C L A S S 12 : P H Y S IC S

FORMULA
BOOK
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 1 q
(ii) At very large distance i.e. r >> a E =
4 πε 0 r 2
k q1q2 1 q1q2
‰ Coulomb’s law : F = =
r 2 4 πε r 2 ‰ Torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform
  
‰ Relaive permiiviy or dielecric consan : elecric eld : τ = p × E or τ = pE sin θ
ε ‰ Potential energy of an electric dipole in a
ε r or K =
ε0 uniorm elecric eld is U = –pE(cosq2 – cosq1)
‰ Elecric eld inensiy a a poin disan r from where q1 & q1 are iniial angle and nal angle
1 q
a point charge q is E = . between
4 πε 0 r 2
 
‰ Elecric ux φ = E ⋅ dS
‰ Electric dipole momentm,
‰ Elecric eld inensiy on axial line (end on ‰ Gauss’s law :
position) of the electric dipole
‰ Elecric eld due o hin inniely long sraigh
(i) At the point r from the centre of the electric
wire of uniform linear charge density l
1 2 pr
dipole, E = . λ
4 πε 0 (r 2 − a 2 )2 E= ,
2 πε 0 r
(ii) At very large distance i.e., (r > > a), (i) At a point outside the shell i.e., r > R
2p
E= 1 q
4 πε 0r 3 E=
4 πε 0 r 2
‰ Elecric eld inensiy on equaorial line (board (ii) At a point on the shell i.e., r = R
on position) of electric dipole
1 q
E=
(i) At the point at a distance r from the centre 4 πε 0 R 2
1 p (iii) At a point inside the shell i.e., r < R
of electric dipole, E = .
4 πε 0 (r 2 + a 2 )3 / 2
E=0
(ii) At very large distance i.e., r > > a, ‰ Elecric eld due o a non conducing solid
1 p
sphere of uniform volume charge density r
E= . and radius R at a point distant r from the centre
4 πε 0 r 3
o he sphere is given as ollows :
‰ Elecric eld inensiy a any poin due o an (i) At a point outside the sphere i.e., r > R
1 p 1 q
electric dipole E = 1 + 3 cos 2 θ E= ·
4 πε 0 r 3 4 πε 0 r 2
‰ Elecric eld inensiy due o a charged ring (ii) At a point on the surface of the sphere
(i) A a poin on is axis a disance r from its i.e., r = R
1 q
1 qr E= ·
centre, E = 4 πε 0 R 2
4 πε 0 (r + a 2 )3 / 2
2

Physics 1
 (iii) At a point inside the sphere i.e., r < R  
‰ Relationship between E and V
ρr 1 q r  
E= = · E = −∇V
3ε 0 4 πε 0 R 3
‰ Elecric eld due o a hin non conducing where
innie shee o charge wih uniormly charge
σ ‰ Electric potential energy of a system of two
surface density s is E =
2ε0 1 q1q2
point charges is U =
‰ Elecric eld beween wo innie hin plane 4 πε 0 r12
parallel sheets of uniform surface charge ‰ Capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius
density s and – s is E = s/e0. R is C = 4pe0R
‰ Capaciance o an air lled parallel plae
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE capacitor
W
‰ Electric potential V = ‰ Capaciance o an air lled spherical capacior
q
ab
‰ Electric potential at a point distant r from a C = 4 πε 0
b−a
point charge q is V = q
‰ Capaciance o an air lled cylindrical capacior
4 πε 0 r
‰ The electric potential at point due to an electric 2 πε 0 L
C=
dipole  b
ln  
1 p cos θ  a
V=
4 πε 0 r 2 ‰ Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
‰ Electric potential due to a uniformly charged with a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K,
spherical shell of uniform surface charge compleely lled beween he plaes o he
density s and radius R at a distance r from the
capacitor, is given by
cenre he shell is given as ollows :
(i) At a point outside the shell i.e., r > R ‰ When a dielectric slab of thickness t and
1 q dielectric constant K is introduced between the
V=
4 πε 0 r plates, then the capacitance of a parallel plate
(ii) At a point on the shell i.e., r = R ε0 A
1 q capacitor is given by C =
V=  1
4 πε 0 R d − t  1 − 
K
(iii) At a point inside the shell i.e., r > R
1 q ‰ When a metallic conductor of thickness t is
V=
4 πε 0 R introduced between the plates, then capacitance
‰ Electric potential due to a non-conducting solid of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
sphere of uniform volume charge density r and
radius R distant r from the sphere is given as
ollows : ‰ Energy sored in a capacior :
(i) At a point outside the sphere i.e. r > R 1 1 1 Q2
1 q U= CV 2 = QV =
V= 2 2 2 C
4 πε0 r 1
(ii) At a point on the sphere i.e., r = R
‰ Energy densiy : u = ε E2
2 0
1 q
V= 1 1 1 1
4 πε 0 R ‰ Capaciors in series : = + + .... +
CS C1 C2 Cn
(iii) At a point inside the sphere i.e., r < R
1 q( 3R 2 − r 2 ) ‰ Capaciors in parallel : CP = C1 + C2 + .... + Cn
V=
4 πε 0 2R3

