16/1/2022

Constraint Management
&
Line Balancing

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Constraint Management
What is a Constraint?
Constraint
• Any factor that limits the performance of a system and restricts
its output.
Bottleneck
• A capacity constraint resource (CCR) whose available capacity
limits the organization’s ability to meet the product volume,
product mix, or demand fluctuations required by the
marketplace

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In Fig. (a), four different operations each have a capacity of 10 units per hour, for a total
capacity of 40 units per hour. However, the fifth operation can only process 30 units per
hour.
If the other operations operate at capacity, a line of units waiting to be processed by
the bottleneck operation will build up at the rate of 10 per hour.

(a)
FIGURE: Bottleneck operation
(Stevenson, William J., et al., 2018)

(b)

In Fig (b), the middle process, because its capacity is lower than that of the others,
constrains the system to its capacity of 10 units per hour. Hence it is a bottleneck.
Note, though, that the potential for increasing the capacity of the process is only to 15
units per hour. Beyond that, operation 3’s capacity would limit process capacity to 15
units per hour.

The Theory of Constraints

• The Theory of Constraints (TOC)
– A systematic management approach that focuses on
actively managing those constraints that impede a
firm’s progress toward its goal

• Throughput time
– Total elapsed time from the start to the finish of a job or
a customer being processed at one or more work
centers

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Example
• Managers at the First Community Bank are attempting to shorten the time it
takes customers with approved loan applications to get their paperwork
processed. The flowchart for this process is shown in the next slide.

• Approved loan applications first arrive at activity or step 1, where they are checked
for completeness and put in order.

• At step 2, the loans are categorized into different classes according to the loan
amount and whether they are being requested for personal or commercial
reasons.

• While credit checking commences at step 3, loan application data are entered in
parallel into the information system for record-keeping purposes at step 4.

• Finally, all paperwork for setting up the new loan is finished at step 5. [The time
taken in minutes is given in parentheses].

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Figure 5.1 Processing Credit Loan Applications at First Community Bank

Which single step is the bottleneck?

The management is also interested in knowing the maximum number of
approved loans this system can process in a 5-hour work day.
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• We define the bottleneck as step 2, which has the highest time (20
min) per loan processed.
• The throughput time to complete an approved loan application is 15
+ 20 + max(15, 12) + 10 = 60 minutes.
• The actual time taken for completing an approved loan will be
longer than 60 minutes due to nonuniform arrival of applications,
variations in actual processing times, and the related factors.
• The capacity for loan completions is derived by translating the
“minutes per customer” at the bottleneck step to “customer per
hour.” At First Community Bank, it is 3 customers per hour because
the bottleneck step 2 can process only 1 customer every 20
minutes (60/3).

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• Step 2 is the bottleneck constraint.

• The bank will be able to complete a maximum of only three
loan accounts per hour, or 15 new loan accounts, in a 5-hour
day.
• Management can increase the flow of loan applications by
increasing the capacity of Step 2 up to the point where another
step becomes the bottleneck.

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Assignment of work to stations in a line as to achieve the

desired output rate with the smallest number of workstations

The goal is to obtain workstations with well-balanced workload

Precedence Diagram
• A diagram that allows one to visualize immediate
predecessors better
IPE 3205: Production Planning & Control 160

Ahsanullah University of Science & Technology IPE 3205: Production Planning & Control

1
Determine time required to produce a unit, c=
r

Calculate Maximum Cycle Time, 𝑇= 𝑡

∑𝑡
Required number of stations, 𝑛=
𝑐
Determine Idle Time, 𝐼 = (𝑛 × 𝑐) − 𝑡

𝑇
Calculate Efficiency, Ɛ= × 100%
𝑛×𝑐

IPE 3205: Production Planning & Control 161

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Example
Green Grass, Inc., a manufacturer of lawn and garden equipment, is
designing an assembly line to produce a new fertilizer spreader, the Big
Broadcaster. Using the following information on the production process,
construct a precedence diagram for the Big Broadcaster.
Work Immediate
Description Time (sec)
Element Predecessor(s)

