Principles of Combinational Logic - I

COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The electronic circuits which uses only two logic levels are called digital circuits. The two logic
levels are logic-1(5-Volt) and logic-0 (0-Volt). The logic gates are digital circuits having one or more
input signals and only one output signal. Interconnection of logic gates forms combinational circuits.
The digital systems such as the moderrn digital computers, digital control systems, digital communica-
tion systems, digital camera systems, digital display systems and so on are based on the principles of
digital techniques.

2.2 DEFINITION OF COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS

Digital circuits are classfied into the combinational circuits and sequential circuits. The digital
circuits in which the output depends only on the external inputs are called combinational logic
circuits. Combinational logic circuits are obtained by interconnecting logic gates. Fig. 1.1, shows the
block diagram of combinational logic circuits. There are n - inputs and m - outputs. The outputs of
combinational circuits at all time depends on the present inputs only. Examples of combinational cir-
cuits are decoders, multiplexers, arithmetic and logic unit and so on. The digital circuits in which the
output depends on both the external inputs and present states are called sequential logic circuits.
The exmples of sequential circuits are counters, registers, shift registers, random access memory
(RAM) and so on. In this text book we study both the combinational logic circuits and sequential logic
circuits.

1 1

2 2

3 3

n n

Fig. 1.1: Block Diagram of Combinational logic circuits.

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 Logic Design
2.2 BOOLEAN LAWS AND THEOREMS

Boolean algebra is a tool of expressing Boolean expressions mathematically that describe the opera-
tion of digital circuits. Digital circuits processes only two numbers namely 1's and 0's (binary number),
and Boolean algebra is a two-valued logic algebra based on a binary approach. The logic -1 and logic-
0, can be variously called as true-false, yes-no, on-off. All the computations performed by the digital
circuits follows the rules of Boolean algebra. Boolean algebra can also be used to simplify Boolean-
expressions that describe the digital circuits.
2.2.1 BASIC LAWS

The basic laws of the Boolean algebra are as follows.

a) The commutative laws

b) The associative laws
c) The distributive laws

The commutative laws

The commutative laws says, changing the position of variables does not change the final result. That is,

i) a + b = b + a
ii) a · b = b · a

Proof : Let a = 0, and b = 1, then

0+1=1+0
1=1
And
0 ·1=1·0
0=0

That is, changing the position of variables does not change the final result. Fig.2.1, shows the two input
OR and AND gates outputs are equal even when the position of input variable is changed.

Fig.2.1: Equivalent OR and AND gates of commutative law.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
The associative laws

The associative laws says, the order of grouping of variables does not change the final result. That is,

i) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
ii) a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c

Proof: We prove associative law using truth table as shown table (2.1).

From the table 2.1, we observe that the result of b+c and a+b are
different but the over all result of a + (b + c) at column-3 is same as the result of (a + b) + c at column-
5. Thus we proved that a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. Similarly, using the truth table, it can be verified that
a (bc) = (ab) c. Fig.2.2, shows the two input OR and AND gates outputs are equal even when the
position of input variable is changed.

a a
b f =
b f
c c

a a
b f =
b f
c c

Fig.2.2: Equivalent OR and AND gates of associative law.

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 Logic Design
The Distributive Laws
The ‘+’(OR) and ‘ · ’(AND) operations are distributive over the other. That is as follows.
(i) a + (b · c) = (a + b) (a + c) and
(ii) a · (b + c) = a·b + a·c
Proof: Now we prove this by using truth table shown in table (1.2), that a + (b · c)
= (a + b) (a + c).

From the second column and fourth column of table, we find that a + (b · c)
= (a + b) (a + c). Similarly, by using the truth table, it can be proved that a · (b + c) = a·b + a·c.
Fig.2.3, shows the two input OR and AND gates outputs are equal even when the position of input
variable is changed.

Fig.2.2: Equivalent OR and AND gates of associative law.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
OR Opeartions
There are four basic Boolean laws based OR operations. They are
i) a+a = a
ii) a+1 = 1
iii) a+0 = a
iv) a + a’ = 1
We prove these fourBoolean OR operations as follows.

Proof : (i) a + a = a
In Boolean algebra, any variable ORed with itself equals the variable.
To prove this, let us consider a = 0
Then a+a = a
0+0 = 0
Thus, when the variable a is 0, then the result is also 0.
Now. Consider a = 1
Then a+a =a
1+1 =1
Thus, when the variable a is 1, then the result is also 1.

Proof : (ii) a + 1 = 1
In Boolean algebra, any variable ORed with logic 1, equals the variable.
To prove this, let us consider a = 0
Then a+a = a
0+0 = 0
Thus, when the variable a is 0, then the result is also 0.
Now. Consider a = 1
Then a+a =a
1+1 =1
Thus, when the variable a is 1, then the result is also 1.

Proof : (iii) a + 0 = a
In Boolean algebra, any variable ORed with logic 0, equals the variable.
To prove this, let us consider a = 0
Then a+a = a
0+0 = 0
Thus, when the variable a is 0, then the result is also 0.
Now. Consider a = 1
Then a+a =a
1+1 =1
Thus, when the variable a is 1, then the result is also 1.

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 Logic Design
Proof : (iv) a + a’ = 1
In Boolean algebra, any variable ORed with its compliment itself, equals the to 1.
To prove this, let us consider a = 0
Then a + a’ = 1
0 + 0’ = 1
0+1 = 1 (because the compliment 0 is 1)
Thus, when the variable a is 0, then its compliment is 1, when 0 is ORed with 1, the result is also 1.
Now. Consider a = 1
Then a + a’ = 1
1 + 1’ = 1
1+0 =1 (because the compliment 1 is 0)

Thus, when the variable a is 1, then its compliment is 0, when 0 is ORed with 1, the result is also 1.

AND opeartions
There are four basic Boolean laws based AND operations. They are
i) a · a = a
ii) a · 1 = a
iii) a · 0 = 0
iv) a · a’ = 0

We prove these four Boolean OR operations as follows.

Proof : (i) a · a = a
In Boolean algebra, any variable ANDed with itself equals the variable.
To prove this, let us consider a = 0
Then a · a = a
0 · 0 = 0
Thus, when the variable a is 0, then the result is also 0.
Now. Consider a = 1
Then a · a = a
1 · 1 =1
Thus, when the variable a is 1, then the result is also 1.

Proof : (ii) a · 1 = 1
In Boolean algebra, any variable ANDed with logic 1, equals the variable. To prove this, let us con-
sider a = 0.

Then a · 1 = a
0 · 1 = 0
Thus, when the variable a is 0, then the result is also 0.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Now. Consider a = 1
Then a · a =a
1 · 1 =1
Thus, when the variable a is 1, then the result is also 1.

Proof : (iii) a · 0 = 0
In Boolean algebra, any variable ANDed with logic 0, equals to the logic 0.
To prove this, let us consider a = 0
Then a · 0 = 0
0 · 0 = 0
Thus, when the variable a is 0, then the result is also 0.
Now. Consider a = 1
Then a · a =a
1 ·1 =1
Thus, when the variable a is 1, then the result is also 1.

Proof : (iv) a · a’ = 0
In Boolean algebra, any variable ANDed with its compliment itself, equals to the logic 0.
To prove this, let us consider a = 0
Then a · a’ = 1
0 · 0’ = 1
0 · 1 = 1 (because the compliment of 0 is 1)
Thus, when the variable a is 0, then its compliment is 1, when 0 is ANDed with 1, the result is 0.
Now. Consider a = 1
Then a · a’ = 1
1 · 1’ = 1
1 · 0 =1 (because the compliment of 1 is 0)

Thus, when the variable a is 1, then its compliment is 0, when 0 is ANDed with 1, the result is 0.

2.2.2 DUALITY THEOREM

The duality of any Boolean expression is obtained by replacing ‘+’ (OR) with ‘ · ’ (AND) operator and
‘ · ’ (AND) with ‘+’ (OR) operator, and also replace identity element 1 with 0, and 0 with 1. For
example, the dual of a + b is a · b. Here ‘+’ operator is replaced by
‘ · ’ operator. Similarly, the dual of a + 0 is a · 1 = a, and dual of a + 1 is a · 0 = 0.
Example (1.1) : Obtain the dual of a·b + 0 = a·b
Solution : Given a · b + 0 = a· b

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 Logic Design
Replacing ‘+’ with ‘ · ’ operator, and ‘ · ’ with ‘+’ operator, and 0 with 1, the following expression is
obtained.
(a + b) · 1 = a + b
a+b=a+b
Example (1.2) : Show that the dual of a·b + 1 is 0.
Solution : Given a·b + 1
Replacing ‘+’ with ‘ · ’ operator, and ‘ · ’ with ‘+’ operator, and 1 with 0, we get
(a + b) · 0 = 0
Therefore the dual of ab + 1 is (a + b) ·0 = 0

Example (1.3) : Obtain the dual of the following Boolean expression

a ·(b + c) = a·b + a·c
Solution : Replacing ‘+’ with ‘ · ’ operator and ‘ · ’ with ‘+’ operator, on both sides, we get the
dual as
a + b·c = (a + b) (a + c). Distributive law

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

2.3 SUM-OF-PRODUCTS METHOD

The Boolean expression in sum-of-product form consists of either single product (AND)
term or sum of product terms. For example, consider the following Boolean expression.
f (a, b) = ab .................................................................... (1.4)
This is in SOP form with single product term ab. Consider one more SOP form of 3-
variable function
............................................................ (1.5)
This Boolean expression is in SOP form which consists of three product (AND) terms namely
The sum is obtained by ORing each product terms.The variable in

each product terms either in normal or complement form is called literal. The Boolean
expression (1.4) consists of 2 literals namely a and b , and the Boolean expression (1.5)
consists of 5 literals.
(ii) Product-of-Sum form
The boolean expression in product-of-sum form consists of either single sum (OR) term or
product of sum terms. For example, consider the following expression.
f (a, b) = a + b
This expression consists of single OR term namely, a+b. Consider one more POS form of
3-variable function as follows.

This Boolean expression is in POS form which consists of three sum (OR) terms namely a

+ 0 = a, b + c and The product is obtained by ANDing each sum (OR) terms.

1.3 Canonical Forms

We know that the Boolean functions are described by the truth table. We can write the
truth table for all types of Boolean expressions. It is also possible to obtain the Boolean
expressions from the truth table. There are two types of Boolean expression that are directly
obtained from the truth table. They are as follows.

(i) Minterm Canonical formula or Canonical sum-of-product formula.

(ii) Maxterm Canonical formula or Canonical product-of-sum formula.

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 Logic Design
MINTERM CANONICAL FORMULA

In a Boolean expression if each product (AND) term contains all the variables of a Boolean
function either in normal or complement form is called as minterm canonical formula.
Each product (AND) term of the minterm canonical fomula is called as minterm. Let us
consider the truth table shown in table 1.5, for a 3-variable Boolean function.
Table (1.5): Truth table

From the truth table 1.5, we find that, the output function f, is 1 for the following input
combinations.
000 = a b c
011 = a bc
101 = ab c
110 = a b c
Here each 0-bit is replaced with complement variable, and 1-bit is replaced with normal
variable, thus we can write the four product (minterm) terms of three literal each as follows.
a b c , a b c , a b c, a b c
These four terms produces the output function f = 1, as follows.
abc =0 0 0 =1 1 1=1 abc =0 1 1 =1 1 1=1

abc =1 0 1 =1 1 1=1 abc =1 1 0 =1 1 1=1

By ORing these four product terms, the minterm canonical formula is obtained as follows.
f (a, b, c) = a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c
This Boolean expression consists of four product terms with three literals each, and hence it
is called minterm canonical formula. Minterms canonical formula also called as canonical
sum-of-products formula or standard sum-of-products formula.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Example (1.4): Write the minterm canonical formula for the truth table shown in table1.6.
Table (1.6): Truth table.

Solution : The output function f1 is 1, for the input combinations of 0010, 0011, 1000,
1001, 1111. Therefore, we can write the minterm canonical formula as follows.

f(a, b, c, d) = a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d

And the output function f2 is 1, for input combinations of 0000, 0010, 0111, 1001, 1101,1111.
Therefore, we can write the minterm canonical formula for function f2 as follows.
f a , b , c, d = ab cd +a b cd +a b c d + a b cd + a b c d + a b cd

Uses of Canonical Forms

The Boolean expressions in the canonical forms are not in the simplified form, it consists of redundance
terms. Therefore, to implement the cononical expression more number of logic gates with more num-
ber of inputs are required. This is only the drawback of canonical forms. For example, consider the
following expression.
f(a, b, c) = a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c ..................................... (1.6)
To implement the expression (1.6), four AND gates each of 3-inputs are required. Let us simplify this
expression using Boolean algebra rules as follows:
f (a, b, c) = a c( b + b) + a b( c + c)

f (a, b, c) = a c + a b ........................................................ (1.7)

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 Logic Design
This is the simplified Boolean expression (switching equation). To implement this expression only two
AND gates with 2-inputs are required. The simplified (minimal) Boolean expression is one, from
which further elimination of the literal is not possible.