2 Physics
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY ‰ Relationship between e, V and r

‰ Current, I = q
or r = R ( Vε − 1)
where e emf of a cell, r internal resistance and R
t
I is exernal resisance
‰ Current density J = (Electricity, Class 10)
A
P R
‰ Wheatstone’s bridge =
‰ Drift velocity of electrons is given by Q S

 eE ‰ Metre bridge or slide metre bridge
vd = − τ Sl .
m The unknown resistance, R =
‰ Relationship between current and drift velocity 100 − l
I = nAe vd ‰ Comparison of emfs of two cells by using
‰
ε1 l1
Relationship between current density and drift potentiometer =
velocity ε 2 l2
J = nevd ‰ Determination of internal resistance of a cell by
l −l 
| vd | qEτ / m qτ potentiometer r =  1 2  R
‰ Mobility, µ =
E
=
E
=
m  l2 
electric work done
‰ Resistance ‰ Electric power P =
time taken
1 V2
‰ Conducance : G = . P = VI = I 2 R = .
R R
‰ The resistance of a conductor is (Electricity, Class 10)
m l l m
R= 2 =ρ where ρ = 2 MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
ne τ A A ne τ
‰ Conduciviy : ‰ Force on a charged particle in a uniform electric
 
1 ne τ2
 vd e τ  eld F = qE
σ=
ρ
=
m
= neµ  As µ = E = m  ‰ Force on a charged particle in a uniform
  
‰ If the conductor is in the form of wire of length magneic eld F = q ( v × B ) or F = qvB sin θ
l and a radius r, then its resistance is ‰ Motion of a charged particle in a uniform
magneic eld
(i) Radius of circular path is
‰ If a conductor has mass m, volume V and
density d, then its resistance R is
(ii) Time period of revolution is
1 qB
(Electricity, Class 10) (iii) The frequency is υ = =
T 2 πm
‰ A cylindrical tube of length l has inner and (iv) The angular frequency is
outer radii r1 and r2 respectively. The resistance
between its end faces is Bq
‰ Cyclotron frequency, υ =
ρl 2πm
R= .
π ( r22 − r12 ) ‰ Biot Savart’s law
 
‰ Relationship between J, s and E  µ 0 Idl sin θ  µ 0 I ( dl × r )
J = sE dB = or dB =
4π r2 4π r3
‰ The resistance of a conductor at temperature
‰ The magneic eld B at a point due to a straight
t°C is given by Rt = R0 (1 + at + bt2)
wire o nie lengh carrying curren I at a
‰ Resistors in series Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 perpendicular distance r is
1 1 1 1
‰ Resistors in parallel = + + . µ0I
Rp R1 R2 R3 B= [sin α + sin β]
4πr
(Electricity, Class 10)