A Bolt leg frame to hopper 40 None

B Insert impeller shaft 30 A

C Attach axle 50 A
D Attach agitator 40 B
E Attach drive wheel 6 B
F Attach free wheel 25 C
G Mount lower post 15 C
H Attach controls 20 D, E
I Mount nameplate 18 F, G
Blank Blank Total 244 Blank
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Example
Figure Precedence Diagram for Assembling the Big Broadcaster
Immediate
Work Time
Description Predecessor(
Element (sec)
s)
Bolt leg frame to
A 40 None
hopper
B Insert impeller shaft 30 A
C Attach axle 50 A
D Attach agitator 40 B
E Attach drive wheel 6 B
F Attach free wheel 25 C
G Mount lower post 15 C
H Attach controls 20 D, E
I Mount nameplate 18 F, G
Blank Blank Total 244 Blank

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Managing Constraints in a Line Process

• Desired output rate

– Ideally is matched to the staffing or production plan
• Cycle time
– Maximum time allowed for work a unit at each station
1
c
r
where
c = cycle time in hours
r = desired output rate
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Managing Constraints in a Line Process

• Theoretical Minimum (TM)

– A benchmark or goal for the smallest number of stations
possible

TM 
t
c
where
Σt = total time required to assemble each unit
c = cycle time

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Managing Constraints in a Line Process

• Idle time
– The total unproductive time for all stations in the
assembly of each unit
Idle time = nc − Σt
where
n = number of stations
c = cycle time
Σt = total time required to assemble each unit

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Managing Constraints in a Line Process

• Efficiency
– The ratio of productive time to total time, expressed as a percent

Efficiency (%) 
 t (100)
nc

• Balance Delay
– The amount by which efficiency falls short of 100 percent
– Balance delay (%) = 100 − Efficiency

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Example
Green Grass’s plant manager just received marketing’s
latest forecasts of Big Broadcaster sales for the next year.
She wants its production line to be designed to make 2,400
spreaders per week for at least the next 3 months. The plant
will operate 40 hours per week.
a. What should be the line’s cycle time?
b. What is the smallest number of workstations that she could
hope for in designing the line for this cycle time?
c. Suppose that she finds a solution that requires only five
stations. What would be the line’s efficiency?

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a. First convert the desired output rate (2,400 units per week) to an
hourly rate by dividing the weekly output rate by 40 hours per
week to get units per hour. Then the cycle time is
Desired Output Rate, r = 2400 Units/Wk
= 2400 units/hr
5days × 8hrs
= 60 units/hr
1 1
c  ( hr unit )  1 minute unit  60 seconds unit
r 60
b. Now calculate the theoretical minimum for the number of stations
by dividing the total time, Σt, by the cycle time, c = 60 seconds.
Assuming perfect balance, we have

TM 
 t  244 seconds  4.067or 5 stations
c 60 seconds
c. Now calculate the efficiency of a five-station solution,
assuming for now that one can be found:

Efficiency 
 t (100)  244
(100)  81.3%
nc 5(60)
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Managing Constraints in a Line Process

• Finding a Solution
– The goal is to cluster the work elements into workstations so
that:
 The number of workstations required is minimized
 The precedence and cycle-time requirements are not violated

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Managing Constraints in a Line Process

Table 5.3 Heuristic Decision Rules in Assigning the Next Work Element to a
Workstation Being Created Create one station at a time. For the station now being
created, identify the unassigned work elements that qualify for assignment: They are
candidates if
1. All of their predecessors have been assigned to this station or stations already created.
2. Adding them to the workstation being created will not create a workload that exceeds the
cycle time.
Decision Rule Logic

Longest work element Picking the candidate with the longest time to complete is an effort to fit in the most difficult
elements first, leaving the ones with short times to “fill out” the station.
Shortest work element This rule is the opposite of the longest work element rule because it gives preference in
workstation assignments to those work elements that are quicker. It can be tried because no
single rule guarantees the best solution. It might provide another solution for the planner
to consider.