When a logic circuit is implemented using the simplified Boolean expressions, logic problems in the
combinational circuits, called hazards may occur. A hazard is an unwanted logic output when input
signals arrives at different times. Thus, some redundancy terms are required to eliminate hazards. The
canonical expressions contains redundancy terms and thus eliminates hazards. This is the advantage of
canonical forms.

Procedure to convert Non-canonical from to Canonical form

A non-canonical sum-of-product (SOP) formula is converted into the canonical SOP formula by using
the following steps.
1. Identify the missing variables in each product term (AND term) of the given Boolean expression.
2. For example if the missing variable is c then c + c is ANDed. Because, c + c=1 , and any-
thing ANDed with 1, the result is same.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
3. Simplify using distributive property.
4. Drop the common terms if any.
5. Rearrange the expression in ascending order and write in decimal notation if required.

We explain the above steps with the following examples.

Example (1.5) : Convert the following Boolean function into minterm canonical form.
f (a, b, c) = a b + b c

Solution : Given f (a, b, c) = a b + b c

The missing variable in first term is c and in second term the missing variable is a. Therefore,
AND c + c with the first term and a + a with the second term as follows:

f (a, b, c) = a b( c + c ) + b c( a + a )
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c) = a b c + a b c +a b c + a b c
Rearranging in ascending order, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c) = a b c + a b c +a b c + a b c
This Boolean expression is in the minterms canonical form (Canonical SOP form).

Example (1.6) :Convert the following Boolean function into minterms canonical formula.
And write using summation notation or decimal notation.
f (a, b, c) = a ( b + c ) + c

Solution : Given f (a, b, c) = a ( b + c ) + c

Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c) = a b + a c + c
Taking common literals, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c) = a b + c ( 1 + a )

f (a, b, c) = a b + c
The missing variable in first term is c and in second term a and b. Therefore, by ANDing
c + c with the first term and a + a and b + b with the second term, the following
expression is obtained.
f(a, b, c) = a b ( c + c ) + c ( a + a ) ( b + b)

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 Logic Design

f (a, b, c) = a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c
Dropping common terms, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c) = a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c
In terms of minterm notation (m-notation), this minterm (SOP) canonical formula is written as follows.
f(a, b, c) = m0 + m1 + m3 + m5 + m7
This m-notation in terms of summation or decimal notation is written as follows.
f (a, b, c) = m (0, 1, 3, 5, 7)

Example (1.7 ) : Convert the following equation into the SOP canonical form. And write in the form of
summation notation.
f (p, q, s) = p ( q + s)

Solution : Given f (p, q, s) = p ( q + s)

Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f(p, q, s) = p q + p s

The missing variable in first term is s and in second term is q. Therefore, ANDing s + s with
the first term and q + q with the second term, the following expression is obtained.

f(p, q, s) = p q ( s + s) + p s ( q + q )
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f (p, q, s) = p q s + p q s + p q s + p q s
Dropping common terms, the following expression is obtained.
f (p, q, s) = p q s + p q s + p q s
In terms of minterm notation (m-notation), this SOP canonical formula is written as follows:
f(p, q, s) = m4 + m5 + m7

Where m4 = p q s , m5 = p q s , and m7 = p q s
This m-notation in terms of summation or decimal notation is written as follows.
f (p, q, s) = m (4 5, 7)
Example (1.8 ) : Convert the following equation into the SOP canonical form.
Solution : Given r = l + m ( n m + m l)
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
r = l + m n m +m m l

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

r = l + m m n +m l

r= l+ml ( mm=0 )
The missing variable in first term is m and in second term all variables are present. Therefore,
ANDing m + m with the first term, the following expression is obtained.

r = l (m + m ) + l m
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
r= lm +l m + lm
Dropping common term, the following expression is obtained.
r= lm +l m
This is the SOP canonical formula.

Example (1.9 ) : Convert the following equation into the SOP canonical form. And write in the form of
decimal notation.
f (a, b, c, d) = a d + bd

Solution : Given f (a, b, c, d) = a d + bd

The missing variables in first term are b and c in second term a and c. Therefore,
ANDing b + b and c + c with the first term, and a + a and c + c with the second term,
the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c, d) = a d ( b + b) ( c + c ) + b d ( a + a) ( c + c )
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c, d) =( a b d +a b d) ( c + c ) + ( a b d + a b d) ( c + c )
Again applying the distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c, d) = a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d
Dropping common terms, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c, d) = a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d
Rearranging in ascending oredr, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c, d) = a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d
In terms of minterm notation (m-notation), this minterm (SOP) canonical formula is written as follows.
f(a, b, c, d) = m5 + m7 + m9 + m11 + m13 + m15
This m-notation, in terms of summation or decimal notation is written as follows.
f (a, b, c, d) = m (5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15)

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 Logic Design
In the following section, we study another form of canonical formula called the maxterm canonical
formula. It should be noted that the maxterm canonical formula is the complement of the minterm
canonical formula and vice-versa.

MAXTERM CANONICAL FORMULA

In a Boolean expression if each sum (OR) term contains all the variables of a Boolean
function either in the normal or complement form is called as maxterm canonical formula.
That is, all literals must present in each sum term of the Boolean expression. Each sum
(OR) term is called as maxterm. Like the minterm canonical formula derived from the truth
table, maxterm canonical formula can be derived. That is, the Boolean expressions with
minterm canonical formula is written for the output function of 1. Since maxterm is the
complement of minterm, maxterm canonical formula is written for the output function of 0.
Let us consider the truth table given in table 1.7, for a 3-variable Boolean function.
Table (1.7): Truth table

From the truth table, we find that, the output function f is 0 for the following input
combinations of
0 0 0, 1 0 0, 1 0 1, 1 1 1
Here each 0-bit is replaced with the normal variable and each 1-bit is replaced with the
complement variable such that the output function should be 0(zero). This is, as follows.

000 = a + b + c = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
100 = a + b + c = 1 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
101 = a + b + c = 1 + 0 + 1 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
111 = a + b + c = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Thus we obtain four sum terms of 3 literals each, which corresponds to the output function
f = 0. The sum terms are a + b + c, a + b + c, a + b + c, a + b + c . By ANDing these four
sum terms, we obtain the maxterm canonical formula as follows.

This Boolean expression consists of four sum (maxterm) terms with 3-literals each. Hence it
is called maxterm canonical formula. Maxterm canonical formula is also called as conjunctive
canonical formula or standard product-of-sum.
Example(1.10):Write the maxterm canonical formula for the truth table shown in table1.8.
Table (1.8) Truth Table

Solution : The output function f is 0 for the following input conditions.

0 0 1 1, 0 1 0 0, 0 1 0 1, 1 0 0 0, 1 1 0 1, 1 1 1 1
Therefore, we write the maxterm canonical formula as follows.

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 Logic Design
A non-canonical product-of- sum (POS) formula is converted into the canonical POS formula by using
the following steps.

1. Identify the missing variables in each sum term (OR term) of the given Boolean expression.
2. For example if the missing variable is c then c c is ORed. Because c c =0 and anything
ORed with 0, the result is same.
3. Simplify using distributive property.
4. Drop the common terms if any.
5. Rearrange the expression in ascending order and write using product notation ( ) or deci- mal
notation if required.
We explain above steps with the following examples.

Example (1.11) : Convert the following Boolean function into maxterm canonical formula
(Canonical POS form).
f (a, b, c) = (a + b) ( b + c)
Solution : Given f (a, b, c) = (a + b) ( b + c)
The missing variable in first term is c and in second term is a. Therefore, ORing c c with
the first term and a a with the second term, the following expression is obtained.

f (a, b, c) = ( a + b + c c ) ( a a + b + c)
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
a + b + c c = ( a + b + c ) (a + b + c) a + b c = (a + b) ( a + c)

a a + b + c = ( a + b +c) ( a + b +c )

f (a, b, c) = (a + b + c) ( a + b + c ) ( a + b + c) ( a + b + c )
Dropping common terms, the following expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c) = (a + b + c) ( a + b + c) ( a + b + c )
This is called the canonical POS formula.

Example (1.12) : Convert the following Boolean function into maxterm canonical formula.
And write in the decimal notation.

Solution : Given
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f ( a, b, c) = ( a b + a ) ( a b + b )

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Again applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f ( a, b, c) = ( a + a ) (a + b ) ( a + b ) ( b + b )

f ( a, b, c) = (a + b ) ( a + b ) a+a=1 and b + b = 1
The missing variable in first term and in second term is c. Therefore, ORing c c with the
first term and the second term, the following expression is obtained.
f ( a, b, c) = (a + b + c c ) ( a + b + c c)
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f ( a, b, c) = (a + b + c ) ( a + b + c ) ( a + b + c ) ( a + b + c)
Rearranging in ascending order, the following expression is obtained.
................................. (1.9)
f ( a, b, c) = (a + b + c ) ( a + b + c ) ( a + b + c ) ( a + b + c)
This expression is called canonical POS formula. In terms of maxterm notation (M-notation), the
canonical expression (1.9) is written as follows.

The maxterm formula in terms of decimal notation is written as follows.

f (a, b, c) =

Example (1.13) : Convert the following function into maxterm canonical form.
f (x, y, z) = ( y + z ) ( z + x y)

Solution : Given f (x, y, z) = ( y + z ) ( z + x y)

Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f (x, y, z) = ( y + z ) ( x + z) ( y + z)
The missing variable in first term is x, and in second term is y, and in third term is x. Therefore,
ORing x x with the first term and y y with the second term, and x x with the third term, the
following expression is obtained.

Again applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.

Dropping common terms, the following expression is obtained.

Rearranging the terms in ascending order, the following expression is obtained.

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 Logic Design

In maxterm notation, this is written as follows:

0 1 2 4 5

In decimal notation this is written as follows.

f (x, y, z) = ( 0, 1, 2, 4, 5)

Example (1.14) : Convert the following function into maxterm canonical form.
f(x, y, z) = x + x z ( y + z)

Solution : Given f(x, y, z) = x + x z ( y + z)

Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f(x, y, z) = x + x z y +x z z

f(x, y, z) = x + x z y z z=0
Again, applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.
f(x, y, z) = (x + x) ( x + y ) ( x + z )

f(x, y, z) = ( x + y ) ( x + z ) x+x=1
The missing variable in first term is z, and in second term is y. Therefore, ORingwith the first
term z z and y y with the second term, the following expression is obtained.
f(x, y, z) = ( x + y + z z ) ( x + y y + z )
Applying distributive property, the following expression is obtained.

Dropping common terms, the following expression is obtained.

In maxterm notation this written as follows.

0 1 3

In decimal notation this is written as follows.

f (x, y, z) = ( 0, 1, 3)

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Principles of Combinational Logic - I

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 Logic Design

Complements of Minterm Canonical Formula

We know that canonical formulas are two types. Minterm canonical formula and
maxterm canonical formula. We can have the complements of minterm canonical
formulas and complements of maxterm canonical formulas. For example, consider, the
following three variable minterm canonical formula. That is
f( a , b , c) = a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c
This minterm canonical formula in m-notation is given as follows.

1 3 4 7

We can also write minterm canonical formula using m notation (Decimal notation) as
follows.
f (a, b, c) = m (1, 3, 4, 7) ....................................................................................... (1.11)
The minterms that are all absent in the given minterm canonical formula are called
complements of minterm canonical formula. In the function (1.11) the absent minterms
are 0, 2, 5, and 6. Therefore the complement function of the minterm canonical formula
f (a, b, c) is given as follows.

f (a, b, c) = m (0, 2, 5, 6) ............................................................................. (1.12)

But the complement of the minterm canonical formula is equivalent to the maxterm
canonical formula. Therefore, equation (1.12) is written as follows.

f (a, b, c) =

Example (1.15) : Obtain the complement of the following minterm canonical formula.
f (a, b, c, d) = m (1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9 , 13)
Solution : The given function is a 4-variable minterm canonical formula. And there are 24 =
16 minterms. The given function includes 7-minterms, remaining 16 - 7 = 9 minterms are
not included are called complement minterm canonical formula. They are (0, 4, 5, 6,10, 11,
12, 14, 15). Therefore the complement of minterm canonical formula is given as follows.
f (a, b, c, d) =

Complements of Maxterm Canonical Formula

Like the complement of minterm canonical formula, we can also obtain the complement of the
maxterm canonical formula. We explain this with the following example.
Example (1.16) : Obtain the complement for the following maxterm canonical formula.
f (a, b, c) =
Solution : The terms that are not included in the given function are 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7.
Therefore, the complement of maxterm canonical formula is given as follows.
f (a, b, c) = m (1, 3, 4, 5, 7 )

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

1.4 Generation of Switching Equations from Truth Tables

The switching equations or Boolean expressions generated from the truth table are represented
most of the time by using the minterm notation and maxterm notation.