Physics 3
‰ The magneic eld a a poin on he axis o he ‰ If a is the angle between plane of the coil and
circular current carrying coil is he magneic eld, hen orque on he coil is
µ 0 2πNIa 2 t = NIAB cosa = MB cosa
B=
4π (a 2 +x 2 ) 3 / 2 ‰ Workdone in rotating the coil through an angle
‰ Magneic eld a he cenre due o curren q rom he eld direcion is
carrying circular arc W = MB (1 – cos q)
µ0 Iφ ‰ Potential energy of a magnetic dipole
B= .  
4 πa U = − M ⋅ B = − MB cos θ
‰ An electron revolving around the central
‰ The magneic eld a he cenre o a circular
nucleus in an atom has a magnetic moment and
coil of radius a carrying current I is
it is given by
µ 0 2 πI µ 0 I
B= =
4π a 2a
‰ Conversion of galvanometer into a ammeter
If the circular coil consists of N turns, then
µ 0 2 πNI µ 0 NI  Ig 
B= = S= G
4π a 2a  I − Ig 
  ‰ Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter
‰ Ampere’s circuital law ∫ B ⋅ dl = µ0 I .
V
‰ R= −G
Magneic eld due o an inniely long sraigh Ig
solid cylindrical wire of radius a, carrying ‰ In order to increase the range of voltmeter n
current I times the value of resistance to be connected in
series with galvanometer is R = (n – 1)G.
(a) Magneic eld a a poin ouside he wire
µ0I ‰ Magnetic dipole moment 
i.e. (r > a) is B = 
2πr M = m (2l )
(b) Magneic eld a a poin inside he wire ‰ The magneic eld due o a bar magnet at any
µ Ir poin on he axial line (end on posiion) is
i.e. (r < a) is B = 0 2
2πa µ 0 2 Mr
Baxial =
(c) Magneic eld a a poin on he surace o a 4π (r 2 − l 2 ) 2
µ0 I For short magnet l2 << r2
wire i.e. (r = a) is B =
2 πa
‰ Force on a current carrying conductor in a µ 0 2M
Baxial =
uniorm magneic eld 4πr 3
   The direction of Baxial is along SN.
F = I ( l × B) or F = IlB sinq ‰ The magneic eld due o a bar magne a any
‰ When two parallel conductors separated by a point on the equatorial line (board-side on
distance r carry currents I1 and I2, the magnetic position) of the bar magnet is
eld o one will exer a orce on he oher. The µ0 M
force per unit length on either conductor is Bequatorial =
4π (r 2 + l 2 ) 3 / 2
µ 0 2I 1 I 2 For short magnet
f =
4π r µ0 M
‰ The orce o aracion or repulsion acing on Bequatorial =
4π r 3
each conductor of length l due to currents in The direction of Bequatorial is parallel to NS.
µ 2I I ‰ In moving coil galvanometer the current I
two parallel conductor is F = 0 1 2 l.
4π r passing through the galvanometer is directly
‰ When two charges q1 and q2 respectively proporional o is deecion (q).
moving with velocities v1 and v2 are at a
I ∝ q or, I = Gq.
distance r apart, then the force acting between
k
them is where G = = galvanometer constant
NAB
µ 0 q1q2 v1v2
F=
4π r2 ‰ Curren sensiiviy :
‰ Torque on a current carrying coil placed in a
uniorm magneic eld
‰ Volage sensiiviy :
t = NIABsinq = MBsinq

4 Physics
 MAGNETISM AND MATTER where M is he coefcien o muual inducance.
The emf induced in the secondary coil is given
‰ Gauss’s law for magnetism by
 
φ= ∑ B ⋅ ∆S = 0 dI P
εS = − M
all area dt
elements ∆S
where M is he coefcien o muual inducance.
‰ Horizonal componen :
BH = B cosd ‰ Coefcien o coupling (K) :
M
‰ Magnetic intensity K=
B = mH L1L2
‰ Intensity of magnetisation ‰ The coefcien o muual inducance o wo
Magnetic moment M long co-axial solenoids, each o lengh l, area of
I= =
Volume V cross section A, wound on air core is
‰ Magnetic susceptibility µ 0 N1 N 2 A
I M=
χm = l
H ‰ Energy stored in an inductor
‰ Magnetic permeability
B 1 2
µ= U= LI
H 2
‰ Relaive permeabiliy : ‰ During the growth of current in a LR circuit is
I = I0 (1 – e–Rt/L) = I0(1 – e–t/t)
where I0 is he maximum value o curren,
‰ Relationship between magnetic permeability t = L/R = time constant of LR circuit.
and susceptibility ‰ During the decay of current in a LR circuit is
µ I = I0e–Rt/L = I0e–t/t
µ r = 1 + χm with µ r =
µ0 ‰ During charging of capacitor through resistor
C
‰ Curie law : χ m = T q = q0(1 – e–t/RC) = q0(1 – e–t/t)
C where q0 is he maximum value o charge.
χm = (T > TC ) t = RC is the time constant of CR circuit.
T − TC
‰ During discharging of capacitor through resistor
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION q = q0e–t/RC = q0e–t/t
‰ Magneic Flux ALTERNATING CURRENT
 
φ = B ⋅ A = BA cos θ
‰ Mean or average value of alternating current or
‰ Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
dφ voltage over one complete cycle
ε=− T
dt
‰ When a conducting rod of length l is rotated
∫ I0 sin ωt dt
I m or I or I av = 0
T =0
perpendicular o a uniorm magneic eld B, then
induced emf between the ends of the rod is ∫ dt
0
T

