , D2 , D3 and D4 are connected in the ring
structure. Hence, this modulator is called as the ring modulator. Two center tapped

transformers are used in this diagram. The message signal m (t) is applied to the input

transformer. Whereas, the carrier signals c (t) is applied between the two center tapped

transformers.

For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D1 and D3 are switched ON and

the other two diodes D2 and D4 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is
multiplied by +1.

For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D2 and D4 are switched ON and

the other two diodes D1 and D3 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is

multiplied by -1. This results in phase shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.
0
180

From the above analysis, we can say that the four diodes D1 , D2 , D3 and D4

are controlled by the carrier signal. If the carrier is a square wave, then the Fourier series
representation of c (t) is represented as

∞ n−1
4 (−1)
c (t) = ∑ cos[2πfc t (2n − 1)]
π 2n − 1
n=1
We will get DSBSC wave s (t) , which is just the product of the carrier signal c (t) and

the message signal m (t) i.e.,

∞ n−1
4 (−1)
s (t) = ∑ cos[2πfc t (2n − 1)]m (t)
π 2n − 1
n=1

The above equation represents DSBSC wave, which is obtained at the output transformer of
the ring modulator.

DSBSC modulators are also called as product modulators as they produce the output, which
is the product of two input signals.

 Print Page
 DSBSC Demodulators

The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave is known as
detection or demodulation of DSBSC. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for
demodulating DSBSC wave.

Coherent Detector
Costas Loop

Coherent Detector
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC signal) is used to detect
the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous
detection. Following is the block diagram of the coherent detector.
In this process, the message signal can be extracted from DSBSC wave by multiplying it with
a carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in DSBSC modulation.
The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. Output of this filter is the
desired message signal.

Let the DSBSC wave be

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t)

The output of the local oscillator is

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + ϕ)
Where, ϕ is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal,

which is used for DSBSC modulation.

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v (t) = s (t) c (t)

Substitute, s (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

⇒ v (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t) Ac cos(2πfc t + ϕ)

2
= Ac cos(2πfc t) cos(2πfc t + ϕ)m (t)

2
Ac
= [cos(4πfc t + ϕ) + cos ϕ] m (t)
2

2 2
Ac Ac
v (t) = cos ϕm (t) + cos(4πfc t + ϕ)m (t)
2 2

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be
extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

 2
Ac
v0 t = cos ϕm (t)
2

The demodulated signal amplitude will be maximum, when ϕ = 0

0
. That’s why the local

oscillator signal and the carrier signal should be in phase, i.e., there should not be any phase
difference between these two signals.

The demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when ϕ = ±90

0
. This effect is called as

quadrature null effect.

Costas Loop
Costas loop is used to make both the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the
locally generated signal in phase. Following is the block diagram of Costas loop.
Costas loop consists of two product modulators with common input s (t) , which is DSBSC

wave. The other input for both product modulators is taken from Voltage Controlled

Oscillator (VCO) with 0

−90 phase shift to one of the product modulator as shown in

figure.

We know that the equation of DSBSC wave is

s (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t)

Let the output of VCO be

 c1 (t) = cos(2πfc t + ϕ)

This output of VCO is applied as the carrier input of the upper product modulator.

Hence, the output of the upper product modulator is

v1 (t) = s (t) c1 (t)

Substitute, s (t) and c1 (t) values in the above equation.

⇒ v1 (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t) cos(2πfc t + ϕ)

After simplifying, we will get v1 (t) as

Ac Ac
v1 (t) = cos ϕm (t) + cos(4πfc t + ϕ)m (t)
2 2

This signal is applied as an input of the upper low pass filter. The output of this low pass filter
is
 Ac
v01 (t) = cos ϕm (t)
2

Therefore, the output of this low pass filter is the scaled version of the modulating signal.

The output of −90

0
phase shifter is

0
c2 (t) = cos (2πfc t + ϕ − 90 ) = sin(2πfc t + ϕ)

This signal is applied as the carrier input of the lower product modulator.

The output of the lower product modulator is

v2 (t) = s (t) c2 (t)

Substitute, s (t) and c2 (t) values in the above equation.

⇒ v2 (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t) sin(2πfc t + ϕ)

After simplifying, we will get v2 (t) as

 Ac Ac
v2 (t) = sin ϕm (t) + sin(4πfc t + ϕ)m (t)
2 2

This signal is applied as an input of the lower low pass filter. The output of this low pass filter
is
the costa receiver cases phase control when there is no modulation i.e, x(t) = 0.
the phase control reestablish itself on the reappearance of modulation.
however the reestablishment is so fast that distortion is not perceptible in case of voice
Ac communication
v02 (t) = sin ϕm (t)
2

The output of this Low pass filter has −90

0
phase difference with the output of the upper
low pass filter.

The outputs of these two low pass filters are applied as inputs of the phase discriminator.
Based on the phase difference between these two signals, the phase discriminator produces a
DC control signal.

This signal is applied as an input of VCO to correct the phase error in VCO output. Therefore,
the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the locally generated signal (VCO output)
are in phase.