Minterm Notation
Minterm notation (m-notation) is used to represent each product (minterm) term of the minterm
formula. The symbol mi denotes product terms with subscript i = 0, 1, 2.....n, that represents
decimal value. To explain this consider a 3-variable Boolean function f (a, b, c). With 3-
variable, there are 23 = 8 input combinations from 000(0) to 111(7). The decimal value, the
corresponding binary number, minterms and m-notations are shown in table (1.9).
Table (1.9) minterm notation

Where m0 to m7 represents each product term of the minterm canonical formula.That is,
f (a, b, c) = m0 + m 1 + m 2 + m 3 + m 4 + m 5 + m6 + m 7 ...................(1.13)
Further, we can simplify expression (1.13) by denoting sum of minterms by m notation or
decimal notation as follows:

Example (1.17): Write the following Boolean expression in terms of m-notation.

f (a, b , c , d)
= a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b cd
Solution : There are five product (minterms) terms with 4-literals each. The output
function f (a, b, c, d) is 1, for the following input combination of each product term.
That is, as follows.

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 Logic Design

ab cd = 0 0 0 0( 0) = m 0
)
a bcd = 010 0( 4) = m 4
ab cd = 10 0 0( 8) = m 8
abcd = 110 0 (12) = m 12
ab cd = 1111(15) = m15
Therefore, the given minterm canonical formula in terms of m-notation is as follws:
f (a , b, c, d) = m0 + m4 + m8 + m12 + m15 ..................................... (1.14)
And by using summation noation or decimal notaion equation(1.14) is written as follows:
f(a , b, c, d) = m (0, 4, 8, 12, 15)

Maxterm Notation
M-Notation is used to represent each sum (maxterm) term of the maxterms canonical
formula. The symbol Mi denotes sum terms with subscript i = 0, 1, 2 ... n, that represents
decimal value. To explain this, consider a 3-variable function f (a, b, c). With 3-
variables, there are 23 = 8, input combinations from 000 (0) to 111 (7). Decimal values,
corresponding binary number, maxterm and M-notations are shown in table 1.10.
Table (1.10) Maxterm notation

Where M0 to M7 , represents each sum terms of the maxterm canonical formula.That is

f(a, b, c) = (a + b+c) (a + b+c) (a + b+c) (a + b+c) (a + b+c) (a + b+c) (a + b+c) ( a + b +c )

In terms of M-notation this expression is written as follows:

........................................ (1.15)

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Further, we can simplify expression (1.15) by denoting product of maxterms by M as follows.

f(a, b, c) = M (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)

This is the decimal notation of maxterm canonical formula.

Example (1.18) : Write the Boolean expression in terms of M-notation for the function
f(a, b, c, d) = (a + b + c + d) (a + b + c + d) (a + b + c + d) (a + b + c + d) (a + b + c + d )

Solution : There are 5 sum terms with 4-literals each. The output function
f (a, b, c, d) is 0 for the following input combinations of each sum term. That is,
a + b + c + d = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = M0

a + b + c + d = 1 + 0 + 0 +0 = M8

a + b + c + d = 1 + 1 + 0 + 0 = M12

a + b + c + d = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = M15
Therefore, we can write the given maxterm canonical formula in terms of M-notation
as followes:

0 4 8 12 15

Further we can simplify this by denoting product of maxterms by notation or decimal

notation as follows:

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 Logic Design
1.5 Karnaugh Maps

Simplification of Boolean expressions involves reducing the Boolean expression with the fewest
literals. The Karnaugh map (K-map) is the easiest method of determining simplest expressions
(minimal Boolean expression) of a given Boolean function. The simplified Boolean expressions
obtained using Karnaugh maps always corresponds to the minimal Boolean expression either
in sum-of-product (SOP) form or product-of-sum (POS) form.
The Karnaugh map is the graphical method for simplifying the Boolean functions. For n-
variable Boolean function the Karnaugh map consists of 2n-boxes called cells. For example,
the simplification of 3-variable Boolean function requires 23 = 8-cells K-map, the simplification
of 4-variable Boolean function requires 24 = 16-cells K-map, the simplification of 5-variable
Boolean function requires 25 = 32-cells K-map, and the simplification of 6-variable Boolean
function requires 26 = 64-cells K-map, so on. And each cell of the K-map is assigned with
product or sum terms of the Boolean functions. Various methods of simplification of Boolean
functions are as follows.

a) Karnaugh map method

b) The Quine-McCluskey method
c) Map-Entered Variable method
Karnaugh - map method is simple and easy method for the simplification of Boolean function
upto six variables. Generally the Quine - McCluskey method can be used to simplify the
Boolean functions upto n-variables. Map - Entered Variable (MEV) method is the extension
of K-map. This method can be used when the number of variables exceeds six. The Quine-
McCluskey method and Map-Entered Variable methods are discussed in chapter-2. In this
section the following varible K-maps are discussed.

a) Two variable K-maps.

b) Three variable and four variable K-maps.

c) Five variable and six variable K-maps

The possible groupings of cells in the K-map are 1-cell group, 2-cells groups, 4-cells groups,
8-cells groups, and 16-cells groups and so on. 1-cell group does not eliminate any variable.
Grouping of two cells in the K-map eliminates one-variable. Groupings of four cells eliminates
two variables of a Boolean function. And groupings, of 8-cells eliminates three variable of a
Boolean function. And groupings, of 16-cells eliminates four variable of a Boolean function
and so on.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
1.5.1 Two Variable K-map
Two variable K-map consists of 22 = 4, cells. A two variable Boolean function is associated
with the two variable K-map. Table (1.11), shows the truth table of two-variable K-map.
The truth table (1.11), is associated with two-variable K-map as shown in Fig.1.4.
Table (1.11):Truth table of 2-variable function f(a, b).

Fig.1.4: Two-variable K-map.

Let us consider the following two variable Boolean function.
f(a, b) = a b + a b
Table (1.12), shows the truth table for f(a, b). The truth table 1.12, is associated with the
two-variable K-map as shown in Fig.1.5.
Table (1.12) : Truth table of f (a, b)

Fig.1.5: Two-variable K-map.

Let us consider one more truth table of two variable function f (a, b), as shown in table 1.13. The truth
table 1.13, is associated with the two-variable K-map as shown in Fig.1.6.
Table (1.12) : Truth table of f (a, b)

1
1
1
0

Fig.1.5: Two-variable K-map.

1.5.2 Three Variable and Four Variable K-Maps

Three variable map consists of 23 =8, cells. And a three variable Boolean function f(a, b,
c), is associated with the 3-variable K-map.

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 Logic Design
Table (1.14), shows the truth table of 3-variable Boolean function f(a, b, c). The truth table
(1.14) is associated with the 3-variable K-map is shown in Fig.1.7.
Table (1.14) : Truth Table

Fig.1.7: Three variable K-map

The K-map is represented by using gray code, because, gray has the property of
adjacency.
Decimal Binary Gray code
0 00 00 — 0
1 01 01 — 1
2 10 11 — 3
3 11 10 — 2
Let us consider the following three variable Boolean expression.
f(a, b, c) = a b c + a b c + a b c
The truth table of this 3-variable Boolean function is shown in table(1.15). The truth
table (1.15), is associated with the 3-variable K-map, as shown in Fig.1.8.

Table (1.15) : Truth table

Fig.1.8: 3-variable K-map

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Four Variable K-Map
The four variable K-map, consists of 24 = 16 cells. And a four variable Boolean function
f(a, b, c, d) is associated with the four variable K-map. Table (1.16) shows the truth
table of a 4-variable K-map.
Table (1.16) : Truth table of f (a, b, c, d)

The truth table (1.16) is associated with the 4-variable K-map as shown in Fig.1.9.

Fig.1.9: Four Variable K-map

Let us consider the following 4-variable Boolean function f(a, b, c, d).

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 Logic Design

f(a, b, c, d) = a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d
Table (1.17) shows the truth table of f(a, b, c, d). The truth table(1.17) is associated
with the four-variable K-map as shown in Fig.1.10.
Table (1.17) : Truth table

Fig.1.10: Four-variable K-map

1.5.3 Five Variable and Six Variable K-Maps

The five variable K-map consists of 25 = 32 cells, as shown in Fig.2.11. And a five variable
K-map is associated with the five variable Boolean function f(a, b, c, d, e).

Fig.1.11 Five Variable K-map

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Six Variable Map

The six variable K-map consists of 2 6 = 64 cells, as shown in Fig.1.12. And a six
variable K-map is associated with the six variable Boolean function f (a, b, c, d, e, f).

Fig.1.12 Six Variable K-map

Groupings of K-map Cells

The given Boolean function is simplified with few number of literals by grouping all
possible number of 1's or 0's. Grouping of 1's gives an implicants of a function and grouping
of 0's gives an implicates of a function. Grouping of two 1's or two 0's in the K-map
eliminates one-variable, that means a product term or sum term with one less variable is
obtained. Groupings of four 1's or four 0's eliminates two variable of a Boolean function,
that means, a product or sum term with two less variable is obtained. And groupings, of
eight-1's or eight 0's eliminates three variable of a Boolean function and so on. The K-map
cell with 1, is called 1-cell, and the K-map cell with 0, is called 0-cell.

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 Logic Design
Thus, in general, a n-variable Boolean function which is associated with n-variable K-map
consists of 2n-cells. When all 2n-cells, are grouped, all the variables of a given Boolean
functions are eliminated and hence there are no product or sum terms exist. The K-map
cells are grouped in terms of the 2n-cells. When n=1, two cells are grouped. Thus the
possible groupings of K-map cells are as follows.
2 - Cells grouping
4 - Cells grouping
8 - Cells grouping
16 - Cells grouping
32 - Cells grouping
64 - Cells grouping
and so on
2-Cells Grouping
Fig.1.13, shows the grouping of all possible two-cells of a K-map.

Fig.1.13 Grouping two Cells of a 3-variable K-map

From the grouping of Fig.1.13, the following product terms are obtained.
G1 = ac a b c + a b c = a c ( b + b) = a c

a b c + a b c = a b( c + c) = a b

G3 = bc a b c + a b c = b c( a +a ) = b c

Fig.1.14 shows the possible groupings of two cells of a 4-variable K-map. From the
grouping of Fig.1.14, the following product terms are obtained.

1
a b c d + a b c d = a b d ( c +c) = a b d

2 a b c d + a b c d = a c d ( b +b) = a c d

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

g3 = b c d a b c d + a b c d = b c d ( a +a) = b c d

g4 = a b d a b c d + a b c d = a b d ( c +c) = a b d

Fig.1.14: Grouping of Two-cells of a 4-variable K-map

Groupings of Four Cells

Fig.1.15, shows the grouping of 4-cells of a 4-variable K-map. Obtain the minterm of rows
against the variables ab, and columns variables cd of a K-map. Then AND, the row term
and column term to obtain the required minterm.

Fig.1.15: 4-cells Group

From the Fig.1.15, the following expression is obtained.

G = ad

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 Logic Design

Fig.1.16, shows the groupings of 4-cells of a 4-variable K-map.

Fig.1.16: The 4-cells Group.

Groupings of Eight Cells

Fig.1.17, shows the groupings of 8-cells of a 4-variable K-map. When all rows or all columns
are grouped corresponding variables vanishes. In this example all rows are grouped and
hence the variables 'ab' representing rows vanishes.

Fig.1.17: 8-cells group

Therefore, group G = d

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Fig.1.18, shows the grouping of 8-cell of a 4-variable K-map.

Fig.1.18: The 8-cells Group.

Groupings of 16 Cells
Fig.1.19 shows the grouping of 16-cells of 4-variable K-map.

Fig.1.19: The 16-cells Group.

Therefore, when all the cells of a K-map are grouped all the variables are eliminated and
the output function f = 1.

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 Logic Design
Minimal Expressions
The Boolean expression, consisting of only essential prime implicants or prime
implicates is called minimal Boolean expression. By grouping carefully the
1's i n the K-map cells, the prime implicants are obtained, similarly, grouping 0's
in the K-map cells, prime implicates are obtained.

Prime Implicants and Implicates

All possible groupings of 1's in the K-map gives prime implicants. And all possible
groupings of 0’s gives prime implicates. To explain this, consider the following three
variable Boolean function f(a, b, c).
f(a, b, c) = a b c + a b c + a b c + a b c
This function in m-notation is written as follows.
f(a, b, c) = m1 + m2 + m3 + m7
Which in decimal notation is written as follows.
f(a, b, c) = m (1, 2, 3, 7)
Now, draw the 3-variable K-map with 2 3 = 8-cells, as shown in Fig.1.20, enter 1's in
the cells numbered 1, 2, 3, and 7 and fill the remaining cells with 0's.