∫ V0 sin ωt dt
|e| = Bu (pl ) = BuA 2 Vm or V or Vav = 0
T =0
‰ The self induced emf is ∫ dt
0
dφ dI ‰ Average value o alernaing curren or rs
ε=− =−L
dt dt half cycle is
‰ Self inductance of a circular coil is T/2

µ N 2 πR ∫ I 0 sin ωt dt
L= 0 2I0
2 I av = 0
= = 0.637 I 0
T/2 π
‰ Let IP be he curren owing hrough primary ∫ dt
coil at any instant. If fS is he ux linked wih 0
‰ Similarly, for alternating voltage, the average
secondary coil then
value over rs hal cycle is
fS ∝ IP or fS = MIP

Physics 5
 T/2 1
∫ V0 sin ωtdt υr =
2V 2π LC
Vav = 0
= 0 = 0.637V0
T/2 π
∫ dt
0 ‰ Quality factor
‰ Average value of alternating current for second
cycle is
T

∫ I 0 sin ωtdt
T/2 2I0
I av = =− = − 0.637 I 0
T π
∫ dt
T/2

‰ Similarly, for alternating voltage, the average ‰ Average power (Pav) :

value over second half cycle is V0 I 0
Pav = Vrms I rms cos φ = cos φ
T 2
∫ V0 sin ωtdt
2V0 ‰ Apparent power : Pv = Vrms I rms = V0 I 0
Vav = T/2
=− = − 0.637 V0 2
T π
∫ dt ‰ Efciency o a ransormer,
T/2
‰ Mean value or average value of alternating output power VS IS
η= = .
current over any half cycle input power VP I P
2I0
I av = = 0.637 I 0
π ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
2I0
I av = = 0.637 I 0
π ‰ The displacement current is given by
‰ Root mean square (rms) value of alternating
current
I0 ‰ Four Maxwell’s equaions are :
I rms or I v = = 0.707 I 0 € Gauss’s law for electrostatics
2
Similarly, for alternating voltage
V0
Vrms = = 0.707 V0 € Gauss’s law for magnetism
2
‰ € Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
  dφB
‰ Inducive reacance : ∫ E ⋅ dl =−
dt
XL = wL = 2puL € Maxwell-Ampere’s circuial law
1 1
‰ Capaciive reacance : XC = =
ωC 2 πυC
The impedance of the series LCR circuit. ‰ The ampliudes o elecric and magneic elds

( )
1
2 in free space, in electromagnetic waves are
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2 = R 2 + ωL − related by
ωC
1 1 E0
∴ Admittance = or Y = E0 = cB0 or B0 =
Impedance Z c
‰ The speed of electromagnetic wave in free
1
∴ Susceptance = space is
Reactance 1
1 c=
€ Inductive susceptance = µ0ε0
Inductive reactance
1 1 ‰ The speed of electromagnetic wave in a
or SL = =
X L ωL medium is
1
€ Capacitive susceptance =
Capacitive reactance
1 1
or SC = = = ωC
XC 1/ ωC ‰ The energy densiy o he elecric eld is
‰ The resonant frequency is 1
uE = ε E2
2 0

6 Physics
‰ The energy densiy o magneic eld is ‰ Supercial magnicaion :
1 B2 area of image
uB = mS = = m2
2 µ0 area of object
‰ Average energy densiy o he elecric eld is 1 1 1
‰ Mirror's formula + =
1 u v f
< uE > = ε 0 E02
4
‰ Newton’s formula is f 2 = xy,
‰ Average energy densiy o he magneic eld
sin i 1
is ‰ Laws o reracion : = µ2
2 sin r
1B 1
< uB > = 0
= ε E2 ‰ Absolue reracive index :
4 µ0 4 0 0
‰ Average energy density of electromagnetic
wave is
1
<u>= ε E2
2 0 0
‰ Intensity of electromagnetic wave sin (i − r )
Lateral shift, d = t
1 cos r
I = < u > c = ε 0 E02 c
2 (Light, Refection and Reraction, Class 10)
‰ Momentum of electromagnetic wave ‰ I here is an ink spo a he boom o a glass
U slab, it appears to be raised by a distance
p= (complete absorption)
c
2U
p= (complete reflection )
c
‰ The poynting vector is ‰ When the object is situated in rarer medium,
 1  
S=
µ0
(E × B) the relation between m1 (reracive index o
rarer medium) m2 (reracive index o he
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS spherical refracting surface) and R (radius of
curvature) with the object and image distances
‰ When two plane mirrors are inclined at an is given by
angle q and an object is placed between them, µ1 µ 2 µ 2 − µ1
the number of images of an object are formed − + =
u v R
due o muliple reecions.
‰ When the object is situated in denser medium,
360° Position of Number of the relation between m1, m2, R, u and v can be
n=
θ object images obtained by interchanging m1 and m2. In that
case, the relation becomes
even anywhere n–1
µ 2 µ1 µ1 − µ 2 µ µ µ − µ1
odd symmetric n–1 − + = or − 1 + 2 = 2
u v R v u R
asymmetric n ‰ Lens maker’s formula
360° 1  1 1 
‰ If is a fraction, the number of images = (µ − 1)  − 
θ f  R1 R2 
formed will be equal to its integral part. ‰ Thin lens formula
(Light, Class 8)
‰ The focal length of a spherical mirror of radius
R is given by ‰ Linear magnicaion
size of image ( I ) v
m= = .
size of object (O) u
‰ Transverse or linear magnicaion
‰ Power of a lens
size of image v
m= =−
size of object u
‰ Longiudinal magnicaion : ‰ Combination of thin lenses in contact
dv 1 1 1 1
mL = − = + + + ....
du F f1 f 2 f 3