 Print Page
 Analog Communication - SSBSC Modulation

In the previous chapters, we have discussed DSBSC modulation and demodulation. The
DSBSC modulated signal has two sidebands. Since, the two sidebands carry the same
information, there is no need to transmit both sidebands. We can eliminate one sideband.

The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and transmitting a
single sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply SSBSC.
It is plotted as shown in the following figure.
In the above figure, the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed. Hence, the upper
sideband is used for transmission. Similarly, we can suppress the carrier and the upper
sideband while transmitting the lower sideband.

This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power allotted
for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.

Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and the carrier signals
as we have considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m (t) = Am cos(2πfm t)

Carrier signal

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of SSBSC wave as

Am Ac
s (t) =
2
cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] for the upper sideband

Or

Am Ac
s (t) =
2
cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] for the lower sideband
Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave
We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is
2fm . Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half

of the bandwidth of DSBSC modulated wave.

2f m
i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave = 2
= fm

Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm and it is equal to the frequency

of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.

Am Ac
s (t) =
2
cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] for the upper sideband

Or

Am Ac
s (t) =
2
cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] for the lower sideband

Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency components.

Pt = PU SB = PLSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

 – 2
2
vrms (vm /√2 )
P = =
R R

In this case, the power of the upper sideband is

– 2 2 2
(Am Ac /2√2 ) Am Ac
PU SB = =
R 8R

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.

2 2
Am Ac
PLSB =
8R

Therefore, the power of SSBSC wave is

2 2
Am Ac
Pt = PU SB = PLSB =
8R

Advantages
Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.
 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.

Power is saved.
High power signal can be transmitted.

Less amount of noise is present.

Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages
The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.

The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an
excellent frequency stability.

Applications
For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.
In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.

In point-to-point communications.

In radio communications.

In television, telemetry, and radar communications.

In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

 Print Page
 Analog Communication - SSBSC Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate SSBSC wave. We can
generate SSBSC wave using the following two methods.

Frequency discrimination method

Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using frequency
discrimination method.
In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator.
Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter. This band pass filter produces
an output, which is SSBSC wave.

Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the desired SSBSC wave.
This means the band pass filter can be tuned to either upper sideband or lower sideband
frequencies to get the respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or lower sideband.

Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using phase discrimination
method.
This block diagram consists of two product modulators, two −90
0
phase shifters, one local

oscillator and one summer block. The product modulator produces an output, which is the

product of two inputs. The −90

0
phase shifter produces an output, which has a phase lag

of −90
0
with respect to the input.

The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block produces an output,
which is either the sum of two inputs or the difference of two inputs based on the polarity of
inputs.

The modulating signal Am cos(2πfm t) and the carrier signal Ac cos(2πfc t) are

directly applied as inputs to the upper product modulator. So, the upper product modulator
produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.

The output of upper product modulator is

s1 (t) = Am Ac cos(2πfm t) cos(2πfc t)

Am Ac
⇒ s1 (t) = {cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]}
2

The modulating signal Am cos(2πfm t) and the carrier signal Ac cos(2πfc t) are

phase shifted by −90

0
before applying as inputs to the lower product modulator. So, the
lower product modulator produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.
The output of lower product modulator is

0 0
s2 (t) = Am Ac cos(2πfm t − 90 ) cos(2πfc t − 90 )

⇒ s2 (t) = Am Ac sin(2πfm t) sin(2πfc t)

Am Ac
⇒ s2 (t) = {cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] − cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]}
2

Add s1 (t) and s2 (t) in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s (t) having a

lower sideband.

Am Ac
s (t) = {cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]} +
2

Am Ac
{cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] − cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]}
2

⇒ s (t) = Am Ac cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]

Subtract s2 (t) from s1 (t) in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s (t) having a

upper sideband.

Am Ac
s (t) = {cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] + cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]} −
2

Am Ac
{cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] − cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]}
2
 ⇒ s (t) = Am Ac cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]

Hence, by properly choosing the polarities of inputs at summer block, we will get SSBSC
wave having a upper sideband or a lower sideband.

 Print Page
 SSBSC Demodulator

The process of extracting an original message signal from SSBSC wave is known as
detection or demodulation of SSBSC. Coherent detector is used for demodulating SSBSC
wave.

Coherent Detector
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating SSBSC wave) is used to detect
the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous
detection. Following is the block diagram of coherent detector.
In this process, the message signal can be extracted from SSBSC wave by multiplying it with
a carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in SSBSC modulation.
The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the
desired message signal.

Consider the following SSBSC wave having a lower sideband.

Am Ac
s (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]
2

The output of the local oscillator is

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)
From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v (t) = s (t) c (t)

Substitute s (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

Am Ac
v (t) = cos[2π (fc − fm ) t]Ac cos(2πfc t)
2

2
Am Ac
= cos[2π (fc − fm ) t] cos(2πfc t)
2

2
Am Ac
= {cos[2π (2fc − f m)] + cos(2πfm )t}
4

2 2
Am Ac Am Ac
v (t) = cos(2πfm t) + cos[2π (2fc − fm ) t]
4 4

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be
extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

 2
Am Ac
v0 (t) = cos(2πfm t)
4

2
Ac
Here, the scaling factor is 4
.

We can use the same block diagram for demodulating SSBSC wave having an upper
sideband. Consider the following SSBSC wave having an upper sideband.