Fig.1.20 Groupings for Prime Implicants

In Fig.1.20, minterm-3 is adjacent with the minterm 1, 2, and 7, therefore,we get the
following Boolean expression with three product terms.
f(a, b, c) = a c + a b + b c

The product terms a c, a b and b c are called prime implicants, because these three
product terms does not subsumes each other.
Example (1.19):Find the number of prime implicants for the following Boolean function.
f(a, b, c, d) = m( 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 14)
Solution : Construct the 4-variable K-map with 2 4 = 16-cells, as shown in Fig.1.21
enter 1's in the cells numbered 1, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 14,and enter 0's in the remaining cells.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Group G1 is formed with 1, 3, 5 and 7 adjacent cells. Another group G2 is formed
with cells 6 and 7 and third group G3 is formed with cells 6 and 14.

Fig.1.21 Grouping for Prime Implicants

From the Fig.1.21, three prime implicants obtained are as follows.

G1 = a d , G2 = a b c, G3 = b c d
Where G1 ,G2 and G3 are called as prime implicants.

Essential Prime Implicants

The essential prime implicants (EPIs) are obtained by carefully grouping the 1-cells
that has at least one cell not included with other prime implicant. Consider once again
the K-map of Fig.2.31 as shown in Fig.1.22.

Fig.1.22 Groupings for Prime Implicants

In the Fig.1.22, we observe that the cells 6 and 7, are already included in a subcube of
1, 3, 5 and 7 cells, and subcube of 6 and 14 cells. That is, the subcube of group G 2 is

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 Logic Design
included in the subcubes of groups G1 and G3, therefore G2 is not an essential prime implicant.
Fig.1.23, shows the grouping for essential prime implicants of Fig.1.22.

Fig.1.23 Groupings for Essential Prime Implicants

From the Fig.1.23, the following essential prime implicants (EPIs) are obtained.
G1 = a c , and G3 = b c d
Where G1 and G3 are called an essential prime implicants.

Minimal Sum-of-Product Formula

The Boolean expression consisting of only essential prime implicants corresponds to a
minimal sum-of-product (minimal SOP) formula. The advantage of obtaining minimal
SOP formula is that, the logic implementation of minimal SOP form always requires
least number of logic gates with least number of input terminals.
The essential prime implicants are obtained by carefully grouping the 1-cells that
has at least one cell not included with other prime implicant. The essential prime
implicants of the K-map of Fig.1.23, gives minimal SOP formula. That is,
f(a, b, c, d ) = a c + b c d .................................................(1.16)
The expression (1.13) is minimal SOP formula. Where a c and b c d are essential prime
implicants. Therefore the Boolean expression (1.13) corresponds to minimal SOP expression.
Example (1.20) : Find the minimal SOP formula for the following Boolean function.
f(a, b, c, d) = m(0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15)

Solution :The four-variable K-map with 24 = 16-cells is construced as shown in Fig.1.24. Enter
1's in the cells numbered 0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 15 and enter 0's in the remaining
cells.
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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Fig.1.24 Grouping for Minimal Sum.

From the Fig.1.24, the following minimal SOP expression is obtained.
f(a, b, c, d) = b d +a b c + a c d + a c d + a b c

Example (1.21 ) : Simplify the following Boolean function using K-map method.
f(a, b, c, d) = m(0, 1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15)

Solution : The required groupings for essential prime implicants are shown in Fig.1.25.

Fig.1.25: Essential Prime Implicants.

From the Fig.1.25, the essential prime implicants : ac , a b d , a c d are obtained.

Therefore, the simplified expression or minimal SOP expression is written as follows.
f(a, b, c, d) = ac+abd+ acd
Example (1.22 ) : Simplify the following Boolean expression using K-map method.
f(a, b, c, d) = a c d + a c d + b c d + a b c + a b c d
Solution : The canonical minterm form is obtained as follows.

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 Logic Design

f(a, b, c, d) = a c d ( b + b ) + a c d ( b + b ) + b c d (a + a ) + a b c ( d + d ) + a b c d

= abcd+abcd+abcd +abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd +abcd

Rearranging in ascending order the following expression is obtained.

f(a, b, c, d) = a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d + a b c d

This expression in m-notation is written as as follows.

f(a, b, c,d) = m0 + m1 + m2 + m3 + m5 + m7 + m8 + m10 + m11

Which in decimal notation or summation notation is written as follows.

f(a, b, c, d) = m(0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11)
The required groupings for minimal SOP expression are shown in Fig.1.26.

Fig.1.26 Groupings for minimal expression

From the Fig.1.26, the essential prime implicants are a d , b d , b c , therefore the minimal
SOP expression obtained is as follows.
f(a, b, c, d) = a d + b d + b c

Example (1.23 ) : Find the minimal SOP expression using K-map for the following Boolean
function.
f(a, b, c, d) =

Solution : Enter 0’s in the cell numbered 1, 3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 15 and enter 1’s in the remaining
cells. Then group the number of adjacent 1-cells, to obtain the essential prime implicants as
shown in Fig.1.27.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Fig.1.27 Groupings for minimal SOP expression

From the Fig.1.27, the following minimal SOP expression is obtained.

f(a, b, c, d) = b c + b d + a b d

Example (1.24) : Design a three-input, one-output combinational logic circuit that has
a logic-1 output when the majority of its inputs are logic-1 and has a logic-0 output
when the majority of its inputs are logic-0.

Solution : Let a, b, c be the three input variables and f be the output function.
The truth table for the given problem is shown in table (1.18).
Table (1.18) : Truth table

Using three-variables Karnuagh map method, obtain the minimal sums expression as
shown in Fig.1.28.

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 Logic Design

Fig. 1.28 Groupings for Minimal Sum

From the Fig.1.28, the following minimal SOP expression is obtained.
f(a, b, c) = a b + a c + b c

Fig.1.29, shows the logic diagram.

Fig.1.29: Logic Diagram for f = ab + ac + bc

1.5.4 Simplification Using Five Variable Karnaugh Maps

The five variable K-map consists of 25 = 32 cells. And a five variable K-map is
associated with the five variable Boolean function f(a, b, c, d, e).

Example (1.25 ) : Simplify the following function using K-map.

f(a, b, c, d, e) = m( 5, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 29, 31)

Solution : The 5-variable K-map is shown in Fig.1.30. There are four groups for the minimal
SOP expression. One group is of size 8-cells, thre are three gorups of size 4-cells each. Among
these three groups one gorup of size 4-cells is shown by dotted lines.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Fig.1.30 : Groupings for minimal SOP expression.

From the Fig.1.30. The following minimal SOP expression is obtained.

f(a, b, c, d , e) = c e + a b c + a b c + b d e
Example (1.26 ) : Identify the prime and essential prime implicants for the following expres-
sion: f (a, b, c, d, e) = m (0, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 24, 28)
Solution: Fig.1.31, shows the groupings for prime implicants and essential prime implicants.

Fig.1.31: Groupings for essential prime implicants.

From the Fig.1.31, the following essential prime implicants are obtained.
a b, de
In this example, there are two groups each of size 8-cells, therefore, there are only two essen-
tial prime implicants namely a b, d e
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 Logic Design
1.5.5 Simplification Using Six Variable Karnaugh Maps

The six variable K-map consists of 26 = 64 cells. And a six variable K-map is associated
with the six variable Boolean function Z(a, b, c, d, e, f).

Example (1.27 ) : Simplify the following function using K-map.

Z(a, b, c, d, e, f ) = m( 7, 12, 22, 23, 28, 34, 37, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 56, 58, 60, 62)

Solution : The 6-variable K-map is shown in Fig.1.32.

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

Fig.1.32 : Groupings for minimal SOP expressions

In Fig.1.32, there are six essential prime implicants groups, one group of size 8-cells, another
two groups each of size 4-cells, and there are two groups each of size 2-cells, and finally single
group of size 1-cell. Therefore, the minimal SOP expression which consists of six essential
prime implicants is written as follows.

Z (a, b, c, d, e, f) = a c f + a b c f + c d e f + a b c d e + a c d e f + a b c d e f

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
1.5.6 Incompletely Specified Functions
A Boolean function with don't care condition is called incomplete Boolean function. Don't
care conditions arises because of two facts. (1) Some input combinations never occur and
hence output also never occurs and (2) Input combinations occurs but the corresponding
outputs are not required. And these outputs are considered as don't care conditions. The
don't care condition 'X' can be considered either 0 or 1 whichever results in optimal logic
circuit.

The minimal sums expressions (minimal sum-of-product form) of incomplete Boolean

functions are obtained by forming essential prime implicants group with 1-cells and don't
care conditions, if it is required. To form a group with actual 1-cells, don't care (X) conditions
are considered as 1-cells. And at least one actual 1-cell must be included with don't care
(X) cells in every group. It should be noted that, there are groups with all 1-cells only, there
are groups with actual 1-cells and don't care (X) cells, but there are no groups with don't
care(X) cells only. Consider the following 4-variable Boolean function with don't care
conditions

f(a, b, c, d) = m ( 0, 2, 5, 8, 13) + dc ( 3, 7, 9, 10, 15)

Where ‘dc’ stands for don’t care. Fig.1.33, shows the construction of 4-variable K-map. Enter
1's in the cells numbering 0, 2, 5, 8 and 13 and enter 'X' (don't care mark) in the cells number 3,
7, 9, 10, and 15, then enter 0's in the remaining cells. The don't care (X) condition can be consid-
ered either 1 or 0. The don't care (X) is considered as 1, whenever it is required to form a
subcube with cells containing 1's. In the Fig.1.33, cells 7 and 9 don't cares (X) are considered as
1, and grouped, with cell 5 and 13, to form a subcube of size 4. Another don't care (X) condition
of cell number 10 is considered as 1 and combined with cells 0, 2 and 8 to form a subcube of size
4. The cells numbered 3 and 9 with don't cares (X) are considered as zero, because there are no
adjacent 1-cells to combine with don't cares (X).

Fig.1.33: Groupings for Minimal Sums with don't care conditions

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 Logic Design
From the Fig.1.33, the following minimal SOP expression is obtained.
f(a, b, c, d) = b d + b d
Example (1.28) : Design a combinational circuit that generates the odd parity bit for
8421 (BCD) code.
Solution : The 8421 code is also called as binary coded decimal (BCD) number. BCD
is the binary equivalent of decimal number from 0 (0000) to 9(1001). Thus, 8421 is a four
bi t code. L et a, b, c, d be the four binary input variables and P0 be the odd parity output
function. The odd parity bit is obtained depending on the number of 1’s in the 8421 code.
If the input (8421) code consists of even number of 1’s then the output parity bit is taken
as 1 so that the number of 1’s must be odd number. Similarly if the input consists of odd
number of 1’s, then the output parity bit is taken as 0 because the input itself consist of odd
number of 1’s. Please notice that the inputs 0000 is considered as even parity number
therefore the output parity bit (P0) is made 1 to make it odd parity.
Table (1.19) shows the truth table for generating odd parity of 8421 code.
Table (1.19) : Truth table for odd parity number

Now we find the minimal SOP expression using four-variable Karnaugh map.
Consider the input codes from 10(1010) to 15(1111) as don’t care conditions.
Fig.1.34, shows the groupings for minimal sums.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Fig.1.34 Groupings for Minimal Sums

From Fig1.34, we obtain the following minimal SOP expression.
f(a, b, c, d) = a d + b c d + b c d + b c d + a b c d
There are 15 inputs to the AND gates and 5 inputs to the OR gate. Thus the cost (total
inputs) of this circuit is 20. If we modify the above expressions as follows :
f(a, b, c, d) = a d + b ( c d + c d ) + b c d + a b c d

=ad+b(c d)+bcd+abcd ...................................... (1.17)

Fig.1.35, shows the logic diagram for the expression 1.17.

Fig.1.35: Logic Diagram

The cost ( total number of inputs) of this circuit is 18.

Example (1.29): Given the function f (a, b, c, d) = f1 (a, b, c, d) • f2 (a, b, c, d) where

f(a, b, c, d ) = m( 1, 3, 4, 12, 13)

f1(a, b, c, d ) = m( 0, 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13)
Find the minimal SOP expression for function f 2 (a, b, c, d) using Karnaugh map
method.
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 Logic Design
Solution : Given the function f = f1 • f 2
We have to find the minterms of function f 2 such that f = f1 • f2
The minterms common to function f and function f1 are the minterms of function
f 2 . That is, the minterms 1, 3, 4, 12 and 13 are common in function f and f 1 .
The minterms that are not present in function f and f 1 are considered as the don’t care
of function f2. The don't care minterms are 2, 5, 7, 9, 14, and 15. Therefore, the function
f2 is given by,

f2 (a, b, c, d ) = m( 1, 3, 4, 12, 13) + dc (2, 5, 7, 9, 14, 15)

Now we find the minimal sum of function f 2. The grouping for minimal sum is shown
in Fig.1.36.

Fig.1.36: Grouping for Minimal SOP expression.