Physics 7
‰ The total power of the combination is given by Length of tube, L = vo + fe
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... ‰ When he nal image is ormed a leas disance
‰ The oal magnicaion o he combinaion is of distinct vision,
given by
m = m1 × m2 × m3 ....
‰ When two thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 where uo and vo represent the distance of object
are placed coaxially and separaed by a disance and image from the objective lens, fe is the focal
d, the focal length of a combination is given by length of an eye lens.
1 1 1 d
= + − .  f D 
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2 Length of the tube, L = vo +  e 
 fe + D 
‰ In terms of power P = P1 + P2 – dP1P2. ‰ Astronomial telescope
(Light, Refection and Reraction, Class 10) fo
magnifying power, M =
fe
‰ If I1, I2 are the two sizes of image of the object of
size O, then O = I1I 2  fD 
Length of tube, L = fo +  e
‰ The reracive index o he maerial o he  fe + D 
prism is
WAVE OPTICS
 ( A + δm ) 
sin 
µ=  2  ‰ For constructive interference (i.e. formation of
sin ( )
A
2
bright fringes)
€ For nth bright fringe,
where A is the angle of prism and dm is the angle
d
of minimum deviation. Pah dierence = xn = nλ
D
δV + δ R
‰ Mean deviation δ = . where n = 0 for central bright fringe
2
n = 1 or rs brigh ringe,
‰ Dispersive power,
n = 2 for second bright fringe and so on
angular dispersion (δV − δR )
ω= d = distance between two slits
mean deviation (δ) D = distance of slits from the screen
µV − µ R
ω= , xn = distance of nth bright fringe from the
(µ − 1)
centre.
µ + µR D
where µ = V = mean refractive index ∴ xn = nλ
2 d
‰ Magnifying power, of simple microscope ‰ For destructive interference (i.e. formation of
angle subtended by image at the eye dark fringes).
M=
angle subtended by thee object at the eye € For nth dark fringe,
tan β β d λ
= =
pah dierence = xn = ( 2n − 1)
tan α α D 2
where
‰ When he image is ormed a inniy (ar
n = 1 or rs dark ringe,
point), D
M= n = 2 for 2nd dark fringe and so on.
f
xn = distance of nth dark fringe from the centre
‰ When the image is formed at the least distance
λ D
of distinct vision D (near point), ∴ xn = ( 2n −1)
2 d
‰ Fringe width, β = λD
d
‰ Magnifying power of a compound microscope β λ
‰ Angular fringe width, θ = =
M = mo × me D d
‰ If W1, W2 are widths of two slits, I1, I2 are
‰ When he nal image is ormed a inniy
intensities of light coming from two slits; a, b are
(normal adjustment),
the amplitudes of light from these slits, then
vo  D 
M= W1 I1 a 2
uo  f e  = =
W2 I 2 b 2