Most followers When picking the next work element to assign to a station being created, choose the element
that has the most followers (due to precedence requirements). In Figure 5.5, item C has three
There are other heuristic methods such as, shortest work element, most
followers (F, G, and I) whereas item D has only one follower (H). This rule seeks to maintain
flexibility so that good choices remain for creating the last few workstations at the end of the line.
followers, fewest followers etc.
Fewest followers Picking the candidate with the fewest followers is the opposite of the most followers rule.

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Managing Constraints in a Line Process

The theoretical minimum number of workstations is 5 and the cycle
time is 60 seconds, so this represents an optimal solution to the
problem.
Figure 5.6 Big Broadcaster Precedence Diagram Solution

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Application

A plant manager needs a design for Work Time Immediate

Element (sec) Predecessor
an assembly line to assembly a A 12 ―
new product that is being B 60 A
introduced. The time requirements C 36 ―
and immediate predecessors for D 24 ―
the work elements are as follows: E 38 C, D
F 72 B, E
G 14 ―
H 72 ―
I 35 G, H
J 60 I
K 12 F, J
Total = 435 Blank

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Application
Draw a precedence diagram, complete I, F, J, and K.
Work Time Immediate
Element (sec) Predecessor
A 12 ―
B 60 A
C 36 ―
D 24 ―
E 38 C, D
F 72 B, E
G 14 ―
H 72 ―
I 35 G, H
J 60 I
K 12 F, J
Total = 435 Blank

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Application

If the desired output rate is 30 units per hour, what are

the cycle time and theoretical minimum?

1 1
c  (3600)  120 sec unit
r 30

TM 
 t  435  3.6 or 4 stations
c 120

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Application

Suppose that we are fortunate enough to find a solution

with just four stations. What is the idle time per unit,
efficiency, and the balance delay for this solution?

Idle time = nc   t = 4(120)  435  45 seconds

Efficiency (%) =
 t (100)  435 (100) = 90.6%
nc 480
Balance delay (%) = 100  Efficiency  100  90.6  9.4%

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Application

Using trial and error, one possible solution is shown below.

Work Elements Cumulative Idle Time

Station Assigned Time (c = 120)
1 H, C, A 120 0
2 B, D, G 98 22
3 E, F 110 10
4 I, J, K 107 13
A fifth station is not
5 Blank Blank
needed

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Problem
A company is setting up an assembly line to produce 192 units per
8-hour shift. The following table identifies the work elements, times,
and immediate predecessors:
Work Element Time (sec) Immediate Predecessor(s)
A 40 None
B 80 A
C 30 D, E, F
D 25 B
E 20 B
F 15 B
G 120 A
H 145 G
I 130 H
J 115 C, I
Blank Total 720 Blank

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Problem

a. What is the desired cycle time (in seconds)?

b. What is the theoretical minimum number of stations?
c. Use trial and error to work out a solution, and show your
solution on a precedence diagram.
d. What are the efficiency and balance delay of the solution
found?

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Problem

a. Substituting in the cycle-time formula, we get

1 8hours
c  (3,600 sec unit)  150 sec unit
r 192units

b. The sum of the work-element times is 720 seconds,

so

TM 
t  720 sec unit
 4.8 or 5 stations
c 150 sec unit-station

which may not be achievable.

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Problem
c. Precedence Diagram Work Immediate
Element Predecessor(s)
A None
B A
C D, E, F
D B
E B
F B
G A
H G
I H
J C, I

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Solved Problem

Work-Element Time Cumulative Time Idle Time

Station Candidate(s) Choice
(sec) (sec) (c = 150 sec)

S1 A A 40 40 110

Blank B B 80 120 30

Blank D, E, F D 25 145 5

S2 E, F, G G 120 120 30

Blank E, F E 20 140 10

S3 F, H H 145 145 5

S4 F, I I 130 130 20

Blank F F 15 145 5

S5 C C 30 30 120

Blank J J 115 145 5

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Solved Problem
d. Calculating the efficiency, we get

Efficiency(%) 
 t (100)  720 sec unit
(100)
c 5 150 sec unit-station 
 96%

Thus, the balance delay is only 4 percent (100−96).

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