From the Fig. the minimal SOP expression is obtained as follows.
f(a, b, c, d) = b c + a d

1.5.7 Simplifying Maxterm Equations

Minimal product expressions (minimal product-of-sum form) is obtained by forming essential

prime implicates group with 0-cells. If the given function is an incomplete Boolean funcion
then the essential prime implicates are obtained by groupings with adjacent 0-cells and don't
cares (X) conditions if it is required. To form a group with a actual 0-cells, don't care (X)
conditions are considered as 0-cells. And, atleast one actual 0-cell must be included with
don't care (X) 0-cells in every group. It should be noted that, there are groups with 0-cells
only, there are groups with actual 0-cells and don't care (X) cells, but there are no groups
with don't care (X) cells only.
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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Consider the following four variable Boolean function.
f(a, b, c, d) = M ( 1, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14, 15)

Construct the four-variable K-map with 24 = 16 cells, as shown in the Fig.1.37, enter
0's in the cells numbered 1, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14, and 15. Enter 1's in the remaining cells
of the K-map.

Fig.1.37 Groupings for Minimal POS Expression

Group adjacent 0's for essential prime implicates as shown in Fig.1.37. The minimal POS
expression is obtained as follows.
f(a, b, c, d) = ( b + d ) ( a + c + d ) ( a + c + d )
Example (1.30) : Find the minimal product-of-sum formula for the following Boolean function
using Karnaugh map method. Implement the logic diagram for using NOR gates only.
f(a, b, c, d) = M ( 5, 8, 9, 12 ) + dc (1, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15)
Solution :Enter 0's, in the cells numbering 5, 8, 9, and 12, and enter don't care (X) mark, in
the cells numbering 1, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14, and 15, then enter 1's in the remaining cells as shown
in Fig.1.38.

Fig.1.38 Groupings for Minimal Products of sum formula.

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 Logic Design
The groups of essential prime implicates are formed by grouping 0's, such that at least
one 0-cell should not be included with other prime implicates. From the Fig.1.39, we
get three essential prime implicates. Thus, the minimal products (POS) expression is given
as follows.
f(a, b, c, d) = ( a + b ) ( a + d ) ( a + d)

Fig.1.39, shows the logic diagram for the expression f(a, b, c, d) = ( a + b ) ( a + d ) ( a + d)

Fig.1.39: Logic diagram for the expression f(a, b, c, d) = ( a + b ) ( a + d ) ( a + d)

Example (1.31) : Find the minimal sums and minimal products for the following
Boolean functions using Karnaugh map method.
f(a, b, c, d) = M ( 0, 8, 10, 11, 14 ) + dc ( 6 )
Solution : Enter 0’s in the cells numbered 0, 8, 10, 11, 14 and don't care (X) in the
cell number 6, and enter 1’s in the remaining cells. Fig.1.40, shows the groupings for
minimal sums.

Fig.1.40: Groupings for Minimal Sums

From the Fig.1.40, the following minimal sums (SOP) expression is obtained.
f(a, b, c, d) = c d + b c + a c + b d

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Fig.1.41, shows the groupings for minimal products.

Fig.1.41 Groupings for Minimal Products

From the Fig.1.41, the following minimal products (POS) expression is obtained.
f(a, b, c, d) = (b + c + d) ( a + b + c ) ( a + c + d )
Example (1.32) : Find the minimal sums and the minimal products for the following
Boolean function using Karnaugh map method.
f(a, b, c, d, e) = m( 0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 15) + dc (6, 7, 10)
Solution : Fig.1.42, shows the groupings for minimal sums (minimal SOP expression).

Fig.1.42 Groupings for Minimal Sum.

From the Fig.1.42, the following minimal SOP expression is obtained.

f(a, b, c, d) = b d + a c d + b c d

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 Logic Design
Fig.1.43, shows the groupings for minimal products (minimal POS expression).

Fig.1.43: Groupings for Minimal Products

From the Fig.1.43, the following minimal products (POS) expression is obtained.
f(a, b, c, d) = ( b + d) ( a + c + d ) ( b + c + d )
Example (1.33) : Simplify the following maxterm equations using Karnaugh maps.
f(a, b, c, d, e) = M ( 5, 7,, 8, 21, 23, 26, 30) + dc ( 10, 14, 24, 28)

Solution:Fig.1.44, shows the groupings for minimal products (minimal POS expression).

Fig.1.44: Groupings for Minimal Products

From the Fig.1.44, the following minimal products (POS) expression is obtained.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Example (1.34 ) : Show that G = f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 15) is the complement of
G = f (a, b, c, d) = M (1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14). Use K-map to illustrate the complement nature of the two
equations.
Solution: Fig.1.45, shows the groupings for the minimal SOP expression of a given Boolean function
G = f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 15)

Fig.1.45: Groupings for Minimal SOP expression.

From the Fig.1.45, the following minimal sums (SOP) expression is obtained.
f (a, b, c, d) = b d + b d ............................................... (1.18)

Fig.1.46, shows the groupings for the minimal POS expression of a given Boolean function G
= f (a, b, c, d) = M (1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14).

Fig.1.46: Groupings for Minimal POS expression.

From the Fig.1.46, the following minimal products (POS) expression is obtained.

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 Logic Design

f (a, b, c, d) = ( b + d ) (b + d ) .............................................. (1.19)

Equation (1.18) is obtained by grouping 1’s, and equation (1.19) is obtained by grouping 0’s. There-
fore, they are complement of each other.

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2.7 MAP-ENTERED VARIABLES

We know that the Karnaugh map method is difficult for the six and more than six variable
Boolean functions. Such huge cells K-map is reduced to small size by using the technique of
Map-Entered Variable (MEV) method. So far we have seen the K-map cells that contains
either 0's, 1's, or don't care (X) terms. But MEV K-maps, contains 0's, 1's, don’t cares
('X') and one or more input variables variables of a given function.
Construction of Map-Entered Variable K-maps
We start construction of variable entered map with three variable Boolean function. Table
(2.21) shows the more general form of truth table for three variable Boolean function.
Table (2.21) : General truth table of two variable Boolean function.

The output functions f0, f1............f7 value can be 0's, 1's and don't are conditions. From the
table (2.21), we can write the general minterm canonical formula (standard-sum-of product
form) as follows.
f(a, b, c) = f0 a b c + f1 a b c + f2 a b c + f3 a b c + f4 a b c + f5 a b c + f6 a b c + f7 a b c .... (2.2)

The Karnaugh map for the expression (2.2) is shown in the Fig.2.1

Fig.2.1 Three Variable Karnaugh Map.

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 Logic Design
Now, let us consider variable 'c' as the map entered variable. Then expression (2.2) is
arranged as follows.
f(a, b, c) = a b ( f0 c + f1 c ) + a b ( f2 c + f3 c) + a b ( f4 c + f5 c) + a b ( f6 c + f7 c) .........(2.3)
The Karnaugh map for the expression (2.3) is shown in Fig.2.2.
This Karnaugh map have four cells. Since variable 'c' is used as a map entered variable the
eight cells Karnaugh map of Fig.2.1, is compressed to four cells map. This map is called
variable entered Karnaugh map.

Fig.2.2: Compressed Map with 'c'' as the MEV.

Now we consider variable 'b' as the map entered variable. Then the expression (2.2) is
arranged as follows.
f(a, b, c) = a c ( f0 b + f2 b ) + a c ( f1 b + f3 b) + a c ( f4 b + f6 b) + a c ( f5 b + f7 b) ........... (2.4)
The variable entered Karnaugh map for the expression (2.4) is shown in Fig.2.3. Since
variable 'b' is used as a map entered variable then the eight cells Karnaugh map of Fig.2.1,
is compressed to four cells map.

Fig.2.3: Compressed Map with 'b' as the MEV.

Now we consider variable 'a' as the map entered variable. Then the expression (2.2) is
arranged as follows.
f(a, b, c) = b c ( f0 a+ f2 a ) + bc ( f1 a + f3 a) + b c ( f4 a + f6 a) + b c ( f5 a + f7 a) ................ (2.5)

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Now, let us consider variable 'c' as the map entered variable. Then expression (2.2) is
arranged as follows.
f(a, b, c) = a b ( f0 c + f1 c ) + a b ( f2 c + f3 c) + a b ( f4 c + f5 c) + a b ( f6 c + f7 c) .........(2.3)
The Karnaugh map for the expression (2.3) is shown in Fig.2.2.
This Karnaugh map have four cells. Since variable 'c' is used as a map entered variable the
eight cells Karnaugh map of Fig.2.1, is compressed to four cells map. This map is called
variable entered Karnaugh map.

Fig.2.2: Compressed Map with 'c'' as the MEV.

Now we consider variable 'b' as the map entered variable. Then the expression (2.2) is
arranged as follows.
f(a, b, c) = a c ( f0 b + f2 b ) + a c ( f1 b + f3 b) + a c ( f4 b + f6 b) + a c ( f5 b + f7 b) ........... (2.4)
The variable entered Karnaugh map for the expression (2.4) is shown in Fig.2.3. Since
variable 'b' is used as a map entered variable then the eight cells Karnaugh map of Fig.2.1,
is compressed to four cells map.

Fig.2.3: Compressed Map with 'b' as the MEV.

Now we consider variable 'a' as the map entered variable. Then the expression (2.2) is
arranged as follows.
f(a, b, c) = b c ( f0 a+ f2 a ) + bc ( f1 a + f3 a) + b c ( f4 a + f6 a) + b c ( f5 a + f7 a) ................ (2.5)

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 Logic Design

The variable entered Karnaugh map for the expression (2.5) is shown in
Fig.2.4. Since variable 'a' is used as a map entered variable then the eight cells Karnaugh
map of Fig.2.1, is compressed to four cells map.

Fig.2.4: Compressed Map with 'a' as the MEV.

Now we find all the possible entries in the variable entered Karnaugh map. Table (2.22)
shows all the possible entries in the four cells of variable entered Karnaugh map with 'c' as
the map entered variable (MEV)
Table (2.22) :Variable ‘c’ as the map entered variable.

Please notice that the output function (f0, f1) value can be (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1).
Similarly (f 2 , f 3 ) = (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1). (f 4 , f 5 ) = (0, 0),
(0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1) and (f 6, f 7) = (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1).

Table (2.23) shows all the possible entries in the four cells of variable entered Karnaugh
map with variable 'b' as the map entered variable (MEV).

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Table (2.23) :Variable ‘b’ as the map entered variable.

Map cell Binary inputs Output functions MEV

Number a b c f

0 0 0 f0 = 0
0 0 0 1 f2 = 0 f0 b + f2 b = 0 b + 0 b = 0 + 0 = 0

1 0 1 0 f1 = 0
0 1 1 f3 = 1 f1 b + f3 b = 0 b + 1 b = 0 + b = b

2 1 0 0 f4 = 1
1 0 1 f6 = 0 f4 b + f6 b = 1 b + 0 b = b + 0 = b

3 1 1 0 f5 = 1
1 1 1 f7 = 1 f5 b + f7 b = 1 b + 1 b = b + b = 1

Please notice that the output function (f0, f2) value can be (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1).
Similarly (f 1 , f 3 ) = (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1). (f 4 , f 6 ) = (0, 0),
(0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1) and (f 5, f 7) = (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1).

Table (2.24) shows all the possible entries in the four cells of variable entered Karnaugh
map with variable 'a' as the map entered variable (MEV).
Table (2.24) :Variable ‘a’ as the map entered variable.

Map cell Binary inputs Output functions MEV

Number a b c f

0 0 0 f0 = 0
0 0 0 1 f4 = 0 f0 a + f4 a = 0 a + 0 a = 0 + 0 = 0

1 0 1 0 f1 = 0
0 1 1 f5 = 1 f1 a + f5 a = 0 a + 1 a = 0 + a = a

2 1 0 0 f2 = 1
1 0 1 f6 = 0 f2 a + f6 a = 1 a + 0 a = a + 0 = a

3 1 1 0 f3 = 1
1 1 1 f7 = 1 f3 a + f7 a = 1 a + 1 a = a + a = 1

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 Logic Design
Please notice that the output function (f0, f4) value can be (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1).
Similarly (f 1 , f 5 ) = (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1). (f 2 , f 6 ) = (0, 0),
(0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1) and (f 3, f 7) = (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 1).

Rules for Groupings of Map Entered Variable

We use the following grouping rules for 3-variable function f(a, b, c) variable entered Karnaugh
map.
i) Fig.2.5, shows grouping of K-map cells with 'c' map entered variable.

Fig.2.5: Grouping of same MEV.

From the Fig. 2.5, the following expression is obtained.
f a, b, c) = a c + b c
ii) Fig.2.6 shows grouping K-map cells with logic 1 and map entered variable 'c'

Fig.2.6 Grouping the MEV c with 1.

The MEV 'c' can be grouped with 1, and consider 1 as a separate group because
c+c=1.