8 Physics
 I max ( a + b)2 (f0), hen maximum kineic energy o he
= emied elecron is given as
I min ( a − b)2
I − I min Kmax = hu – f0
‰ Fringe visibility V = max For u > u0 or eV0 = hu – f0 = hu – hu0
I max + I min
1 1 
‰ When entire apparatus of Young’s double or eV0 = K max = hc  − .
sli experimen is immersed in a medium o  λ λ0 
reracive index m, then fringe width becomes ‰ de Broglie wavelength,
λ′D λD β
β′ = = = ‰ If the rest mass of a particle is m0, its de Broglie
d µd µ
‰ When a thin transparent plate of thickness t and wavelength is given by
1/ 2
reracive idnex m is placed in the path of one  v2 
of the interfering waves, fringe width remains h1 − 2 
λ=  c 
unaeced bu he enire paern shis by m0 v
D β ‰ In terms of kinetic energy K, de Broglie
∆x = (µ −1) t = (µ − 1) t
d λ h
wavelength is given by λ = .
‰ Diracion due o a single sli 2mK
Widh o secondary maxima or minima ‰ If a particle of charge q is accelerated through a
λD λf poenial dierence V, its de Broglie wavelength
β= =
where a a h
is given by λ = .
a = width of slit 2mqV
D = distance of screen from the slit
V )
( 150
1/ 2
f = focal lengh o lens or diraced ligh For an electron, λ = Å.
‰ For a gas molecule of mass m at temperature
‰ Widh o cenral maximum
by
‰ Angular widh ringe o cenral maximum T kelvin, its de Broglie wavelength is given
2λ h
= . λ= , where k is he Boltmann
a 3mkT constant.
‰ Angular ringe widh o secondary maxima or
λ ATOMS
minima =
a
a2 ‰ Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom
‰ Fresnel distance, ZF =
λ N ntZ 2 e 4
‰ Resolving power of a microscope N (θ) = i
(8 πε 0 ) r K 2 sin 4 (θ / 2)
2 2

1 2µ sin θ
Resolving power = = The frequency of incident alpha particles
d λ
‰ Resolving power of a telescope scaered by an angle q or greater
1 D 2
Resolving power = =  Ze 2  2θ
dθ 1.22 λ f = πnt 
4 πε K  cot 2
 0 
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER ‰ The scaering angle q of the a particle and
hc impact parameter b are related as
‰ Energy of a photon E = hυ =
λ Ze 2 cot(θ / 2)
‰ Momentum of photon is b=
E hυ 4 πε0 K
p= =
c c E hυ ‰ Distance of closest approach
‰ The moving mass m of photon is m = = .
c2 c2 2 Ze 2
‰ r0 =
Stopping potential 4 πε0 K
1 2
K max = eV0 = mvmax ‰ Angular momentum of the electron in a
2 stationary orbit is an integral multiple of h/2p.
‰ Einstein’s photoelectric equation
If a light of frequency u is incident on a nh nh
i.e., L = or, mvr =
photosensitive material having work function 2π 2π

Physics 9
‰ The frequency of a radiation from electrons ‰ Balmer series
makes a transition from higher to lower orbit Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
E − E1 transition of electron from higher energy
υ= 2 levels (n2 = 3, 4, ....∞) to second energy level
h
‰ Bohr’s formulae (n1 = 2) constitute Balmer series.
(i) Radius of nth orbit 1 1 1
=R 2 − 2
λ 2 n
 2
where n2 = 3, 4, 5...........,∞
‰ Paschen series
(ii) Velocity of electron in the nth orbit Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
1 2 πZe 2 2.2 × 106 Z transition of electron from higher energy
vn = = m/s. levels (n2 = 4, 5, .....,∞) to third energy level (n1
4 πε0 nh n = 3) constitute Paschen series.
(iii) The kinetic energy of the electron in the nth 1 1 1 1
= −
orbit λ R  32 n2 
 2
‰ Bracke series
Emission spectral lines corresponding
13.6 Z 2 to the transition of electron from higher
= eV.
n2 energy levels (n2 = 5, 6, 7,.....,∞) to fourth
(iv) The potential energy of electron in nth orbit energy level (n1 = 4) consiue Bracke
series. 1 1 1
 