Am Ac
s (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]
2

The output of the local oscillator is

c (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)

We can write the output of the product modulator as

v (t) = s (t) c (t)

Substitute s (t) and c (t) values in the above equation.

 Am Ac
⇒ v (t) = cos[2π (fc + fm ) t]Ac cos(2πfc t)
2

2
Am Ac
= cos[2π (fc + fm ) t] cos(2πfc t)
2

2
Am Ac
= {cos[2π (2fc + fm ) t] + cos(2πfm t)}
4

2 2
Am Ac Am Ac
v (t) = cos(2πfm t) + cos[2π (2fc + fm ) t]
4 4

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be
extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of the low pass filter is

2
Am Ac
v0 (t) = cos(2πfm t)
4

2
Ac
Here too the scaling factor is 4
.

Therefore, we get the same demodulated output in both the cases by using coherent detector.

 Print Page
 Analog Communication - VSBSC Modulation

In the previous chapters, we have discussed SSBSC modulation and demodulation. SSBSC
modulated signal has only one sideband frequency. Theoretically, we can get one sideband
frequency component completely by using an ideal band pass filter. However, practically we
may not get the entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some information gets
lost.

To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSBSC and
SSBSC. This technique is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC)
technique. The word “vestige” means “a part” from which, the name is derived.

VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated
along with one sideband. The frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the following
figure.
Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this
technique. Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper
sideband. A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the
interferences. VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulation

We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm . Since the VSBSC

modulated wave contains the frequency components of one side band along with the vestige
of other sideband, the bandwidth of it will be the sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated
wave and vestige frequency fv .

i.e., Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulated Wave = fm + fv

Advantages
Following are the advantages of VSBSC modulation.

Highly efficient.

Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.

Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.

The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any difficulty.

Possesses good phase characteristics.

Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of VSBSC modulation.

Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.

Demodulation is complex.

Applications
The most prominent and standard application of VSBSC is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.

Now, let us discuss about the modulator which generates VSBSC wave and the demodulator
which demodulates VSBSC wave one by one.

Generation of VSBSC
Generation of VSBSC wave is similar to the generation of SSBSC wave. The VSBSC
modulator is shown in the following figure.
In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator.
Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of sideband shaping filter. This filter produces an
output, which is VSBSC wave.

The modulating signal m (t) and carrier signal Ac cos(2πfc t) are applied as inputs to

the product modulator. Hence, the product modulator produces an output, which is the product
of these two inputs.

Therefore, the output of the product modulator is

p (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)m (t)

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

 Ac
P (f ) = [M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc )]
2

The above equation represents the equation of DSBSC frequency spectrum.

Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H (f ) . This filter has the input

p (t) and the output is VSBSC modulated wave s (t) . The Fourier transforms of

p (t) and s (t) are P (t) and S (t) respectively.

Mathematically, we can write S (f ) as

S (t) = P (f ) H (f )

Substitute P (f ) value in the above equation.

Ac
S (f ) = [M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc )] H (f )
2

The above equation represents the equation of VSBSC frequency spectrum.

Demodulation of VSBSC
Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation of SSBSC wave. Here, the same
carrier signal (which is used for generating VSBSC wave) is used to detect the message
signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection.
The VSBSC demodulator is shown in the following figure.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave by multiplying it with
a carrier, which is having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in VSBSC
modulation. The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this
filter is the desired message signal.

Let the VSBSC wave be s (t) and the carrier signal is Ac cos(2πfc t) .

From the figure, we can write the output of the product modulator as

v (t) = Ac cos(2πfc t)s (t)

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

Ac
V (f ) = [S (f − fc ) + S (f + fc )]
2

Ac
We know that S (f ) =
2
[M (f − fc ) + M (f + fc )] H (f )

From the above equation, let us find S (f − fc ) and S (f + fc ) .

Ac
S (f − fc ) = [M (f − fc − fc ) + M (f − fc + fc )] H (f − fc )
2

Ac
⇒ S (f − fc ) = [M (f − 2fc ) + M (f )] H (f − fc )
2

Ac
S (f + fc ) = [M (f + fc − fc ) + M (f + fc + fc )] H (f + fc )
2

Ac
⇒ S (f + fc ) = [M (f ) + M (f + 2fc )] H (f + fc )
2

Substitute, S (f − fc ) and S (f + fc ) values in V (f ) .

 Ac Ac
V (f ) = [ [M (f − 2fc ) + M (f )]H (f − fc )+
2 2

Ac
[M (f ) + M (f + 2fc )]H (f + fc )]
2

2
Ac
⇒ V (f ) = M (f ) [H (f − fc ) + H (f + fc )]
4

2
Ac
+ [M (f − 2fc ) H (f − fc ) + M (f + 2fc ) H (f + fc )]
4

In the above equation, the first term represents the scaled version of the desired message
signal frequency spectrum. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low
pass filter.

2
Ac
V0 (f ) = M (f ) [H (f − fc ) + H (f + fc )]
4

 Print Page