From the Fig. 2.6, the following expression is obtained.

f a, b, c) = ab+bc

iii) Fig.2.7 shows grouping K-map cells with 1 and map entered variable c and its compliment
c.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Fig.2.7 Grouping 1, MEV c and its compliment.

Here 1 is not a separate group because it is combined with both c and c . From the Fig.
2.7, the following expression is obtained.
f a, b, c) = ac+bc

The concept of MEV is explianed with the following examples.

Example (2.10): Simplify the following Boolean function using 'c' as the map entered variable.
f (a, b, c) = m(0, 1, 5, 6, 7)
Solution: Given f (a, b, c) = m(0, 1, 5, 6, 7)

Where the output function is at logic-1 for input conditions of 0, 1, 5, 6, 7. Therefore, here
f0 = 1, f 1 = 1, f 5 = 1, f6 = 1, f7 = 1. And f 2 = 0, f3 = 0, f4 = 0.

We find the entries of the variable entered Karnaugh map as shown in table(2.25).
Table (2.25) : Map Entered Variables.

Map cell Binary inputs Output functions MEV

Number a b c f

0 0 0 f0 = 1
0 0 0 1 f1 = 1 f0 c + f1 c = 1 c + 1 c = c + c = 1

1 0 1 0 f2 = 0
0 1 1 f3 = 0 f2 c + f3 c = 0 c + 0 c = 0 + 0 = 0

2 1 0 0 f4 = 0
1 0 1 f5 = 1 f4 c + f5 c = 0 c + 1 c = 0 + c = c

3 1 1 0 f6 = 1
1 1 1 f7 = 1 f6 c + f1 c = 1 c + 1 c = c + c = 1

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 Logic Design
Thus the entries in the cells of variable entered Karnaugh map are
cell-0 = 1
cell-1 = 0
cell-2 = c
cell-3 = 1
The four cell map with ‘c’ as the MEV is shown in Fig.2.8.

Fig.2.8: Compressed map with 'c' as MEV.

From the Fig. 2.8, the following expression is obtained.

f a, b, c) = ab+bc+ab

The above expression is verified using K-map, as shown if Fig.2.9.

Fig. 2.9: Verification using K-map.

Example (2.11) : Simplify the following function using ‘z’ as the map entered variable

f (w, x, y, z ) = m(2, 3 4,, 5, 10, 12, 13)

Solution : The given Boolean function is a four variable function with 'z' as the map entered
variable, the 16-cell Karnaugh map reduces to 8-cell variable entered Karnaugh map. The
output function is at logic-1 for the input conditions of 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 13. Therefore f2
=f3 =f4 =f5 =f10 =f12 =f13 =1 and remaining output functions are at logic-0’s. We find the entries
of the variable entered Karnaugh map as shown in table (2.26).

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Table (2.26) : 'z' as the MEV.

Thus the entries in the cells of variable entered Karnaugh map are Cell-0 = 0, Cell-1= 1, Cell-2 = 1, Cell-3 =
0, Cell-4 = 0, Cell-5 = z , Cell-6 = 1, Cell-7 = 0. Fig.2.10 shows the variable entered Karnaugh map.

Fig.2.10 Variables Entered Karnaugh Map.

Therefore, the minimal sum (sum-of-product term) expression is given as follows.
f(w, x, y, z) = x y + x y z + w x y
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 Logic Design
Example (2.12) : Simplify the following function using z as the map entered variable

f (w, x, y, z) = m(3 4, 5, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15)

Solution : The given Boolean function is a four variable function with 'z' as the map entered
variable, the 16-cell Karnaugh map reduces to 8-cell variable entered Karnaugh map. The
output function is at logic-1 for the input conditions of 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15. Therefore
f3 =f4 =f5 =f7 =f9 =f13 =f14=f15 = 1 and remaining output functions are at logic-0’s. We find the
entries of the variable entered Karnaugh map as shown in table(2.27).

Table (2.27) : 'z' as the MEV.

Thus the entries in the cells of variable entered Karnaugh map are Cell-0 = 0, Cell-1= z, Cell-2
= 1, Cell-3 = z, Cell-4 = z, Cell-5 = 0, Cell-6 = z, Cell-7 = 1. Fig.2.11, shows the variable entered
Karnaugh map.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Fig.2.11: Variable entered K-map.

Therefore, the minimal sum (sum-of-product term) expression is given as follows.
f(w, x, y, z) = w x y + w x y + w y z + w y z
MEV and Don’t Care Conditions
It is also possible to simplify the functions having don’t care conditions by using the MEV technique.
Table (2.28) shows all the possible entries of the variable entered K-map when the function is having
don’t care conditions. Let z be the MEV and cross mark ( be the don’t care condition.

Table (2.28) : With variable ‘z’ and don’t care ( ) condition as the MEV.

Case 1: When the output function is 0 in case and don’t care ( ) in the other. That is, fi = 0 , and
fj = then, the following MEV is obtained.

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 Logic Design

f = fiz + fj z

The don’t care repersents either 0 or 1, therefore, when then above equation becomes:

And when then then above equation becomes as follows.

Thus, the double entries in the variable entered K-map is z and 0. That is, z,0.

Case 2: When fi = and fj = 0

The double entries in the variable entered K-map is
Case 3: When fi = and fj =
f = fiz + fj z

When then

And when then

Thus, the double entries in the variable entered K-map is

Case 4: When fi = and fj =

The double entries in the variable entered K-map is z,1

Case 5: When fi = and fj =

When the output functions are don’t cares in both case, then the MEV is don’t care

Example (2.13 ): Simplify the following function using ‘d’ as as the MEV.

f (a, b, c, d) = m(0, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10) + dc (2, 6, 12, 13)

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Solution: The given Boolean function is a four variable function with 'd' as the map entered variable,
the 16-cell Karnaugh map reduces to 8-cells variable entered Karnaugh map. The output function is at
logic-1 for the input conditions of 0, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10. Therefore f0 =f4 =f5 =f7 =f8 =f10 =1, and f2 =f6 =f12 =f13
= ‘ ’ (don’t care condition) and remaining output functions are at logic-0’s. We find the entries of the
variable entered Karnaugh map as shown in table(2.29).

Table (2.29) : 'd' as the MEV.

Thus the entries in the cells of variable entered Karnaugh map are
Cell-0 = Cell-1=

Cell-2 = 1, Cell-3 = d,1, Cell-4 = Cell-5 = Cell-6 = , Cell-7 = 0.

Fig.2.12, shows the variable entered Karnaugh map.

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 Logic Design

Fig. 2.12 : Variable-entered K-map.

In Fig. 2.12, the don’t care cell-1 with double entries is grouped with the cells 0, 4, and 5.
From this group the following essential prime implicant (EPI) is obtained.
EPI:
From the cell-3 with double entries d,1, here d is neglected as it is evaluated using the don’t care
condition. The cell-3 with 1 is grouped with cell-2, and the following EPI is obtained.
EPI:
These two EPIs gives the following simplified Boolean expression.
f (a, b, c, d) = +

Verification: The function f (a, b, c, d) = + is verified using K-map as shown in Fig.2.13.

Fig.2.13 Groupings for the expression f (a, b, c, d) = +

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Example (2.14) : Find the minimal SOP expression for the following variable-entered map.

Solution: The given function is a four variable Boolean function. That is f (w, x, y, z). And
the variables 'yz' are considered as the map entered variables.

Fig. 2.14: Variable entered K-map.

From the Fig. 2.14, the following minimal SOP expression is obtained.

Example (2.15) : Find the minimal SOP formula for the following variable entered map.

Solution: The given Boolean function is a five variables function. That is f(v, w, x, y,z).
And variables 'yz' are considered as the map entered variables. To obtain the minimal sum
we group the entries as shown in Fig.2.15.

Fig. 2.15 : Variable entered K-map.

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From the Fig. 2.15, the following minimal expression is obtained.

Example (2.16) :Using MEV method, find a minimal sum for the following Boolean function.

Solution : In this example P and Q are the map entered variables (MEV).
Thus the five variable function is compressed to only three variable function.
And for three variable function requires 8-cell Karnaugh map. The entries in this map are as
follows.
P x y z = P (0 0 1) Enter P in cell number -1

Q x y z = Q (1 0 0) Enter Q in cell number -4

Q x y z = Q (1 1 0) Enter Q in cell number -6

x y z (0 1 1) Enter 1 in cell number -3

And enter '0's in the remaining map cells.

Fig. 1.16: Variable entered K-map.

Thus, from Fig.2.16 the following minimal sums expression is obtained.

Example (2.17):Using MEV method find a minimal sum for the following Boolean function.

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Solution : In this example P and Q are the map entered variables. Thus the five variable function is
compressed to only three variable function. And for three variable we need eight cell map. The entries
in this map are as follows.
Enter P in cell number - 0
Enter P in cell number - 1
Enter P in cell number - 5
Enter in cell number - 1
Enter Q in cell number - 2
Enter 1 in cell number - 3
Enter 1 in cell number - 4
And enter '0's in the remaining map cells as shown in Fig.2.17.

Fig. 2.17: Variable entered K-map.

Thus, from Fig.2.17 the following minimal sums expression is obtained.

f(P, Q, x, y, z) = P y + Q x z + Q x y + x y z

Example (2.18) :Using MEV method simplify the following Boolean expression.

Solution : In this example P and Q are the map entered variables. The entries in the variable
entered Karnaugh map are as follows :

Enter in cell number - 2

Pxyz = P(111) Enter P in cell number - 7

Enter PQ in cell number - 1

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PQ x y z = PQ(1 0 1) Enter PQ in cell number - 5

Enter 1 in cell number - 3

And enter '0's in the remaining cells as shown in Fig.2.18.

yz
00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
0 PQ 1 P
x
4 5 7 6
0 PQ P 0

Fig. 2.18: Variable entered K-map

From the Fig. 2.18, the following minimal sum expression is obtained.

f (P, Q, x, y, z) =

Example (2.19) : Simplify the following function using 3-variable Karnaugh map.

f (w, x, y, z ) = m(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15)

Solution : The given Boolean function is a four variable function. Let 'z' be the map entered
variable, then 16-cell Karnaugh map reduces to 8-cell variable entered Karnaugh map, that
is 3-variable Karnaugh map. The output function is at logic-1 for the input conditions of 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15. Therefore, f0 = f1 = f2 = f3 = f4 = f5 = f8 = f9 = f 10 = f11=
f14 = f15 =1, and remaining output functions are at logic-0’s. We find the entries of the variable
entered Karnaugh map as shown in table 2.30.

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Table (2.30) : 'z' as the MEV

Map Cell Binary Inputs Output functions MEV

Number w x y z f

0 0 0 0 0 f0 = 1
0 0 0 1 f1 = 1 f0 z + f1 z = 1 z + 1 z = z + z = 1

0 0 1 0 f2 = 1 f2 z + f3 z = 1 z + 1 z = z + z = 1
1 0 0 1 1 f3 = 1

0 1 0 0 f4 = 0 f4 z + f5 z = 0 z + 0 z = 0 + 0 = 0
2 0 1 0 1 f5 = 0

0 1 1 0 f6 = 1
3 0 1 1 1 f7 = 0 f6 z + f7 z = 1 z + 0 z = z + 0 = z

1 0 0 0 f8 = 1
4 1 0 0 1 f9 = 1 f8 z + f9 z = 1 z + 1 z = z + z = 1

1 0 1 0 f10 = 0
5 1 0 1 1 f11 = 1 f10 z + f11 z = 0 z + 1 z = 0 + z = z

1 1 0 0 f12 = 0 f12 z + f13 z = 0 z + 1 z = 0 + z = z

6 1 1 0 1 f13 = 1

1 1 1 0 f14 = 0 f4 z + f5 z = 0 z + 0 z = 0 + 0 = 0
7 1 1 1 1 f15 = 0

Thus the entries in the cells of variable entered Karnaugh map are Cell-0 = 0, Cell-1=1, Cell-2 =
0, Cell-3 = z , Cell-4 = 1, Cell-5 = z, Cell-6 = z, Cell-7 = 0. Fig.2.19 shows the variable entered
Karnaugh map.

Fig.2.19: Variable entered K-map.

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From the Fig. 2.19, the following minimal sum expression is obtained.

Verification: The function is verified using K-map as shown in

Fig.2.20.

yz

00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00 1 1 1 1

4 5 7 6
01 0 0 0 1
wx
12 13 15 14
11 0 1 0 0

8 9 11 10
10 1 1 1 0

Fig.2.20 Groupings for the expression

Example (2.20) : Find the output function for the MEV map shown in Fig.2.21. Where d is the MEV.

Fig.2.21: Variable entered K-map.

Solution: The given function is a four variable Boolean function. That is f (a, b, c, d). And
variable 'd' is considered as the map entered variable. To obtain the output function for
minimal sum (SOP), the K-map cells are grouped as shown in Fig.2.22.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I

Fig. 2.22: Variable entered K-map.