=R 2 − 2
λ 4 n
 2
where n2 = 5, 6, 7..........,∞
−27.2 Z2
= eV. ‰ Pfund series
n2 Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
(v) Total energy of electron in nth orbit transition of electron from higher energy
levels (n2 = 6, 7, 8,.......,∞) o h energy level
(n1 = 5) constitute Pfund series.
1 1 1
=R 2 − 2
(vi) Frequency of electron in nth orbit λ
5 n2 
2 where n2 = 6, 7,...........,∞
 1  4 π2 Z 2 e 4m 6.62 × 1015 Z2
υn =   = ‰ Number of spectral lines due to transition of
 4 πε0  n3h 3 n3
electron from nth orbit to lower orbit is
(vii) Wavelength of radiation in the transition n(n − 1)
N= .
from 2
n2 → n1 is given by 2
13.6 Z
‰ Ionization energy = eV.
1  1 1 n2
= RZ2  2 − 2 
λ n
 1 n2  13.6 Z 2
‰ Ionization potential = volt.
where R is called Rydberg’s constant. n2
‰ Energy quantisation
n2 h 2
En = where n = 1, 2 , 3 , .........
8mL2
‰ Lyman series NUCLEI
Emission spectral lines corresponding to
the transition of electron from higher energy ‰ Nuclear radius, R = R0A1/3
levels (n2 = 2, 3, ...,∞) o rs energy level (n1 = where R0 is a constant and A is the mass
1) constitute Lyman series. number
1 1 1 ‰ Nuclear density,
=R 2 − 2
λ
1 n2  mass nuclear
where n2 = 2, 3, 4, ......,∞ ρ=
volume of nucleus

10 Physics
‰ Mass defect is given by ‰ The current in the junction diode is given by
Dm = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN] I = I0 (eeV/kT –1)
‰ The binding energy of nucleus is given by where k = Boltmann consan, I0 = reverse
Eb = Dmc2 = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN]c2 saturation current.
= [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN] × 931.49 MeV/u. In forward biasing, V is positive and low,
‰ The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus eeV/kT > > 1, then forward current,
= Eb/A If = I0 (eeV/kT )
‰ Law of radioactive decay In reverse biasing, V is negative and high
dN eeV/kT < < 1, then reverse current,
= −λN ( t ) or N ( t ) = N 0 e − λt
dt Ir = – I0
‰ Half-life of a radioactive substance is given by ‰ Dynamic resistance
ln 2 0.693
T1 / 2 = = rd = ∆V
λ λ ∆I
‰ Mean life or average life of a radioactive Hal wave recier
substance is given by ‰ Peak value of current is
1 T1 / 2 Vm
τ= = = 1.44T1 / 2 Im =
λ 0.693 rf + RL
‰ Aciviy : R = –dN/dt
where rf is the forward diode resistance, RL is
‰ Activity law R(t) = R0e–lt
the load resistance and Vm is the peak value of
where R0 = lN0 is the decay rate at t = 0 and the alternating voltage.
R = Nl. ‰ rms value of current is
‰ Fraction of nuclei left undecayed after n half Im
Irms =
live is 2

( ) = ( 21 )
n t /T ‰
N 1 1/ 2
or t = nT1/2
dc value of current is
= Im
N0 2 Idc =
‰ Neutron reproduction factor (K) π
‰ Peak inverse voltage is
rate of production of neutrons
= P.I.V = Vm
rate of loss of neutrons
‰ dc value of voltage is
Im
SEMICONDUCTOR ELETRONICS, MATERIALS, Vdc = Idc RL = R
π L
DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Full wave recier
‰ Forbidden energy gap or forbidden band ‰ Peak value of current is
Vm
Eg = hυ = hυ Im =
λ rf + RL
‰ The intrinsic concentration ni varies with ‰ dc value of current is
temperature T as 2Im
Idc =
3 − Eg / kT π
ni2 = A0T e ‰ rms value of current is
Im
‰ The conductivity of the semiconductor is given Irms =
by s = e(neme + nhmh) 2
‰ Peak inverse voltage is
where me and mh are the electron and hole
P.I.V = 2Vm
mobilities, ne and nh are the electron and hole
‰ dc value of voltage is
densities, e is the electronic charge.
2Im
‰ The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor Vdc = Idc RL = R
π L
is Ripple frequency
si = nie(me + mh) rms value of the components of wave
r=
‰ The conductivity of n-type semiconductor is average or dc value
sn = eNdme
2
‰ The conductivity of p-type semiconductor is I 
r =  rms  − 1
sp = eNamh  Idc 