From the Fig. 2.22, the following minimal sum output function is obtained.
f(a, b, c, d) = a + b d + b c

Example (2.21) : Find the output function for the MEV map shown in Fig.2.23. Where x and y are
the MEVs (Map Entered Variables).

ab
00 01 11 10
0 4 12 8
00 1 1 x x

1 5 13 9
01 1 1 x x
cd
3 7 15 11
11 1 1 y y

2 6 14 10
10 0 0 0 0

Fig. 2.23: Variable entered K-map.

Solution: The given function is a six variable Boolean function.That is f (x, y, a, b, c, d).
And variables x and y are considered as the map entered variables. To obtain the output
function for minimal sum (SOP), the K-map cells are grouped as shown in Fig.2.24.

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ab
00 01 11 10
0 4 12 8
00 1 1 x x

1 5 13 9
01 1 1 x x
cd
3 7 15 11
11 1 1 y y

2 6 14 10
10 0 0 0 0

Fig. 2.24: Variable entered K-map.

From the Fig. 2.24, the following minimal sum output function is obtained.
f(x, y, a, b, c, d) = x c + a c + a d + y c d

Example (2.22) : Find the output function for the MEV map shown in Fig.2.25. Where x and y are
the MEVs (Map Entered Variables).

ab
00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00 1 1 1 1

4 5 7 6
01 x 1 1 0
cd
12 13 15 14
11 x x 0 0

8 9 11 10
10 x+y x+y y y

Fig. 2.25: Variable entered K-map.

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Solution: The given function is a six variable Boolean function. That is f (x, y, a, b, c, d). And
variables x and y are considered as the map entered variables.To obtain the output function for
minimal sum (SOP), the K-map cells are grouped as shown in Fig.2.26.

Fig. 2.26: Variable entered K-map.

From the Fig.2.26, the following minimal sum output function is obtained.
f(x, y, a, b, c, d) = x a + b c + c d + y d

Example (2.23) : For the following function using z (least significant variable) as the map entered
variable (MEV).
f(v, w, x, y, z ) = m(1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14, 17, 19, 20, 22, 25, 27, 28, 30) + d(8, 10, 24, 26)

i. Construct the MEV truth table.

ii. Create the MEV K-map.
iii. Write the simplified equations.
iv. Verify using regular K-map.

Solution : i. Construction of MEV truth table

The given Boolean function is a five variable function, and given that the variable 'z' as the
map entered variable (MEV), the 32-cell Karnaugh map reduces to 16-cell variable entered
Karnaugh map. The output function is at logic-1 for the input conditions of 1, 3, 4, 6, 9,
11, 12, 14, 17, 19, 20, 22, 25, 27, 28, 30. Therefore f1 =f3 =f4 =f6 = f11 =f12 =f14 = f17 =f19 = f20
=f22=f25 =f27 =f28=f30 = 1, and f8 =f10 =f24 = f26 = ‘ ’ (don’t care conditions) and the remaining
output functions are at logic-0’s. We find the entries of the variable entered Karnaugh map
as shown in table(2.31).

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Table (2.31): Construction of MEV with 'z' as the MEV.

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ii. Create the MEV K-map
From the table (2.31), the K-map is created as shown in Fig.2.27

xy
00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00 z z z z

4 5 7 6
01 z, 1 z, 1 z z
vw
12 13 15 14
11 z, 1 z, 1 z z

8 9 11 10
10 z z z z

Fig. 2.27: Variable entered K-map.

iii. Write the simplified equations
From the Fig.2.27, the following minimal sum output function is obtained.
f(v, w, x, y, z) = x z + x z
iv..
Verification using regular K-map
The function f(v, w, x, y, z) = x z + x z is verified using K-map as shown in Fig.2.28.

Fig.2.28 Groupings for the expression f(v, w, x, y, z) = x z + x z

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2.4 SIMPLIFICATION BY QUINE-McCLUSKY METHOD

In chapter-1, we understood that the Karnaugh map method is difficult for the
simplification of just six variables Boolean functions and is very much difficult for seven and
more than seven variables Boolean functions.
The complex digital systems designed using Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs), Complex
Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs), Field-Programmable Gate Arrays ( FPGAs), requires
the simplification of large number of variables. The VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated
Circuits) consists of huge number of variables, and manual simplification is not possible.
Thus, a different computer driven minimization technique is required that can handle large
number of variables. One such minimization technique that can be used to handle any number
of variable is called Quine-McCluskey Method.
There is another method called Map-Entered Variable (MEV), which is the extension
of Karnaugh map method. MEV method can be used to handle large number of variables
by reducing the Karnaugh map to smaller size such that the groupings for minimal expression
is easier.
The Quine-McCluskey method is the algorithm that can be applied to simplify the Boolean
functions of any number of variables and is suitable for computer solution. The advantages
of Quine-McClusky techniques are as follows.

(i) It can handle large number of variables. That is, in general n-variable Boolean function
can be simplified.

(ii) As in K-map recognition of prime implicants for minimal expression not required. (iii)
Since it is in the form of algorithm computer solution is possible.

Determination of minimal sums and minimal products expressions involves following two
phases.
(a) In first phase, all prime implicants or prime implicates are obtained.
(b) In second phase, only essential prime implicants and prime implicates are selected
to obtain the minimal (irredundant) Boolean expression.

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The Quine-McCluskey method uses the logic of combining two-minterms (product terms)
that differ only in one variable to produce a single minterm (product term). Let P Q and PQ
be the two minterms that are differ in only one variable, then ( P and P) are combined to
form a single product term Q as follows.

P Q + P Q = Q ( P + P)
=Q

The process of determination of prime implicants using the Quine-McCluskey method begins
with listing all the minterms of a given Boolean function. Compare first minterm with remaining
minterms, if the minterm that differ in only one variable is exist then a new minterm is obtained
and place this minterm in the second column. Put check marks ( ) against the minterms that
are combined to form a new minterm.
Now compare second minterm with the remaining minterms and if the minterm with the
remaining minterms that differ in only one variable is exist then again a new minterm is
obtained and place this minterm in the second column. Similarly, comparing all the minterms
a new list of minterms obtained are placed in the second column. The second column minterms
consists of one less variables.
Now the second column minterms are compared and the third new list minterms are
obtained. The new list in the third column consists of two less variables. Thus, the process
is repeated till there are no minterms of the form so that there are no new minterms. Now
comparison is stopped. All the unchecked minterms are the prime implicants.

2.3 PRIME IMPLICANTS USING QUINE-MCCLUSKEY ALGORITHM

The Quine McCluskey algorithm for finding the prime implicants involves following steps.
1. List each minterm in 0’s and 1’s (binary) notation.
2. Group the minterms depending on the number of 1‘s (index) in the increasing order.
3. Put a line between each group minterm of same index.
4. Compare each minterm in binary form with every minterms of the higher adjacent
group, and the minterms that differ in only one variable are combined to obtain a
new minterm with one less variable. Put check marks ( ) against the minterms that
are combined and place the new minterm in the next column in 0’s, 1’s and dash
(—) notation. The dash (—) is placed at the position of the combined literals.

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5. Repeat step 4 till all the minterms are compared, if not goto step 6.
6. Obtain the new list minterm groups that consists of equal index.
7. Repeat steps 4, 5 and 6.
8. Stop the process when no new lists are formed.
9. All the unchecked minterms are the prime implicants.

Example (2.1) :Find all the prime implicants of the following Boolean function using
Quine-McCluskey method.
f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14)
Solution : Simply follow the Quine-McCluskey algorithm steps as follows.
Step 1 : List each minterms in 0's and 1's (binary) notation as follows.
0000(0), 0010(2), 0011(3), 0100(4), 1000(8),
1010(10), 1100(12), 1101(13), and 1110(14)
Step 2 : Group the minterms depending on the number of 1's (index number) in the increasing
order of column-1, as shown in table 2.1.

Table (2.1) : Prime Implicant using Quine McCluskey Method

Step 3 : Put a line between each group minterm of same index as shown in table(2.1)

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Step 4 : Compare each minterm in binary form with every minterms of higher adjacent
group, and combine the minterms that differ in only one variables to obtain a minterm
with one less variable. That is, compare 0000 with higher adjacent group 0010,
0100, 1000, and place dash (—) at the position of combined variables as follows .
(0, 2) 0 0 — 0
(0, 4) 0 — 0 0
(0, 8) — 0 0 0

Put check mark ( ) against the combined minterms (0) 0000, (2) 0010,
(4) 0100, (8) 1000. Next compare and combine 0010, 0100, 1000 with higher adjacent
group 0011, 1010, 1100, and place dash (—) at the position of combined variables.
(2, 3) 0 0 1 —
(2, 10) —0 1 0
(4, 12) — 1 0 0
(8, 10) 1 0 — 0
(8, 12) 1 — 0 0

Put check marks ( ) against the combined minterms 2 (0010) and 3(0011), in this case
minterm 2 is already checked, hence put check mark against the minterm 3 (0011). Similarly,
put check marks ' ' against (10)1010 and (12)1100 minterms.
Next compare and combine 0011, 1010, 1100 with higher adjacent group minterms
1101 and 1110. The following groups are obtained.

(10, 14) 1 — 1 0
(12, 13) 1 1 0 —
(12, 14) 1 1 — 0

Put check mark ( ) against the minterms 13(1101) and 14(1110). Thus, in the first column
all the minterms have check marks, and hence there are no prime implicants in the column-
1.
Step 5 : Repeat step-4 till all the minterms are compared, if not goto step 6.
Step 6 : Now place the minterm in second column in 0-'s 1's and dash (—) notation, with
one less variable minterm as shown in table (2.1).
Step 7 : Repeat step-4, 5 and 6.
Step 8 : Stop the process when no new lists are formed.

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Step 9 : Finally, all unchecked minterms are the prime implicants of the given Boolean
function, they are as follows.
a b c d
0 0 1 —
1 1 0 —
— 0 — 0
— — 0 0
1 — — 0
Where '— 'shows absence of variable, therefore the prime implicants are :
a b c, a b c , b d , c d , and a d

Example (2.2) : Find all the prime implicants of the following Boolean function using Quine-
McCluskey method.
f (a, b, c, d) = m (4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 14, 19, 26, 30, 31)
Solution : Following all the Quine-McCluskey algorithm steps, we obtain, all the prime
implicants as shown in table (2.2).
Table (2.2) : Prime Implicants using Quine-McClusky Method.

From the table (2.2), all the unchecked minterms are the prime implicants. They are as follows.

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 Principles of Combinational Logic - I
Example (2.3) :Find all the prime implicants of the following Boolean function using
Quine-McCluskey method.
f (a, b, c, d)= m (7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15) + dc (4, 11)
Solution : The given Boolean function is an incomplete Boolean function. Whenever, the
Quine-McCluskey method is used, the don't care (dc) conditions are always considered as
1. Thus, it is required to convert the given incomplete Boolean function into complete Boolean
function. That is as follows.
f (a, b, c, d) = m (4, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
By following all the Quine-McCluskey algorithm steps, we obtain, all the prime implicants as
shown in table (2.3).
Table (2.3)Prime implicants using Quine-McClusky method.

From the table (2.3), all unchecked minterms are the prime implicants.
They are b c d , b c d , a d , ab .

Example (2.4) :Find all the prime implicants of the following Boolean function using
Quine-McCluskey method.
f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12) + dc (3, 5)

Solution : Convert the given incomplete Boolean function into the complete Boolean function
as follows :
f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12)

By following all the Quine-McCluskey algorithm steps, we obtain all the prime implicants as
shown in table(2.4).

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Table (2.4) Prime implicants using Quine-McClusky method.

From the table (2.4), all unchecked minterms are the prime implicants.
They are, a b c d , b c d , b c d , a b , a d , a c

2.4 PRIME IMPLICATES USINGQUINE-MC CLUSKEY METHOD

Like prime implicants, we can also find the prime implicates by using the Quine-McCluskey
method. We know that, the prime implicants are obtained by grouping 0's of the given
Boolean function. Given the maxterm canonical formula (standard product-of-sum term), to
find the prime implicates using Quine-McCluskey method, the first step is to find the
compliment of the maxterm canonical formula. Then apply, all the steps of Quine-McCluskey
algorithm explained in section 2.3. Finally, complementing the complement function, the prime
implicates are obtained. To explain this consider the following maxterm canonical formula.

f (a, b, c, d) =
In M-notation this function is written as follows.

f (a, b, c, d) = M0 M2 M3 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M13

Complementing this expression, the following expression is obtained.
0 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 13

0 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 13

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But, the complement of the maxterm is equal to the minterm. Therefore, the above expression
is written as follows.

This can be written as follows.

f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13)

Now, obtain all the prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d) by applying all the steps of Quine-
McCluskey algorithm of section 2.3, as shown in table (2.5).
Table (2.5) Prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d)

From the table(2.5), all the unchecked minterms are the prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d) .
They are a b c , a c d , b d , a c .