Physics 11
‰ For hal wave recier, Im / 2 π
I I Form factor = = = 1.57
Irms = m , Idc = m Im / π 2
2 π
2
‰ For ull wave recier,
I /2
r =  m  −1 Im 2I
 Im / π  Irms = , Idc = m
2 π
= 1.21
Im / 2 π
‰ For ull wave recier, Form factor = = = 1.11
2Im / π 2 2
Im 2I
Irms = , Idc = m
2 π Common emiter amplifer
‰ dc current gain
2
I / 2  IC
r=  m −1 βdc =
 2 Im / π  IB
‰ ac current gain
= 0.482 ∆IC
βac =
Recicaion efciency ∆IB
dc power delivered to load
η= ‰ Voltage gain
ac input power from transformerr secondary
Vo R
‰ For a hal wave recier, Av = = − βac × o
Vi Ri
dc power delivered to the load is ‰ Power gain
( )R
2
2 I output power (Po )
Pdc = Idc RL = m L Ap =
π input power (Pi )
Input ac power is Vo
‰ Voltage gain (in dB) = 20 log10
( I2 ) (r
2 Vi
2 m
Pac = Irms (r f + RL ) = f + RL ) = 20 log10 Av
Po
Recicaion efciency ‰ Power gain (in dB) = 10 log
Pi
Pdc ( Im / π)2 RL
η= = × 100% Common base amplifer
Pac ( I / 2)2 (r + R )
m f L ‰ dc current gain
40.6 IC
= % αdc =
1 + r f / RL IE
‰ ac current gain
‰ For a ull wave recier,  ∆I 
αac =  C 
dc power delivered to the load is  ∆I E 

( 2πI ) R
2 ‰ Voltage gain
2 m
Pdc = Idc RL = L Vo R
Av = = αac × o
Vi Ri
Input ac power is ‰ Power gain
2
2 I  output power (Po )
Pac = Irms (r f + RL ) =  m  (r f + RL ) Ap =
 2 input power (Pi )
Recicaion efciency = aac × Av
P ( 2 Im / π)2 RL 81.2 ‰ Relationship between a and b
η = dc = × 100% = %
1 + r f / RL
Pac
(Im / 2 )2 (r f + RL ) ;
If rf << RL,
Maximum recicaion efciency, h = 81.2% Name Symbol Truth Boolean
Form factor of gate Table expression

Irms OR A B Y Y=A+B
‰ Form factor =
Idc 0 0 0
‰ For hal wave recier, 0 1 1
Im I 1 0 1
I rms = , Idc = m
2 π 1 1 1

12 Physics
AND A B Y Y=A·B area covered = pd2 = p2hR
Population covered = population density × area
0 0 0
covered
0 1 0
‰ The maximum line o sigh disance dM between
1 0 0
1 1 1 two antennas having heights hT and hR above
the earth is given by
NOT A Y
Y=A
0 1
1 0 where hT is he heigh o he ransmiing
NAND A B Y antenna and hR is the height of the receiving
Y = A⋅B antenna and R is the radius of the earth.
0 0 1
0 1 1 ‰ The amplitude modulated signal contains
1 0 1 three frequencies, viz. uc, uc + um and uc – um.
1 1 0 The rs requency is he carrier requency
NOR A B Y Thus, the process of modulation does not
Y = A+B change the original carrier frequency but
0 0 1
0 1 0 produces two new frequencies (uc + um)
1 0 0 and(uc – um) which are known as sideband
1 1 0 frequencies.
XOR A B Y uSB = uc ± um
Y = A⋅B + A⋅B ‰ Frequency of lower side band
(also 0 0 0
called 0 1 1 uLSB = uc – um
exclusive 1 0 1 ‰ Frequency of higher side band
OR gate) 1 1 0 uUSB = uc + um
‰ Bandwidth of AM signal = uUSB – uLSB = 2um
XNOR A B Y
Y = A⋅B + A⋅B ‰ Average power per cycle in the carrier wave is
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0 where R is the resistance
1 1 1 ‰ Total power per cycle in the modulated wave
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
 µ2 
Pt = Pc  1 + 
2 
‰ Critical frequency, uc = g(Nmax)1/2 ‰ If It is rms value of total modulated current
where Nmax he maximum number densiy o and Ic is the rms value of unmodulated carrier
electron/m3. current, then 2
It µ
‰ Maximum usable requency = 1+
Ic 2
υc
MUF = = υc sec i ‰ For detection of AM wave, the essential
cos i
‰ The skip distance is given by condition is
2
υ 
Dskip = 2 h  0  − 1
 υc  ‰ The instantaneous frequency of the frequency
modulated wave is
where h is he heigh o reecing layer o Vm
atmosphere, u0 = maximum requency o υ(t ) = υc + k sin ωmt
2π
electromagnetic waves used and uc is the critical where k is the proportionality constant.
frequency for that layer. ‰ The maximum and minimum values of the
‰ If h is he heigh o he ransmiing anenna, frequency is
then the distance to the horizon is given by k Vm k Vm
υmax = υc + and υmin = υc −
2π 2π
where R is the radius of the earth. ‰ Frequency deviation
k Vm
For TV signal, δ = υmax − υc = υc − υmin =
2π

Physics JJJ 13