By complementing once again f (a, b, c, d) , that is by complementing each prime implicants,

we get prime implicates as follows. That is as follows.

f (a, b, c, d) = f (a, b, c, d)

abc = a+b+c

acd = a +c+d

bd = b+d

ac= a+c

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Thus, the following prime implicates are obtained.
a + b + c, a + c + d, b + d, and a + c

Example (2.5) : Find all the prime implicates of the following Boolean function using Quine-
McCluskey method.
f (a, b, c, d, e) =
Solution : The compliment of the given function is,
f (a, b, c, d) = m ( )

Now, we obtain all the prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d) by applying all the steps of Quine-
McCluskey algorithm of section 2.3, as shown in table (2.6).
Table (2.6) Prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d)

From the table (2.6), we obtain the following prime implicants. That is, unchecked minterms
are prime implicants.

From column-1

(24) 11000 = a b c d e
(29) 11101 = a b c d e

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From column-2
(3, 11) 0—011 = a c d e
(12, 14) 011—0 = a b c e
(20, 22) 101—0 = a b c e
From column-3
(1, 3, 17, 19) —00—1 = b c e
(6, 14, 22, 30) — —110 = c d e
(10, 11, 14, 15) 01—1— = a b d
Thus, by complementing prime implicants, we obtain the prime implicates as follows.

bce =b+c+e

cde =c+d+e

a bd =a+b+d

Example (2.6) : Find all the prime implicates of the following Boolean function using
Quine-McCluskey method.
f (a, b, c, d, e) = (0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13) + dc (8, 10)

Solution : The given Boolean function is incomplete function, hence, convert it into the
complete Boolean function as follows.

f (a, b, c, d, e) = M (0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13)

The complement of this function is written as follows.

f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13)
Now, obtain all the prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d) as shown in table(2.7)
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Table (2.7) :Prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d)

From the table (2.7), all the unchecked minterms are the prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d)
They are,
(2, 3) 001— = abc

(0, 2, 8, 10) —0—0 = bd

(0, 4, 8, 12) — — 00 = cd

(4, 5, 12, 13) —10— = bc

By complementing the prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d) , we obtain the prime implicates of

f (a, b, c, d) as follows.
abc =a+b+c

bd = b+d

cd =c+d

bc = b+c

Thus, the prime implicates of f (a, b, c, d) = M(0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13) are as follows.

a + b + c, b + d, c + d, b + c

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2.5 Prime Implicant/Prime Implicate Tables
The prime implicant/prime implicate tables are used to find the minimal sums expression or
minimal products expressions, from the prime implicants/prime implicates obtained using the
Quine-McCluskey method.
The prime implicant table consists of a horizontal row and a vertical column, in which all
the minterms are placed in the horizontal row and all the prime implicants are placed in the
vertical column. To find the irredundant (minimal) Boolean expression only required prime
implicants that is, essential prime implicants (EPIs) are selected, so that the final Boolean
function is minimal expression. To explain the construction of prime implicant table, consider
the following Boolean function.

f (a, b, c) = m(0, 2, 3, 7)

Now, using Quine-McCluskey method find all the prime implicants as shown in table(2.8)
Table (2.8) : Prime Implicant using Quine-McClusky Method.

Column-1 Column-2
abc abc
(0)000 (0, 2)0—0
(2)010 (2, 3)01—
(3)011 (3, 7)—11
(7)111

From the table (2.8), we get the following prime implicants

(0, 2) a c

(2, 3) a b

(3, 7) b c

Now, the prime implicant table is constructed by placing the minterms 0, 2, 3, and 7, in the horizontal
row and the prime implicants a c , a b and b c in the vertical column as shown in table (2.9).

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Table (2.9) : Prime Implicant Table.

In the prime implicant table, decimal value (0, 2), of the row indicates the corresponding
minterms, here it indicates 0 and 2 minterms. Thus, place the cross mark ( ) against the
row , corresponding to the 0 and 2 minterms.

Similarly, place the cross mark ( ) against the row , corresponding to the minterms
2 and 3. And place the cross mark ( ) against the row bc, corresponding to the minterms
3 and 7.

Selection of Essential Prime Implicants/ Implicates

Once the prime implicant table is constructed, then the next step is to select the essential prime (EPIs)
implicants or implicates, because the minimal SOP expression consists of EPIs.

Step1: Identify the column with the single cross mark ( ), and encircle it, because single cross mark
( )along the column consists of EPIs

Step2: If all the EPIs of single cross mark ( ) along column don,t cover all the minterms of a given
function, then identfy the required minterms from the remaining prime implicants.

Step3: Repeat step2 till all the minterms of a given Boolean function covered by the essential prime
implicants

From the prime implicant table (2.9), we observe that, there are two columns with single cross
mark, which are indicated by the cross mark with circle The cross mark with circle along the
row , covers the minterms 0 and 2, and the cross mark with circle along the row bc, covers
the minterms 3 and 7. Thus, these two essential prime implicants covers all the minterms of the given
function, namely 0, 2, 3 and 7. Therefore, the minimal SOP is given as follows.
f (a, b, c, d) = + bc

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Example (2.7):Find the minimal POS expression for the following function using the Quine-
McCluskey and the prime implicant table method.
f (a, b, c, d) = M(0, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13) + dc(5, 15)
Solution : Convert the given incomplete Boolean function into the complete Boolean function.
f (a, b, c, d) = M(0, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15)
The complement of f(a, b, c, d) is given as follows.
f (a, b, c, d) = m

The prime implicants of f (a, b, c, d) are obtained as given in table (2.10).

Table(2.10) Prime Implicants f (a, b, c, d)

From the table (2.10), all the unchecked minterms are the prime implicants. They are as
follows.
(0, 8) —000 = (0, 8) b c d

(8, 9)100— = (8, 9)

(6, 7)011— = (6, 7) a b c

(9, 13)1—01 = (9, 13) a c d

(5, 7, 13, 15)—1—1 = (5, 7, 13, 15) bd

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The prime implicant table is constructed as shown in table (2.11). The don’t care conditions
(5, 15) should not be included in the prime implicant table.
Table (2.11) : Prime Implicant Table.

Prime Minterms
Implicants Decimal
0 6 7 8 9 13

bcd 0, 8
abc 8, 9
abc 6, 7
acd 9, 13
bd 5, 7, 13, 15

From the prime implicant table (2.11), we observe that, there are two columns with single cross mark,
which are indicated by the cross mark with circle The cross mark with circle along the row
b c d , covers the minterms 0 and 8, and the cross mark with circle along the row a b c ,
covers the minterms 6 and 7. Thus, these two essential prime implicants covers only 4-minterms of the
given function, namely 0, 6, 7 and 8. The remaining minterms namely 9 and 13 are not covered.
Therefore, it is required to search for one or more implicants that cover the minterms 9 and 13. From
the table (2.11), we find that the prime implicant a c d covers the minterms 9 and 13. Thus, the
minimal SOP expression is given as follows.
f (a, b, c, d) = bcd + abc + acd ........................................ ( 2.1)
By complementing the expression (2.1), the minimal POS expression is obtained as follows.
f(a, b, c, d) = (b +c + d) (a + b + c) (a + c + d)
From this example it is clear that, only the essential prime implicants do not cover all the minterms
of a given function. If the number of prime implicants are more then the selection of prime implicants
from the prime implicant table is not so easy. Therefore, a reduced prime implicant tables are con-
structed such that the prime implicants can be easily identified that covers the minterms of a given
function.

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Example (2.9): Simplify the following function using Quine-McCluskey method.
f (a, b, c, d) = m (1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 15) + dc (2, 13)
Solution : Convert the incomplete function into the complete function as follows.
f (a, b, c, d) = m (1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15)
Table (2.18), shows the prime implicants using Quine-McCluskey method.

Table (2.18) Prime implicants using Quine-McCluskey method.

From the table (2.18), all the unchecked minterms are the prime implicants. They are as follows.
(2, 3) a b c, (8, 9) a b c, (1, 3, 9, 11) b d, (1, 5, 9, 13) c d, (9, 11, 13, 15) a d
The prime implicant table is as given in table (2.19).

Fig.2.19: Prime implicant table.

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From the table (2.19), we find that, the column along the minterm 8, consists of only one
cross mark ' ', therefore, delete this column and corresponding row with the essential prime
implicant a b c. Similarly, column along the minterm, 5 and 15, consists of single cross
mark ' ' therefore, delete column along the minterms 5 and 15 and corresponding rows with
the essential prime implicants c d and ad.
Thus, with the deletion of three rows and 5-columns, the reduced prime implicant table is
as shown in table (2.20).
Fig.2.20: Reduced prime implicant table.

From the table (2.20), we find that, the column along the minterm 1, consists of only one
cross mark ' ', which corresponds to the secondary essential prime implicant b d . The
deleted essential rows must be included to obtain the minimal SOP expressions. The deleted
essential prime implicants are : ad, c d and a b c. Including the secondary essential prime
implicant, the minimal SOP expression is given as follows.

f(a, b, c, d) = a d + b d + c d + a b c

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1.6 EXERCISES

1. What are Boolean formulas and function. Explain with an example.

2. Define the variable and literal.
3. Explain the two different forms of normal formula with an example.
4. Define canonical formulas. Explain minterm canonical and maxterm canonical formula
with an example.
5. Find the minterm canonical formula for f (a, b, c) = ab + bc.
6. Find the minterm canonical formula for f (a, b, c, d) = bc + abd.
7. Find the minterm canonical formula for f (a, b, c, d) = ( b + d ) (b + d )
8. Find the maxterm canonical formula for f (a, b, c) = a ( b + c).
9. Find the maxterm canonical formula for f(a, b, c, d) = ( b + d) ( a + c + d ) ( b + c + d )
10. Define implicants and prime implicants.
11. Define implicates and prime implicates.
12. Explain one, two, three, four, five, and six variable K-map.
13. Write the K-map for the following functions.
(i) f (a, b, c) = m(1, 2, 6, 7) (ii) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 4, 10, 14, 15)
(iii) f (a, b, c, d) = M (1, 2, 3, 12, 13, 15)
14. Find all the prime implicants of the following function by using K-map method.

i) f (a, b, c, d) = m(0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 11, 15)

ii) f (a, b, c, d) = m(5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15)

15. Find all the prime implicates of the following function by using K-map method.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = m(2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = m(0, 1, 2, 8, 10, 14, 15)

16. Find all the essential prime implicants of the following Boolean functions using K-
map method.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = m(1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 14)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = M (0, 1, 5, 4, 7, 11, 13, 15)
17. Find the minimal sums and minimal products for the following Boolean functions using K-map
method.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = m(0, 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 14, 15) + dc (2, 13)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = M(2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14) + dc (5, 11, 15)

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18. Find the minimal sums and minimal products for the following Boolean functions
using K-map method.
i) f (a, b, c, d, e) = m(0, 1, 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 24, 25, 28, 30, 31)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = M ( 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 21, 22, 29, 30)
19.Find the minimal sums and minimal products for the following Boolean functions using K-
map method.
i) Z (a, b, c, d, e, f) = m( 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 24, 25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 46, 48, 56, 60, 62, 63)
ii) Z(a, b, c, d, e, f) = M (0, 1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 21, 22, 29, 30, 36, 40, 44, 52, 58, 62)
20. Design and implement a logic diagram that converts excess-3 code to BCD code.
21. Design and implement a logic diagram that converts binary to gray code.
22. Design and implement a logic diagram that perform the following arithmetic operation.
f (a) = 2a 2 + 1 0 < a < 7
23. Find the minimal sum and the minal product for the following Boolean functions using
variable entered maps. Use variable 'd' as the MEV.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = m (2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 14, 15)
24. Find the minimal sums and minimal products for the following Boolean functions using
variable 'd' as the MEV.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = Sm (0, 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 14, 15) + dc (2, 13)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = Sm (2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14) + dc (5, 11, 15)
iii) f (a, b, c, d) = PM (0, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 14, 15) + dc (8)
iv) f (a, b, c, d) = PM (4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15) + dc (1, 2)
25. Find all the prime implicants of the following Boolean functions using Quine-McCluskey
method.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 4, 8, 10, 13, 14, 15)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 14, 15)
iii) f (a, b, c, d) = m (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 14, 15)
iv) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 4, 8, 9, 11, 12) + dc (1, 2, 5)
26. Find all the prime implicates of the following Boolean function using
Quine-McCluskey method.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = M (0, 2, 4, 10, 15)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = M (0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 12, 14) + dc (8, 9)
27. Find irredundant disjunctive normal form for the following Boolean expressions by using
Quine-McCluskey method and Petrick's method.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = m (1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15)

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ii) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 14)
iii) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13) + dc (1, 7)
4. Find irredundant disjunctive normal form the following Boolean expressions by using
Quine-McCluskey method and row and column reductions.
i) f (a, b, c, d) = m (1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15)
ii) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 14)
iii) f (a, b, c, d) = m (0, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13) + dc (1, 7)

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